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Abstract Quantifying the degree of deterioration is crucial for developing prevention strategies for archaeological leather. In this work, the morphology, chemical compositions, and physical properties of artificially aged leather samples were analyzed using a series of test methods to determine non-destructive or micro-destructive technologies for quantifying the degree of deterioration in archaeological leather. Results show that the hydroxyproline (Hyp) content of leather decreases with the increase of deterioration degree because deterioration leads to the gradual destruction of the collagen fiber network of leather. Moreover, the Hyp content of leather can be micro-destructively determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Therefore, the determination of Hyp content is recommended to quantify the degree of deterioration in archaeological leather.

Abstract Traditional anatomical preparations as they are often found in university collections are both historical treasure and moral responsibility of the hosting institutions. These remains not only represent the tradition and history of anatomical science and education, but above all are the remains of human beings and thus should be treated with dignity. While the discussion on public display of historical human remains is ongoing, the responsibility to keep them in an optimal state of preservation is not in question. However, most time-honored anatomical collections do or did not have the financial and/or technical capacity to keep these high standards, underlining the need for exchange of technical know-how between anatomical institutes and the support of restoration/conservation professionals. Here, we present a state-of-the-art conservation and restoration of a fetal natural skeleton from the early twentieth century along with the professional documentation of restoration-measures. Therefore, we used modern photo- and video documentation, including photogrammetry, as well as UV- and x-ray-examinations to record historical and new restoration procedures. We carried out measures to reconstitute the structural stability of the skeleton. Moreover, we replaced lost parts of the left foot skeleton, and critically discuss the legitimacy of body part replacement in historical specimens. We are convinced, that similar cases of insufficiently preserved specimens can be found in most anatomical collections. Therefore, this article is not only intended to document the state-of-the-art conservation and restoration of a natural skeleton, but also serve as an inspiration for similar campaigns in other institutions in the future.

This study explored the use of mandarin peels as an important source of health-promoting compounds by utilizing green methods (i.e., pulsed electric field and ultrasound-assisted extraction), along with conventional stirring. The impact of several extraction parameters, such as extraction duration, temperature, and solvent composition, on the recovery of bioactive compounds was evaluated through a response surface methodology. To identify the most effective conditions for all assays, a partial least-squares analysis was implemented. It was revealed that a combination of the above techniques was optimal at 80 °C for 30 min, with 75% v/v of ethanol in water as the extraction solvent. The concentration of bioactive compounds in the optimum extract had a total polyphenol content of 18.69 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per gram of dry weight (dw), and an ascorbic acid concentration of 18.25 mg/g dw. However, correlation analyses revealed a rather negative relationship between these bioactive compounds. The chromatographic analysis of optimum extracts supported this result by quantifying 20.53 mg/g dw of total individual polyphenols, with hesperidin being the dominant compound (13.98 mg/g dw). The antioxidant assays, including ferric-reducing antioxidant power and DPPH• inhibition activity, were measured at 123.21 and 65.12 μmol of ascorbic acid equivalents (AAE) per gram of dw, respectively. This research enhances the valorization of mandarin peels as a renewable source of bioactive compounds, providing the opportunity to generate high-added-value products from food waste in the food and pharmaceutical sectors.

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death despite advancements in research and treatment, with traditional therapies often causing significant side effects and resistance. Oxyhydrogen gas, a mixture of 66% molecular hydrogen (H2) and 33% molecular oxygen (O2) has shown exceptional promise as a novel therapeutic agent due to its ability to modulate oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. H2, a key component of oxyhydrogen gas, neutralises reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, enhancing existing treatments and reducing harmful oxidative states in cancer cells. H2 also lowers proinflammatory mediators including chemokines, cytokines, and interleukins, inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and boosting the effectiveness of conventional therapies. Additionally, hydrogen can induce apoptosis in cancer cells by modulating pathways such as MAPK and inhibiting the PI3K/Akt phosphorylation cascade. Preclinical and clinical evidence supports oxyhydrogen gas’s potential in treating various cancers. In lung cancer models, it inhibits cell proliferation, induces apoptosis, and enhances chemotherapy sensitivity. Similar results have been observed in breast cancer, where patients reported improved quality of life. In colorectal cancer, oxyhydrogen gas suppresses tumour growth, induces apoptosis, and improves intestinal microflora dysbiosis. The unique properties of oxyhydrogen gas make it a promising adjunctive or standalone cancer treatment. However, further research is needed to understand H2s’ mechanisms, optimise treatment protocols, and evaluate long-term safety and efficacy in human patients.

Oxidative stress, characterized by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the body’s antioxidant defenses, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of various health conditions, including cancer and neurological disorders. For example, excessive ROS can lead to mutations, genomic instability, and uncontrolled cell proliferation in cancer. In neurological disorders, oxidative stress contributes to neuronal damage, inflammation, and the progression of diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Adenosine, a nucleoside involved in energy transfer and signal transduction, is crucial to maintaining cellular homeostasis. Its role extends to modulating oxidative stress. Adenosine receptors are implicated in various physiological processes and in the pathophysiology of diseases. The interplay between oxidative stress and adenosine signaling is complex and critical. Adenosine can modulate oxidative stress responses, providing therapeutic potential for conditions where oxidative stress is a key player. Understanding this connection opens up avenues for novel therapeutic strategies targeting adenosine receptors to mitigate oxidative damage.

This work describes a two-stage technique of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of rare earth niobates. A comparison between the two approaches revealed that the Fundamental Parameters Method (FPM) can be employed for a rapid preliminary assessment of the composition of the resulting material and the construction of calibration curves can be used to determine the contents of the major elements with precision. The results of the relative standard deviation (RSD) for FPM were no more than 7%, while the approach to construct calibration curves had an RSD of no more than 1%. Calibration samples were prepared using the same synthesis method as the study samples to construct the calibration curves. The possibility of constructing calibration dependencies using mixtures of oxides was assessed, but this approach could not provide the desired accuracy. The obtained results have been shown to have a good correlation with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The developed technique enables the determination of the major components in niobates containing two and three rare earth elements, which are used as optical materials and medium-entropy ceramics.

The current research investigation aimed to screen the bioactive compounds in the latex of Calotropis gigantea L. and evaluate its antibacterial and antioxidant properties towards clinical applications. The chemical moiety and volatile compounds of the latex of C. gigantea were detected by UV–Vis spectroscopy, FT-IR, and GC–MS analysis. The antibacterial activity was assessed using wound-inducing pathogens by well diffusion method. In addition, the antioxidant properties were determined through DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP methods. The functional groups of O–H stretch, diketonic bonds, C–O, C–N, O–C bonds, and consecutive C–H bonds were observed in the latex of C. gigantea. The major bioactive compounds were 5H-3,5a-Epoxynaphth[2,1-c]oxepin, Cholesta-5-en-3-ol, 24-propylidene-, dodecane, Lup-20(29)-Ene-3,28-Diol, (3.Beta)-, Veridiflorol, and Lanosta-8,24-dien-3-ol, acetatate, (3.beta.). Oxazole derivatives were found in the latex of C. gigantea, proved by GC–MS analysis. The aqueous-mixed latex exhibited maximum antioxidant activity as compared to methanol-mixed latex. Aqueous-mixed latex and methanol-mixed latex inhibited the growth of K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilis, S. pyogenes, Micrococcus spp., S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli. The present study clearly reveals that latex of C. gigantea has rich bioactive compounds with significant biological activities, and can be employed to produce a novel herbal formulation against wound-inducing pathogens.

Heavy metals represent a class of chemical elements that includes metalloids, bases and transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides. They are distinguished for their toxicity in small concentrations and their negative effects on the environment and human health; consequently, their monitoring has to be improved to manage the risks. The determination of heavy metals is carried out mainly by analytical methods, using spectroscopy, spectrometry, and electroanalysis. However, the interest has shifted to new and faster methodologies and techniques for heavy metal analysis, with particular emphasis on voltammetry. Voltammetry is preferred for heavy metal detection owing to the advantages of low cost, simplicity, ease of operation, fast analysis, portability, the ability to monitor environmental samples in the field, and high sensitivity and selectivity. Therefore, this study summarizes the applications of voltammetry in heavy metal determination mainly in water, soil, and plant samples, and presents an evaluation of sensitivity, selectivity, and applicability.

Canine olfaction is a highly developed sense and is utilized for the benefit of detection applications, ranging from medical diagnostics to homeland security and defense prevention strategies. Instrumental validation of odor delivery methods is key to standardize canine olfaction research to establish baseline data for explosive detection applications. Solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography (SPME/GC-MS) was used to validate the odor delivery of an olfactometer. Three explosive classes were used in this study: composition C-4 (C-4), trinitrotoluene (TNT), and ammonium nitrate (AN). Dynamic airflow sampling yielded the successful detection of previously reported target volatile organic compounds (VOCs): 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane (DMNB) in C-4 and 2-ethylhexan-1-ol (2E1H) in ammonium nitrate and TNT across odor dilutions of 80%, 50%, 25%, 12%, and 3%. C-4 highlighted the most reliable detection from the olfactometer device, depicting a response decrease as a function of dilution factor of its key odor volatile DMNB across the entire range tested. TNT only portrayed 2-ethylhexan-1-ol as a detected odor volatile with a detection response as a function of dilution from 80% down to 12%. Comparatively, ammonium nitrate also depicted 2-ethylhexan-1-ol as an odor volatile in the dynamic airflow sampling but with detection only within the upper scale of the dilution range (80% and 50%). The results suggest the importance of monitoring odor delivery across different dilution ranges to provide quality control for explosive odor detection using dynamic airflow systems.

The environmental impacts of the postindustrial era, which rely on fossil fuels, have compelled a reconsideration of the future of energy and chemical industries. Fungi are a valuable resource for improving a circular economy through the enhanced valorization of biomass and plant waste. They harbor a great diversity of oxidative enzymes, especially in their secretome. Enzymatic breakdown of the plant cell wall complex and lignocellulosic biomass yields sugars for fermentation and biofuel production, as well as aromatic compounds from lignin that can serve as raw materials for the chemical industry. To harness the biocatalytic potential, it is essential to identify and explore wild-type fungi and their secretomes. This study successfully combined genome mining and activity screening to uncover the oxidative potential of a collection of underexploited ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. The heme peroxidase and laccase activities of four promising candidates, Bipolaris victoriae, Colletotrichum sublineola, Neofusicoccum parvum and Moesziomyces antarcticus, were investigated to gain a deeper insight into their enzyme secretion. Furthermore, a plant-based medium screening with the phytopathogen C. sublineola revealed that soybean meal is a beneficial component to trigger the production and secretion of enzymes that catalyze H2O2-dependent oxidations. These results demonstrate that understanding fungal secretomes and their enzymatic potential opens exciting avenues for sustainable biotechnological applications across various industries.

As known in forensics, heat stroke deaths diagnosis is made by exclusion. In fact, in heat-related deaths, the gross and histologic postmortem findings are not pathognomonic, and biochemical investigations are not specific. Therefore, in such cases, a detailed examination of the circumstantial data and autopsied findings is necessary to exclude other possible causes of death. A case of fatal heat stroke of an elderly woman is reported. This case was diagnosed by examining the above elements in combination with immunohistochemical detection of heat shock proteins (HSPs). We then performed a narrative review of the literature on the subject to compare our case with similar ones. In view of the diagnostic complexity of heat-related deaths, we consider it essential to outline the state of the art on this topic. Our results may be a useful tool to orient forensic investigations into these types of deaths.

This suspect case focuses on investigating the presence of halite (NaCl) crystals on the clothing of a deceased individual to determine whether they resulted from immersion in seawater or residual absorption after immersion (i.e., the crystals were left on the clothing after contact with the victim’s wet body). Thirteen clothing samples were collected from various garments worn by the victim and were subjected to optical stereomicroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), coupled with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), and Simultaneous Thermal Analysis (STA). Optical stereomicroscopy revealed numerous white-colored, vitreous, and greasy luster microcrystals dispersed between fabric fibers, with higher concentrations observed near the hem seams and metal rivets. These microcrystals exhibited predominantly cubic and irregular morphologies. Additionally, sandy particles and organic elements, such as plant fragments and micro seashells, were detected, indicative of coastal environment exposure. SEM-EDS analysis confirmed the presence mainly of sodium and chlorine in stoichiometric ratios consistent with halite, with crystals exhibiting amorphous, needle-shaped, or cubic morphologies. Furthermore, STA analysis identified weight loss events attributed to organic decomposition and halite decomposition at high temperatures, corroborating SEM-EDS findings. The distribution and characteristics of halite crystals, along with other trace elements, support the hypothesis of immersion in seawater while wearing clothing. Specifically, the higher concentrations of halite crystals near thicker fabric portions and metal rivets suggest slower drying rates and longer evaporation times, indicative of immersion rather than residual absorption after swimming. This finding not only helps in determining the victim’s exposure to seawater but also establishes a methodology for distinguishing between different sources of halite residue on clothing. Overall, the comprehensive mineralogical characterization of halite crystals on clothing samples, using best practices of forensic mineralogy, provides valuable forensic insights related to the circumstances that led to the victim’s death. This approach aided investigators in reconstructing the sequence of events, enhancing the accuracy of forensic reconstructions. Moreover, this study contributes to the broader field of forensic geoscience by demonstrating the practical applications of mineralogical analysis in criminal investigations, potentially guiding future research and improving investigative techniques in similar cases.

Blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) can be used in forensic entomology to provide information, including an estimate of the time of colonization and minimum postmortem interval, based on insect development. This study examined the development of third instar Calliphora terraenovae Macquart in four substrates: pine shavings, soil, sand, and clay. Pupation time, survival to adult, and wing vein length were measured to examine the substrate influence. There was a significant difference in the time to pupation (F3,36 = 11.87, p < 0.0001) and the number of flies that eclosed (F3,36 = 4.716, p = 0.007) among the substrates. Blow flies pupated faster in pine shavings and eclosed as adult flies faster in sand than in other substrates. Adults eclosed in the sand in 21.9 days, followed by pine shavings (22.8), clay (24.2), and soil (26.6). Although overall survivorship was low (10–46%), the greatest number of flies eclosed in sand, and the fewest in clay. Understanding the factors that impact blow fly development can help forensic entomologists improve rearing protocols and apply this information to death investigations, especially in cases with buried remains.

A female dog had allegedly been alive one day before its death. The veterinary office thought about accusing the dog’s owner for animal cruelty and commissioned forensic entomological expertise for the calculation of the time of insect colonization on the dog’s body. The statement of the dog’s owner was proven false by us on the grounds of (a) the advanced state of decomposition and (b) the minimal developmental time of fly larvae found on the dog’s body. The darkening and deformation of the fly maggots as well as insufficient temperature data made case work trickier than usual. We worked through the case by creating forensic entomological temperature scenarios. The court used the entomological evidence and issued a penalty order.

Abstract One of the finest fifteenth-century portraits of the Burgundian Duke Philip the Good resides in the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Dijon. This small yet exceptionally crafted panel holds significance for both historians and art historians alike. Surprisingly, prior to this study, the context, the dating and the authorship of the piece remained obscure, and the widely circulated hypothesis of it being “a copy of a lost portrait by Rogier van der Weyden” has never been corroborated by convincing arguments. Clarifying the context, dating and authorship of the painting were the primary objectives of the investigations discussed in the article. Therefore, this painting underwent a multidisciplinary investigation spanning both the positive and human sciences. Macro-XRF scans were conducted alongside hyperspectral reflectance scans, multispectral imaging in the visible and infrared range, and optical coherence tomography. These analyses were complemented by an art historical study. As a result, a precise delineation between authentic and retouched sections was achieved. This article does not merely present the various perspectives separately but constructs a coherent narrative based on all these foundations. This holistic multidisciplinary research methodology produced a clear account, albeit with some scope for future inquiry. The involvement of the painter Pieter Cristus was conclusively demonstrated. This painter, whether himself personally, an assistant in the workshop or a contemporary follower, is attributed to the genesis of this work, which is presumed to be not the original portrait but a contemporaneous copy, possibly commissioned by the Burgundian Duke himself. While we no longer remain in the dark and have lifted some veils, this study also paves the way for further investigation into this panel and the numerous other portraits of Philip the Good.

Abstract The long-term interaction between the environment and humans has significantly shaped contemporary landscapes worldwide. As a heritage landscape, the polder is essential for understanding the impact of the past human activities on contemporary landscape on low-lying area of land. In this case study, we reconstructed the regional spatial distribution of the polders in the early twentieth century and examined their coherence over the past century using historical maps and other materials in the Jianghan Plain. The results revealed several key findings: (1) In the early twentieth century, there were 1571 polders covering an area of 11,826.1 km2 with a perimeter of 17,035.9 km. (2) These polders exhibited a J-shaped distribution, with few large-scale polders despite their substantial areas. (3) The shape of these polders reflected an ability to balance human needs and the natural environment. (4) Considerable regional differences in these polders were attributed to centuries-old interactions between humans and the environment. (5) The remnants of these early twentieth century polders have had a lasting influence on the contemporary landscape, particularly in rural areas. This case study underscores how taking into account a broader historical perspective can enhance our understanding of present-day landscapes and, more importantly, the role that past human actions have played in shaping them.

Abstract The mineralization mechanism responsible for the fossilization of archaeological textiles in close proximity to metal artifacts presents a sophisticated preservation process at both macro and micro levels. This study examines archaeological textiles dating from 2200 BC to AD 1900, sourced from three distinct archaeological sites. The focus is on understanding the microstructural degradation of fibers within a specific burial environment and the preservation achieved through mineralization. These archaeological fibers of archaeological textiles exhibit morphological preservation in the immediate vicinity of copper-based objects. Utilizing tools such as a digital camera, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), high-resolution synchrotron-based microtomography (μCT), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we examined fiber morphology, conducted elemental analysis, identified fiber types, and analyzed fiber characteristics. Our findings reveal the presence of smooth-surfaced wools and silks, fibers covered with calculi, and fiber impressions—all subjected to mineralization. These mineralized fibers can be categorized into three distinct stages of mineralization, each exhibiting varying carbon content. We inferred a correlation between mineralization rate and carbon content while also identifying mineralization density distribution on these textiles. Lastly, this study provides insights into the preservation states of textiles across three different mineralization stages, enriching our understanding of the deterioration of organic archaeological material.

Abstract Digitalization of ancient architectures is one of the effective means for the preservation of heritage structures, with 3D reconstruction based on computer vision being a key component of such digitalization techniques. However, Chinese ancient architectures are located in mountainous areas, and existing 3D reconstruction methods fall short in restoring the local structures of these architectures. This paper proposes a self-attention-guided unsupervised single image-based depth estimation method, providing innovative technical support for the reconstruction of local structures in Chinese ancient architectures. First, an attention module is constructed based on features extracted from architectural images learned by the encoder, and then embedded into the encoder-decoder to capture the interdependencies across local features. Second, a disparity map is generated using the loss constraint network, including reconstruction matching, smoothness of the disparity, and left-right disparity consistency. Third, an unsupervised architecture based on binocular image pairs is constructed to remove any potential adverse effects due to unknown scale or estimated pose errors. Finally, with the known baseline distance and camera focal length, the disparity map is converted into the depth map to perform the end-to-end depth estimation from a single image. Experiments on the our architecture dataset validates our method, and it performs well also well on KITTI.

Abstract Song Dynasty tilestones are one type of ancient Chinese building materials. Studying their mechanical properties is of great significance for the design and development of restoration materials. It is a challenge to sample and perform traditional tests (ϕ50mm × 100mm) for the tilestone cultural relics. In this work, a combination of nanoindentation techniques and the homogenization calculation method based on the Mori–Tanaka model were used to determine the mechanical parameters of Song Dynasty tilestones. The study process involved several steps: (1) Using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy to examine the surface morphology and mineral composition of the tilestones. (2) Determining the mechanical parameters (i.e., the elastic modulus, hardness and fracture toughness) through nanoindentation tests. (3) Upgrading mechanical parameters from micro to meso-scale using the Mori–Tanaka model and comparing these with uniaxial compression test results. The result shows that the red tilestones and green tilestone are mainly composed of quartz, feldspar and mica. The average elastic modulus of the red tilestones and the green tilestones are 29.47 GPa and 30.21 GPa, respectively. Compared with the parameter result obtained by upscaling, the deviation rates of the red tilestones and green tilestones are 10.3% and 9.6%, respectively, which proves that the test method is reliable. The nanoindentation test and homogenization approach in this work provide the robust theoretical and practical basis for evaluating the mechanical strength of Song Dynasty tilestones.

Abstract The daylighting feature of historical buildings can be accepted as an intangible heritage since it contributes to the unique atmosphere of the buildings. However, with the change of the built environment and the change of the historical building itself, the level of daylight intake of historical buildings changes. This study contributes to the field by revealing the daylighting performance changes of a historical khan building which has a unique architectural characteristics. The changes in the daylighting levels of Buyuk Yeni Khan, one of the largest historical khans in Istanbul, are examined through its modifications. Using 3D Lidar scanning technology, the current state of the khan is scanned. The daylight intake and glare analyzes of the khan for its current and original states are made through simulations, and the values found are compared. DA, cDA, UDI, sDA and DGP metrics are used in the simulations. As a result, due to the changes such as enlargements along the arcades, additional overhangs and the change of window ratios of the facades of the rooms on the ground floor, the rooms of the khan have different daylighting values compared to its original state.

Abstract Point cloud registration technology, by precisely aligning repair components with the original artifacts, can accurately record the geometric shape of cultural heritage objects and generate three-dimensional models, thereby providing reliable data support for the digital preservation, virtual exhibition, and restoration of cultural relics. However, traditional point cloud registration methods face challenges when dealing with cultural heritage data, including complex morphological and structural variations, sparsity and irregularity, and cross-dataset generalization. To address these challenges, this paper introduces an innovative method called Enhancing Point Cloud Registration with Transformer (EPCRT). Firstly, we utilize local geometric perception for positional encoding and combine it with a dynamic adjustment mechanism based on local density information and geometric angle encoding, enhancing the flexibility and adaptability of positional encoding to better characterize the complex local morphology and structural variations of artifacts. Additionally, we introduce a convolutional-Transformer hybrid module to facilitate interactive learning of artifact point cloud features, effectively achieving local–global feature fusion and enhancing detail capture capabilities, thus effectively handling the sparsity and irregularity of artifact point cloud data. We conduct extensive evaluations on the 3DMatch, ModelNet, KITTI, and MVP-RG datasets, and validate our method on the Terracotta Warriors cultural heritage dataset. The results demonstrate that our method has significant performance advantages in handling the complexity of morphological and structural variations, sparsity and irregularity of relic data, and cross-dataset generalization.

Abstract Virtual reconstruction of ancient buildings often has incomplete records of the original design and construction details, and can only be reconstructed based on limited data, drawings and photography, which is different from the actual conditions. The unique overhanging structure of the corridor gable building makes it vulnerable to damage in extreme weather conditions. In order to ensure that the virtual reconstruction results can not only reproduce the original appearance of history, but also ensure that the reconstructed model maintains structural stability in the long term. This paper proposes a reconstruction method of the original appearance of the corridor gable building remains based on structural dynamics analysis. This method comprehensively uses three-dimensional reconstruction, structural engineering, dynamic analysis, and computer simulation technology to ensure the structural accuracy and historical authenticity of the virtually reconstructed corridor gable building. First, through data collection and analysis, combined with ancient architectural construction techniques, a preliminary three-dimensional model was created, which included all structural elements and details. Several groups of reconstruction schemes are determined based on material properties. Then, using finite element analysis software, perform dynamic analysis on the three-dimensional model. Evaluate the stability of the reconstructed structure and optimize the material selection plan to ensure the feasibility and accuracy of the virtual reconstruction. Taking the virtual reconstruction of the eaves in front of Leiyin Cave as an example, it shows that this method is effective and feasible to achieve the virtual reconstruction of corridor gable buildings. It provides new ideas for virtual reconstruction of ancient buildings and has important practical application value.

Abstract Utilizing Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) to generate 3D representations of the Terracotta Warriors offers a novel approach for the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage. Through GAN technology, we can produce complete 3D models of the Terracotta Warriors’ faces, aiding in the repair of damaged or partially destroyed figures. This paper proposes a distillation model, DIGAN, for generating 3D Terracotta Warrior faces. By extracting knowledge from StyleGAN2, we train an innovative 3D generative network. G2D, the primary component of the generative network, produces detailed and realistic 2D images. The 3D generator modularly decomposes the generation process, covering texture, shape, lighting, and pose, ultimately rendering 2D images of the Terracotta Warriors’ faces. The model enhances the learning of 3D shapes through symmetry constraints and multi-view data, resulting in high-quality 2D images that closely resemble real faces. Experimental results demonstrate that our method outperforms existing GAN-based generation methods.

Abstract Although the origins of lost wax casting extend back into the 5th millennium BCE, it was not until the development of hollow core casting that life-sized metal sculptures could be produced. Based on existing evidence, the earliest adoption of this technique, which involves the inclusion of a clay core within a wax model, occurred in Iraq (Mesopotamia) during the Early Dynastic III period (ca. 2600–2350 BCE). To date, only one hollow core casting from the succeeding Akkadian period (ca. 2350–2150 BCE)—the Sargon Head in the collection of the Iraq Museum—has been studied from a technical point of view. The recent attribution of The Metropolitan Museum of Art's Head of a ruler to this formative period of hollow core lost wax casting provided the impetus for its examination by high-energy X-ray computed tomography—the most practical technique for an object that is continuously on display that could image in 3D the interior morphology of this sculpture given the considerable thickness of its metal walls. This scan revealed a markedly different style of production than the Sargon Head. Although further research on early castings is required to determine the chronological implications of the differences observed and to elucidate more generally the early development of hollow casting technology, the scan of the Head of a ruler provides evidence of some of the challenges encountered and problem-solving strategies used in the casting process.

Abstract The Dadiwan F901 site, boasting a history of over 5000 years, stands as the largest and most intricately crafted large-scale housing structure from China’s prehistoric era. The early renovation efforts, incorporating a sealed glass curtain wall, led to a continuous rise in relative humidity within the site, triggering outbreaks of microbial diseases. Subsequent measures successfully restored stability to the thermal and humid environment. This paper employs on-site real-time environmental monitoring and numerical simulation methods to assess the ventilation effectiveness and relative humidity changes before and after multiple interior modifications of the Dadiwan F901 site museum. The results indicate that the fully enclosed glass curtain wall can suppress the dependence of indoor humidity fluctuations on external weather fluctuations but has generated unintended consequences, leading to increased air relative humidity and even reaching saturation in the museum space. The strategic deployment of louvered windows and duct fans proved effective in enhancing internal airflow dynamics and overall air exchange capacity. It was possible to ensure that the relative humidity inside the site remained at approximately 70%, meeting the essential requirements for the preservation of cultural relics. This study is of great significance for alleviating the deterioration problem of enclosed exhibition halls of earthen relics. Graphical Abstract

Abstract As a unit of measurement for Chinese ancient construction, the yingzao chi (yingzaochi 营造尺) is of great significance to study long-term transformation of culture, construction skills, and the scale design rule of Chinese regional architectural heritage. But few scholars study the restoration method of the yingzao chi of palace buildings sans dougong (斗拱) in Chinese Ming and Qing Dynasties. Based on the yingzao chi theory, this paper studies and improves a theoretical method to help restore the yingzao chi of palace buildings sans dougong in Ming and Qing Dynasties. This method is not limited by the lack of reference of vernacular chi (xiangchi 乡尺) and can restore the yingzao chi of a single building through surveying data, and there is a smaller error in the calculation process. Three typical palace buildings without dougong in Ming and Qing Dynasties in Chongqing are selected as examples. The results show that the restored yingzao chi of these three buildings is highly similar, most likely 320.7–323.6 mm, which can verify the reliability of this method. This study can help to improve the research of yingzao chi and provide theoretical support for the protection of this kind of architectural heritage. Besides, the restoration of the yingzao chi provides a potential opportunity to explore how the technological and cultural of palace architecture spread, develop and blend.

Abstract Historical buildings carry the key technologies and practical values throughout the development of architectural heritage. Investigating the restoration techniques for historical buildings under various forms of damage is an essential step in the conservation and utilization of these structures. Utilizing Web of Science (WOS) and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) as the primary databases, this study employs the PRISMA methodology to search and screen relevant research literature. A comprehensive review of the retained literature is conducted, analyzing publication trends, co-citation networks of authors and keywords, among other characteristics. To enhance the visibility of restoration techniques, three-dimensional modeling diagrams are created using actual case information of material or component damage as a reference, thereby increasing the referential value of the review content on historical building restoration techniques. The study provides a thorough review of over 30 restoration techniques corresponding to 9 types of damage from the perspectives of historical building walls and wooden components. Additionally, new materials or technologies mentioned in the retrieved literature are categorized; for instance, in the context of moisture-proof treatment for brick masonry, traditional methods are explained, and new research on electrochemical desalination and lipid-based waterproof materials is discussed and evaluated. Finally, given the multifaceted value and the variable mechanisms of damage in historical buildings, an analysis of the restoration process and techniques reveals that the restoration of historical buildings is a complex interdisciplinary process. The development and implementation of restoration plans should adhere to the principles of cultural relic protection to ensure their reasonableness and effectiveness, while also considering sustainability and environmental adaptability to protect and reuse historical buildings, thus leveraging their cultural and historical values. Moreover, the advancement of restoration techniques for historical buildings in the future should be based on the inheritance of traditional craftsmanship and materials, while also integrating new technologies, materials, and concepts to enhance the applicability and efficiency of traditional techniques.

Abstract This study investigates the geometric modelling of architectural heritage digital twins constructed based on multi-source point cloud data and its effectiveness in structural reinforcement assessment. Particular emphasis has been placed on the use of static stiffness rules to identify areas of structural weakness in the geometric models of digital twins and the need for their reinforcement, in order to prevent potential structural problems and to ensure the long-term preservation of the built heritage. Taking Yingxian wooden pagoda as a study case, based on the collection of multi-source point cloud data, the digital twin geometric model is constructed through fine modelling, decoupling of digital models, and geometric transformation. This enhances the true reflection of the column-architrave structure morphology, providing a more accurate model for structural stress analysis. Based on verifying the accuracy of the digital twin geometric model, the instability conditions are identified through static stiffness rules and the deformation values at multiple points are analyzed, enabling precise identification of weak areas in the column-architrave structure. Two types of reinforcement measures are designed and simulated for the structural weak areas identified through the geometric modelling, and the optimal reinforcement scheme is obtained after detailed analysis, according to which specific adjustments and optimization strategies are proposed to enhance the overall stability and durability of the structure. The results showed that the maximum deformation value of 4.65 mm existed in column M2W23, which required reinforcement. Aluminum reinforcement reduced the deformation to 3.5 mm (24.7% reduction), while CFRP fabric reinforcement was more effective, reducing the deformation to 2.8 mm (39.7% reduction), showing high stability. The research results demonstrate the potential application of digital twin technology in architectural heritage preservation and restoration, providing methodological and empirical guidance for heritage preservation research.

Abstract Wooden buildings represent a unique aspect of China’s architectural heritage. However, over time, these buildings have suffered varying degrees of structural damage, particularly those located in China’s mountainous regions. Frequent natural disasters and inconvenient transportation further exacerbate the vulnerability of these structures. This study focuses on the typical wooden stilt houses found in the Wuling Mountain area of southwest Hubei. The different forms of columns and beams, as well as the overall structural symmetry of the stilt houses, were classified into five common structural types. Precise digital models were established via real photos and collected dimensional data, and these five models were evaluated for static, buckling, utilization, and ultimate limit states. The results indicate that: (1) overall symmetrical structures perform better than asymmetrical ones; (2) structures where all columns are grounded and act as support columns exhibit the best overall mechanical performance; and (3) transverse-tie beams(chuanfang) primarily serve a connecting role rather than a load-bearing role, thus an excess of transverse-tie beams(chuanfang) can reduce the stability of the building structure. Based on the analysis results, targeted protective measures and recommendations were proposed and verified through structural evaluations. These initiatives provide new methods and insights for the protection of architectural heritage.

Abstract Geological Culture Villages Towns (GCV(T)s) serve as rich repositories of geological resources, embodying significant historical and cultural values that mirror the dynamic interplay between Earth's evolution and human societies. Despite their importance, the theoretical underpinnings of GCV(T)s have not been thoroughly explored and elucidated. This study explores the relationship between geological culture and societal development, revealing the linkage between geological culture and societal advancement with the aim of promoting a harmonious coexistence between humanity and the environment. Focusing on 96 GCV(T)s in China, this study employs spatial analytical techniques such as the nearest-neighbor index, kernel density analysis, geographic connectivity, and geographic detector to scrutinize the spatial distribution patterns and identify key influencing factors. The findings reveal that (1) GCV(T)s exhibit uneven distribution, with concentrations in the Yangtze River Delta region, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, and Shanxi-Gansu and Ningxia Provinces. (2) These sites tend to be situated in areas characterized by active geological formations, abundant geological relics, higher elevations, gentle topography, and ample rainfall. (3) The establishment and evolution of GCV(T)s are shaped by a complex interplay of geological heritage, natural factors, and human interventions. While the selection and spatial arrangement of these sites are predominantly influenced by geological and natural factors, the innovative development of their geological cultural heritage is driven by humanistic considerations. Overall, the distribution and evolution of GCV(T)s stem from multifaceted interactions among diverse factors. Recognizing this intricate web of influences is crucial for safeguarding geocultural diversity and formulating conservation strategies for geoheritage protection. The development of GCV(T)s transcends mere geoheritage preservation, it embodies a pivotal stride toward safeguarding the varied and multi-dimensional global geoheritage.

Abstract The rapid evolution of the digital landscape has catalyzed the integration of blockchain technology within the domain of cultural heritage, particularly in virtual museums within the Metaverse. This study introduces ArchaeoMeta, a novel framework designed to leverage blockchain technology to enhance security, authenticity, and visitor interaction in a virtual museum environment. Utilizing smart contracts deployed on the Ethereum Sepolia testnet, the framework manages visitor interactions and secures digital artifacts, addressing challenges associated with scalability and user experience under varying loads. The performance evaluation involved simulating user interactions, scaling up to ten thousand concurrent users, to assess the impact on transaction latency, gas usage, and blockchain size. Findings reveal significant scalability challenges, as transaction latency and blockchain size increased with the number of users, highlighting areas for optimization in managing high user traffic within the blockchain infrastructure. This study contributes to the understanding of blockchain applications in cultural heritage, suggesting that while ArchaeoMeta offers a robust platform for virtual museums, enhancements in scalability through layer-2 solutions or alternative blockchain platforms are essential for its practical implementation. The framework sets a precedent for future research in the convergence of blockchain technology and cultural heritage preservation, promising a transformative impact on how digital cultural experiences are curated and consumed.

Abstract Cultural heritage is an important contributor to sustainable urban development, and its conservation is considered a global task. Previous research has primarily focused on the conservation of heritage buildings within architectural contexts and world heritage sites within geographical contexts. However, there is a notable gap in conservation of green cultural heritage (GCH) within a landscape-based framework. This study used the extended theory of planned behavior to explore the factors and pathways that influence the public's behavioral intentions toward GCH conservation. Based on 1075 questionnaires collected in Tokyo, Japan, the hypotheses of the newly constructed theoretical model were tested using partial least squares structural equation modeling. The results show that perceived behavioral control has the greatest positive influence on citizens' GCH conservation intentions and behaviors, while social norms do not influence people's behavioral intention to conserve. In the extended factors, the environmental awareness which including heritage awareness and cultural attachment, significantly influences public attitudes towards conservation. Additionally, environmental perception, including perceived usefulness and perceived quality, significantly affects the public's conservation intentions and behaviors, respectively. Our findings have implications for local governments and policymakers to enhance public participation in GCH, as well as some several new theoretical interests for further studies.

Abstract In recent years, with the development of 3D digitization of cultural relics, most cultural sites contain a large number of fine 3D data of cultural relics, especially complex geometric objects such as painted cultural relics. At present, how to automatically extract surface damage information from the fine 3D color model of painted cultural relics and avoid the loss of accuracy caused by reducing the dimension using conventional methods is an urgentproblem. In view of the above issues, this paper proposes an automatic and high-precision extraction method for cultural relics surface shedding diseases based on 3D fine data. First, this paper designs a 2D and 3D integrated data conversion model based on OpenSceneGraph, a 3D engine, which performs mutual conversion between 3D color model textures and 2D images. Second, this paper proposes a simple linear iterative clustering segmentation algorithm with an adaptive k value, which solves the problem of setting the superpixel k value and improves the accuracy of image segmentation. Finally, through the 2D and 3D integrated models, the disease is statistically analyzed and labeled on the 3D model. Experiments show that for painted plastic objects with complex surfaces, the disease extraction method based on the 3D fine model proposed in this paper has improved geometric accuracy compared with the current popular orthophoto extraction method, and the disease investigation is more comprehensive. Compared with the current 3D manual extraction method in commercial software, this method greatly improves the efficiency of disease extraction while ensuring extraction accuracy. The research method of this paper activates many existing 3D fine data of cultural protection units and converts conventional 2D data mining and analysis into 3D, which is more in line with the scientific utilization of data in terms of accuracy and efficiency and has certain scientific research value, leading value and practical significance.

Abstract In the restoration of ancient Chinese books, handmade starch paste serves as a paper adhesive, distinguished from traditional starch paste preparation methods. It involves special processes such as starch washing and aging, relying entirely on the artisanal expertise throughout the entire process. The study recreates the process of making handmade starch paste for the restoration of traditional ancient books and investigates the effects of aging time on the apparent viscosity, rheological properties, and adhesive performance of the paste. The results indicate that during aging, the pH of the starch paste decreases significantly, but it has a minimal impact on its apparent viscosity, rheological properties, and paper softness. However, it notably enhances the adhesive performance, with the optimal results observed after 3 days of aging. This is attributed to the decrease in residual protein content in the starch, as well as the significant improvement in swelling power and solubility of the starch. The results of infrared spectroscopy and XRD testing reveal that there are no significant changes in the molecular and crystalline structures of starch during the aging process. The acidic environment produced by starch fermentation promotes protein hydrolysis, emerging as the primary reason for the improved adhesive performance of the paste.

Abstract At present, under the influence of environmental pollution, the color of architectural painting gradually darkens, loses luster, and even cracks when the pigment falls off, which seriously affects the long-term preservation of architectural painting. In order to study the damage mechanism of dust particles to the color of the architectural painting, this study took the archery tower at the West Gate as the research object, monitored the temperature and humidity of the indoor environment, and analyzed the composition of the dust by ICP-MS, IC, and XRD. The experimental results showed notable fluctuations in the indoor humidity in inner the archery tower at the West Gate during the monitoring period from January to March, which were not conducive to the preservation of wood-colored paintings. The 24-h average PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations, measured over 2 days in January, were beyond the National Ambient Air Quality Standard norms, and PM contains a large amount of soluble salts such as sulfate and nitrate, causing serious salt erosion and damage to the color painting layer. Through the simulation experiment of the color painting layer, it was revealed that the dust particles deposited on the surface of the color painting layer change the spectral characteristics of the color painting layer, and then cause the color layer to lose its original hue, fade become blurred, or darken. It was anticipated that this research would serve as a valuable reference for the preventive protection of the color painting layer of the archery tower at West Gate.

Abstract The Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, China’s oldest and most crucial water transportation project, ensures smooth operation and efficient water transportation through interconnected water engineering facilities. Studying the connections among the water engineering facilities of the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal is theoretically and practically significant for preserving and innovating canal heritage. Therefore, this study utilizes social network analysis to comprehensively examine the spatial connections and network status of water engineering facilities along the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal across different channel structure. Gephi 0.10.1 was utilized in this study to construct a relational network of water engineering facilities along the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, with each facility considered as a network node. By applying network analysis indices such as degree, closeness centrality, and betweenness centrality, the correlation between water engineering facilities was thoroughly investigated. The study’s findings reveal that: (1) the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal possesses numerous overall network nodes with extensive coverage; however, its overall network density is relatively low, and the inter-node connection is weak. (2) Across the entire network, the spatial distribution of degree and betweenness centrality exhibits a clustered pattern. Their distribution patterns are centered on the Lake region section where Hongze Lake is located and the segment from Liucheng to Zhenjiang in the Lake region, the River transport confluence section, and the Nature river section, respectively. The spatial distribution characteristics of closeness centrality show a dispersed shape, with stronger areas mainly concentrated in the canal’s tributaries, especially the Nature river section, which shows more prominence. (3) Analyzed from a channel structure perspective, water engineering facilities in different sections assume distinct linking roles within the network. Facilities in the Lake region section play the strongest overall linkage role, partly due to its highest node proportion. Conversely, in the Nature river section, facilities primarily serve transshipment and direct connection functions, whereas in the River transport confluence section, they act mainly as intermediaries or “bridges”. Notably, water control facilities in the Nature river section and river engineering facilities in the River transport confluence section play pivotal driving roles in their respective sections, warranting special attention and protection as critical canal nodes.

Abstract Grout injection is an effective technique for repairing cracks in earthen sites. This study aims to address the challenges of Calcined Ginger Nuts (CGN)-based grout and enhance its engineering performance by investigating the compatibility of different superplasticizers. We examined the effects of Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer (PCE) and Naphthalene Superplasticizer (PNS) on the properties of CGN-based grout, focusing on fluidity, rheological properties, mechanical strength, volume stability, color difference, and pore structure. The engineering applicability of the optimized CGN-based grout with superplasticizers was assessed using COMSOL Multiphysics. The results show that fluidity increased with higher dosages of PCE and PNS. The grout containing these superplasticizers behaved as a shear-thinning fluid, following the power law model. Specifically, the consistency coefficient of grout with 0.5 wt% PCE and PNS decreased by 39.73% and 64.83%, respectively. Additionally, 2.9 wt% PCE and PNS reduced volume shrinkage rate by 6.86% and 6.27%, respectively. Initially, increasing the dosage of PCE and PNS improved compressive and flexural strength, but these properties later declined. XRD analysis revealed that PNS above 1.1 wt% and PCE weakened the hydration reaction, while both superplasticizers promoted carbonation. Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP) showed that 1.1 wt% PCE and PNS reduced the proportion of capillary pores by 13.79% and 10.11%, respectively. Based on these findings, 0.5 wt% PNS demonstrated the best compatibility with CGN-based grout, whereas PCE showed poor compatibility. Numerical simulations using COMSOL Multiphysics confirmed that 0.5 wt% PNS provided superior grouting effectiveness. Therefore, the CGN based grout with 0.5wt% PNS demonstrates excellent engineering performance and applicability. This study offers valuable insights into optimizing CGN-based grout for the preservation of earthen sites.

Abstract Preservation and accessibility of cultural heritage have become essential with the rapid advancements of globalization and modernization endeavors constantly threatening historical artifacts and sites across the world. The advent of the metaverse, with its immersive and interactive capabilities, presents a novel approach to safeguarding and promoting cultural heritage. The current study aims to explore the potential of metaverse applications in digitalizing cultural heritage, encompassing virtual reconstructions, educational outreach, global accessibility, and sustainability. It conducts a systematic literature review using PRISMA guidelines to collect, screen, and evaluate existing research enquiries into investigating current practices and technologies in the digitalization of heritage preservation. The study also conducts case study research to investigate the challenges and opportunities associated with the virtual preservation of tangible and intangible cultural assets, including issues of authenticity, representation, and sustainability. Furthermore, it evaluates the impact of metaverse applications on public engagement and cultural education. The findings provide valuable insights into developing innovative strategies for preserving cultural heritage in the digital age while highlighting best practices and guidelines for optimizing metaverse applications in cultural heritage preservation.

Abstract Heritage sites in Alexandria, Egypt, are some of the UNESCO world heritage sites at high risk from geo-environmental hazards, in particular caused by sea level rise and heavy rain due to the climate change. Recently, safeguarding UNESCO world subterranean and built heritage draws more attention. After recent environmental catastrophies in Alexandria, sustainable conservation materials and stabilizing configurations of underground monumental structures has also become urgent and highly demanded. Based on typical damage due to the heavy weathering caused by the ground water table and salt, this paper offers a guide for engineers and conservators, where rock structures consolidation and stabilizing configurations to protect these structures in the static state and against strong seismic events is presented. In this paper, typical geotechnical problems and damage to the Catacombs of of Kom El-Shoqafa are presented first, followed by an experimental evaluation methodology that includes spectroscopic and morphological characterization in addition to the mechanical testing of untreated and treated rock samples with synthetic organosilicone and acrylic compounds. The effectiveness of the new silica-based consolidants was evaluated in terms of the amount of solid adsorbed, mechanical properties (e.g., surface hardness, ultrasonic velocity, modulus of elasticity and modulus of compressive strength), and resistance to salt crystallization. The treated groups showed better mechanical strength than the control group. The ability of the treated samples to resist climate change negative impact was also greatly improved. According to laboratory tests, new silica-based hardeners and hydrophobic materials have great potential for strengthening weathered Calcarenitic rock structures. It was observed that the rock samples containing the modified binder (MTMOS + Wacher BS 15) reach higher mechanical strength parameters. After the experimental study (testing procedures), FEM analysis was performed using PLAXIS 2D code to validate the silica-based consolidants and verify their efficiency in improving the response of rock structures in static and seismic states against strong earthquake events. The results of this work confirm the high potential of low-cost injection techniques and stabilizing configurations (pre- stressed anchors and concrete friction piles) technology, confirming the possibility of achieving significant improvement in the geotechnical properties of Calcarenitic rock structures and enhancing the seismic performance of underground archaeological structures using low-cost injection technology that is easy to manufacture.

Abstract Folk contract documents (FCD) are valuable materials for studying social history, and the paper they use reflects the social realities of different eras and social classes. Research and scientific analysis of numerous FCD samples after the fourteenth century are rare. We conducted a study on 96 Tianshui folk contract documents (TFCD, 107 paper samples) from the Tianshui area of Gansu Province, Northwest China, taking into account both the textual content and the materiality of paper carriers, and interpreted the results from multiple lines of evidence and discussion. Physical performance analysis revealed that the paper used by the northern folk exhibits a lower apparent density, which is not conducive to the long-term preservation of paper. The preservation status investigation, curtain pattern analysis, and fiber analysis show that the paper used in the TFCD differs from traditional cultural paper regarding disease types, production precision, and fiber materials, providing a basis for its protection and restoration. The analysis of chemical components indicated that the aging and yellowing of paper can be correlated with the content of sulfur and carbonyl groups. The feasibility of using pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) analysis to quickly identify papermaking fibers in a large number of paper samples was proposed. By utilizing various techniques to inspect the paper of documents, this study helps to enhance the academic understanding of FCD materials. In addition, it expands the knowledge base of Northwest handmade paper.

Abstract Grouting technology is the primary method for repairing cracks in earthen sites. However, there has been a long-standing lack of effective methods for evaluating grouting effectiveness. This paper proposes a field evaluation method based on P-wave velocity. This method explicitly discusses two scenarios where the P-wave velocity of the grout is either higher or lower than that of the soil, using the depth ℎ of the “hypothetical crack” as the evaluation indicator. The experimental results indicate that specimens with 20% and 40% defects show increases in ℎ values of 0.0113 m and 0.0166 m, respectively. Laboratory tests have demonstrated that this method can accurately evaluate grouting effectiveness and is not affected by the P-wave velocity of the soil. The application of this evaluation method to three typical earthen sites resulted in more reliable and easily quantifiable evaluation outcomes. By considering the width of grout, the method provides a more intuitive comparison of reparation effectiveness. The study demonstrates the feasibility of the proposed method, thereby facilitating effective crack reparation in earthen sites.

Abstract This study deeply analyzes the ecocultural heritage of the Tiantai Mountain area in Eastern China, assesses its current status and explores effective mechanisms for its conservation and construction. Employing remote sensing technology, kernel density analysis and Minimum Cumulative Resistance Model, the study comprehensively evaluated the environmental characteristics of the region and its role in historical and modern conservation efforts. The results demonstrate the unique distribution patterns of ecocultural heritage in various conservation zones, such as restoration, controlled construction and core conservation zone. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of religious beliefs and clan systems in the preservation of traditional knowledge and practices, with significant impacts of local community participation on conservation strategies. This research provides new theoretical and practical support for the implemention of ecocultural heritage conservation and development within religiously significant areas, highlights the need for conservation measures and synergistic strategies between ecological and cultural practices.

Abstract This study was focused on a specific blue‒green pigment applied on the edges of the green blocks of wall paintings in the Kizil Grottoes, the earliest Buddhist cave complex in China containing many wall paintings. Based on in situ portable XRF analyses, μ-Raman spectroscope, elemental analysis (SEM–EDS and EPMA-WDS) and μ-XRPD analyses, the pigment was proven to be lavendulan [NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl·5H2O], which has not been reported in ancient wall painting studies before. Lavendulan was found to coexist with atacamite [Cu2(OH)3Cl] in some of the samples in the study and showed a nanoneedle-like morphology. Further investigations of lavendulan revealed that it was probably not originally used as a pigment but was generated by the transformation of atacamite under the influence of arsenates [As(V)] and Na+. This phenomenon and the related mechanism were discovered in this study and are discussed in this paper. As an important cultural heritage site in the Silk Road, the Route Network of the Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor and the Kizil Grottoes are listed as UNESCO World and Natural Heritage sites. The pigment types and preservation conditions of wall paintings are similar to those of many wall paintings found along the Silk Road, and further attention should be given to this discolouration mechanism for heritage site conservation.