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This study was performed to test the combustive properties of pinus rigida specimens treated with methylpiperazinomethyl-bis-phosphonic acid M (PIPEABPM )s and methylpiperazinomethyl-bis-phosphonic acid (PIPEABP). Pinus rigida Plates were painted in three times with 15 wt% PIPEABPM s and PIPEABP solutions at the room temperature respectively. After drying specimen treated with chemicals, combustive properties were examined by the cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1). It was indicated that the specimens treated with PIPEABPM s showed the lower speed to peak mass loss rate (MLR ), (0.104~0.121) g/s than that of PIPEABP plate. In adition, the specimens treated with PIPEABPM s showed both the lower total smoke release rate (TSRR), (224.4~484.0) m /m and CO production (0.0537~0.0628) kg/kg than those of PIPEAB plate. Especially, for the specimens treated with PIPEABPM by reducing the smoke production rate except 2nd-smoke production rate (2nd-SPR), (0.0254~0.02270) g/s treated with PIPEABPNi , 2nd-SPR (0.0117~0.0146) g/s was lower than that of PIPEABP plate. Thus, It is supposed that the combustion-retardation properties were improved by the partial due to the treated PIPEABPM s in the virgin plate.

As a result of conducting the phytosociological clustering analysis on actual vegetation of Mt. Gaya in Chungnam province from June to October of 2011, the physiognomy dominant species were the Quercus mongolica community of natural forest, Pinus densiflora community, Carpinus coreana community. Quercus dentata community, and Quercus variabilis community, and there were Pinus koraiensis forest and Pinus rigida forest for artificial forest. For the vegetation type, total 4 categories were identified through a mass analysis, such as Quercus mongolica community type of the ridge, Pinus densiflora community type of the southern slopes, Carpinus coreana community type of the middle slopes, and valley forest type. According to the species diversity the species diversity of a vegetation unit 4 was the lowest with 0.6976, and the species diversity of a vegetation unit 2 was the highest with 1.1256. For the dominance value, it was identified that many species are dominating as the dominance value of every vegetation unit was below 0.3. Also, among 4 vegetation type, it was identified that the valley forest type has more emergence type than other vegetation types, and this is considered to be a characteristic of the valley forest.

Pine barrens include an assortment of pyrogenic plant communities occurring on glacial outwash or rocky outcrops scattered along the Atlantic coastal plain from New Jersey to Maine, and inward across New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and the northern Great Lakes region. At least historically, pine barrens provided some of the highest quality terrestrial shrublands and young forests in the eastern North American sub-boreal and northern temperate region. However, the mosaic open-canopy, sparse-shrub, and grassland early successional state is generally lacking in contemporary pine barrens. Many sites in the northeastern United States have converted to overgrown scrub oak (Quercus ilicifolia, Quercus prinoides) thickets and closed canopied pitch pine (Pinus rigida)-dominated forests. Thinning pitch pine is a contentious issue for the imperiled pitch pine-scrub oak barrens community type (G2 Global Rarity Rank, 6–20 occurrences). Here we provide a historical, ecological, and resource management rationale for thinning pitch pine forest to restore savanna-like open barrens with a mosaic of scrub oaks, heath shrubs, and prairie-like vegetation. We postulate that the contemporary dominance of pitch pine forest is largely of recent anthropogenic origin, limits habitat opportunities for at-risk shrubland fauna, and poses a serious wildfire hazard. We suggest maintaining pitch pine-scrub oak barrens at 10–30% average pitch pine cover to simultaneously promote shrubland biodiversity and minimize fire danger.

There is a paucity of empirical results regarding many aspects of the movement ecology and upland habitat use and preferences of the Eastern Spadefoot Toad (Scaphiopus holbrookii), an ephemeral, wetland-breeding anuran that is rare throughout a number of states in the northern portion of its range. We radio-tracked 45 adult Eastern Spadefoots in a coastal dune ecosystem at Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts, United States and assessed a number of attributes related to the upland movement ecology and habitat preferences of this species. The mean maximum distance that we found for each of the 19 successfully tracked individuals, immediately post-breeding from the breeding wetlands, was 130.4 ± 28.0 m with a range of 3 – 449 m. Paired logistic regression results indicated that individuals selected areas closer to deciduous shrub edges and areas with greater percent cover of 1) ground-running pitch pine (Pinus rigida) branches at a 1-m scale, 2) deciduous shrubs at a 1-m scale, and 3) reindeer...

본 연구에서는 리기다소나무 구조용 집성재를 사용한 국내 최초 차량용 목조교량에 대한 지구온난화 영향을 평가하기 위해 전과정평가를 수행하였다. 교량연장 30 m, 교량폭원 8.4 m, 교량등급 1등급인 아치 트러스 형태의 대상 교량은 원료채취부터 제조, 수송, 시공, 사용, 해체, 건설폐기물 수송, 폐기 및 재활용까지 설계수명 50년간 총 192.56 ton CO2 eq.의 온실가스를 배출한다. 전과정단계 중 원료채취 및 제조단계에서 총 온실가스 배출량의 81.14%를 배출하며 특히, 콘크리트 사용으로 인하여 82.84 ton CO2 eq.의 온실가스가 배출된다. 그러나 대상 교량은 116.57 m3의 국산 리기다소나무 집성재를 사용하였으며, 교량을 구성하는 목재에서 104.72 ton의 이산화탄소를 저장하고 있어 이를 적용할 경우, 총 온실가스 배출량의 54.38%를 저감 가능한 것으로 도출되었다. 대상 교량과 동일한 수명과 구조를 갖는 타 교량의 철골자재를 구조용 집성재로 대체할 경우, 원료채취 및 제조단계의 온실가스 배출량을 최소 10.26%에서 최대 23.91%까지 저감 가능한 것으로 도출되었다. 본 연구의 결과는 향후 국산 목재 및 목조교량의 친환경적 우수성을 정량적으로 입증할 수 있는 기반자료로 활용 가능할 것이며, 목조교량의 친환경적 설계와 보급을 위해 활용 가능할 것으로 사료된다.

A recently developed online GIS tool, Nitrogen Critical Loads Assessment by Site (N-CLAS), was used to assess the effects of nitrogen (N) deposition and climate change on 23 tree species of management concern in the northeastern United States. The N-CLAS tool calculates and maps critical loads, target loads, and exceedances across the landscape by linking information on the relationships between N deposition, tree growth and environmental conditions with high resolution geospatial data for species composition and abiotic modifying factors (topography, climate, and soils). Outputs can be customized to capture specific species, locations or applications of interest to land managers. The summary analyses presented here show that most forests in the northeastern United States are at risk of detrimental effects from N deposition, although the extent and magnitude of the risk varies spatially. Eighty-six percent of the forested area in the region (98 M acres) is in exceedance of the critical load. The magnitude of this exceedance is highest (6–8 kg N ha−1 yr−1) in the southwestern part of the study region where N deposition is highest (e.g. North Central Hardwood Forests, Erie Drift Plain, Driftless Area, and Southern Michigan/Northern Indiana Drift Plains ecoregions). The magnitude of exceedance is lowest (1–2 kg N ha−1 yr−1) in the northeastern and northwestern part of the study area where N deposition is lowest (e.g. Acadian Plains and Hills and the Northern Minnesota Wetland ecoregions). White pine (Pinus strobus), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), northern red oak (Quercus rubra) and bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) are in exceedance of the critical load across large portions of the study area–between 31 and 56 million acres are in exceedance for each species. Red pine (Pinus resinosa), pitch pine (Pinus rigida), and chestnut oak (Quercus montana), which occur over a small geographic extent, are in exceedance of the critical load over 89 to 100 percent of their range. N-CLAS provides land managers easy access to a tool with significant refinement in determining empirical critical loads at a spatial resolution applicable to forest management. This represents an important step towards improving our understanding of the potential risk to forests in the northeastern U.S and linking current state of the science to decision making processes on the ground.

Disturbances, including wildfire, play an important role in forest maintenance, and have been modified over time. Determining the importance of historical disturbance can be complex, especially if disturbance regimes differ over a species' range. Pinus rigida (pitch pine) is associated with wildfire in the core of its range; however, the association becomes less certain toward its range margins, including at the northeast extent of its range in the Thousand Islands Ecosystem (TIE), Ontario, where the species is rare. To test for fire dependence of seedling recruitment in a natural pitch pine population at this range limit, we compared the efficiency of prescribed fire to mechanical and control treatments. We used a Before–After Control–Impact (BACI) design at two sites in the TIE, controlling for the effects of canopy cover, understory cover, and depth to mineral soil. Pitch pine seedlings were observed for the first time in decades in the TIE following treatment; only fire had a significant positive effect on recruitment. Our results suggest that prescribed fire is effective in increasing pitch pine seedling recruitment even in a marginal natural pitch pine population. We discuss what mechanisms might explain these results, as well as restoration considerations including the potential for modified mechanical disturbance treatments where prescribed fires might not be feasible.

This study was performed in Pinus rigida and Larix kaempferi plantations which occupy approximately 60% of artificial forest area in Korea. The objective of this study was to know the differences in soil physical and chemical properties between both plantations. Soil physical and chemical properties from published literature and analyzed soil data in national forest in 2010 and 2011 were analyzed by plantation regions and stand age of 5 years unit. Jeollanam- do in Pinus rigida plantations and Gyeongsangbuk-do in Larix kaempferi plantations showed higher soil chemical properties than those of other regions. Soil texture in both plantations was almost loam and sandy loam. Mean soil pH in Pinus rigida and Larix kaempferi plantations were 4.86 and 4.87, respectively and there was no relationship between soil pH and stand age. The mean concentrations of total nitrogen (%) and available phosphorus (mg kg �1 ) were 0.21 and 11.00 for Pinus rigida plantation and 0.28 and 13.32 for Larix kaempferi plantation. In Larix kaempferi plantation, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and organic matter concentrations and C.E.C. were higher than those in Pinus rigida plantation and showed positive relationship with stand age. This positive relationship was also revealed between the exchangeable cations and soil pH. The results of this study provide an informative data in selecting tree species for planting and contribute to the establishing forest management plan for the maintenance of sustainable forests resources.

이 연구에서는 비스-디메틸아미노메틸 포스핀산, 비스-디에틸아미노메틸 포스핀산, 비스-디부틸아미노메틸 포스핀산을 붓으로 칠한 리기다 소나무의 연소성을 시험하였다. 15 w%의 비스-디알킬아미노알킬 포스폰핀 수용액으로 리기다 소나무에 3회 붓칠하여 실온에서 건조시킨 후, 콘칼로리미터(ISO 5660-1)를 이용하여 그의 연소성을 시험하였다. 그 결과, 비스-아미노알킬 포스핀산 유도체로 처리한 시험편은 처리하지 않은 시험편에 비하여 그의 연소 억제성을 부분적으로 향상시켰다. 특히 비스-디에틸아미노메틸 포스핀산으로 처리한 시험편은 미처리 시험편에 비해 각각 낮은 총 열방출률(60.9 MJ/m

This study was performed to test the combustive properties of Pinus rigida plates treated with piperazinomethyl-bisphosphonic acid (PIPEABP), methylpiperazinomethyl-bis-phosphonic acid (MPIPEABP), and N,N-dimethylethylenediaminomethyl- bis-phosphonic acid (MDEDAP). Pinus rigida specimens were painted in three times with 15 wt% alkylenediaminoalkyl- bis-phosphonic acid solutions at the room temperature. After drying specimen treated with chemicals, combustive properties were examined by the cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1). As a result, the combustion-retardation properties were increased by due to the treated alkylenediaminoalkyl-bis-phosphonic acid solutios in the virgin Pinus rigida. Especially, the specimens treated with chemicals showed both the later time to ignition (TTI) (148-116 s) and longer time to flameout (Tf) (633-529 s) than those of virgin plate by reducing the burnig rate. Compared with virgin pinus rigida plate, the specimens treated with the alkylenediaminoalkyl-bis-phosphonic acids showed partially low combustive properties. However the specimens treated with PIPEABP showed both the higher peak heat release rate (PHRR) (187.56 ) and higher total heat release rate (THRR) (75.7 ) than those of virgin plate.

Fire history is an important aspect of the natural disturbance pattern of many types of forested ecosystems. Nonetheless, many forests and corresponding management plans lack quantitative information on fire interval, frequency, and seasonality. This project examined the fire history at Price Mountain, Virginia, using fire scar samples and tree-ring analyses from live tree chronologies. Additionally, this project investigated the fire scarring potential of two little-studied species, black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) and sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), as well as described the age-structure of the current stand. We hypothesized that fire frequency would be high prior to the fire suppression era, given the proximity to an historical railroad track at the base of the mountain and susceptibility to lightning due to elevation. Six major fire years occurred between 1861 and 1925 at an average interval of 14 years, followed by a period of no fires. Two-thirds of the fires burned early in the season. There was an initial establishment of sourwood and chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) from 1930–1940 as well as another establishment peak between 1950 and 1960 after a major logging event. Pine (Pinus pungens and Pinus rigida) species established between 1870 and 1930. Reconstructed fire history and age structure informs land managers that repeated fires occurred in this Appalachian ridge top forest and that modern forest structure is in part the legacy of historic fires and fire suppression.

The objective of this study was to examine the influence of stand age class (I: 0.05) among stand age classes. Both model 1 (DBH as predictor variable) and model 2 (DBH and total height as predictor variables) showed good results based on the model evaluation criteria (R 2 , RMSE and FI). The stem wood had the highest biomass distribution percentage of the three ...

This study was performed to test the combustive properties of Pinus rigida plates treated with bis-(dimethylaminome- thyl) phosphinic acid (DMDAP), bis-(diethylaminomethyl) phosphinic acid (DEDAP), and bis-(dibuthylaminomethyl) phosphinic acid (DBDAP). Pinus rigida specimens were painted in three times with 15 wt% bis-(dialkylaminoalkyl) phos- phinic acid solutions at the room temperature. After drying specimen treated with chemicals, combustive properties were examined by the cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1). It is supposed that the combustion-retardation properties were improved by the partial due to the treated bis-(dialkylaminoalkyl) phosphinic acids in the virgin Pinus rigida. Especially, the speci- mens treated with chemicals showed both the lower total smoke release rate (TSRR) (16.94~18.92 m 2 /m 2 ) and lower CO2mean production (1.98~2.09 kg/kg) than those of virgin plate. However the specimens treated with chemicals showed both the higher peak mass loss rate (PMLR) (0.1250~0.1297 g/s) and higher 1st-smoke production rate (SPR) (0.0153~0.0167 g/s) than those of virgin plate. Compared with virgin Pinus rigida plate, the specimens treated with the bis-dialkylamimoalkyl phosphinic acids showed partially low combustive properties.

This study compared the antimicrobial activity and total phenolic content of three Pinus plants (Pinus densiflora, P. thunbergii, P. rigida) for the first time. The antimicrobial activity of the water fraction of methanol extract of fresh leaves was stronger than that of fallen leaves at any concentrations. The water fraction of crude methanol extract from fresh leaves of P. thunbergii showed a higher growth inhibitory activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria than that of P. densiflora and P. rigida. The results from the disc diffusion method followed by measurements of minimal inhibition concentration (MIC) indicate that Bacillus subtilis was the most sensitive microorganism with the lowest MIC value. The highest total phenolic content was found in fresh leaves of P. rigida and P. thunbergii. The assay showed that the fresh leaves of the three Pinus plants contained higher total phenolic content than fallen leaves of the three plants. The antimicrobial activity was related with the total phenolic content.

The essential oils of the leaves of three Pinus species (Pinus densiflora, P. thunbergii, P. rigida) were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Analysis of the oils from P. densiflora, P. thunbergii and P. rigida revealed the presence of α-humulene (18.09%, 19.59%, 14.08%), caryophyllene (7.69%, 5.32%, 10.20%), β-pinene (4.95%, 4.45%, 7.39%), β-cadinene (3.28%, 1.30%, 3.71%), cinnamic acid (2.62%, 1.24%, 2.87%), α-terpinolene (2.10%, 0.51%, 0.3%), spathulenol (2.04%, 0.34%, 2.78%), α-cadinol (1.85%, 0.97%, 2.60%), caryophyllene oxide (1.82%, 0.23%, 0.13%) and α-pinene (1.79%, 0.68%, 0.13%) as major constituents. Essential oil from P. thunbergii showed stronger inhibitory activity against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus natto, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhosa and Pseudomonas aeruginosa than the other two Pinus species, and essential oils of the three Pinus species showed strong antimicrobial activity against Salmonella enteritidis and P. aeruginosa. The essential oils from the three Pinus species also showed higher antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria than Gram-positive bacteria. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) was not inhibited by any essential oil.

Provenance studies are an increasingly important analog for understanding how trees adapted to particular climatic conditions might respond to climate change. Dendrochronological analysis can illuminate differences among trees from different seed sources in terms of absolute annual growth and sensitivity to external growth factors. We analyzed annual radial growth of 567 36-year-old pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.) trees from 27 seed sources to evaluate their performance in a New Jersey Pine Barrens provenance experiment. Unexpectedly, missing rings were prevalent in most trees, and some years—1992, 1999, and 2006—had a particularly high frequency of missing rings across the plantation. Trees from local seed sources (, PLoS ONE, 11 (5), ISSN:1932-6203

A recently introduced helium ion microscopy (HIM) was employed to observe uncoated pine leaf specimens. Adult leaves were collected from the seedlings of Pinus densiflora and P. rigida, air-dried at room temperature, and observed by HIM without metal coating. Ovoid or round stomata and distinct Florin rings could be discerned. The epicuticular waxes were present in the epistomatal chambers and Florin rings of stomata on the leaf surface. The epicuticular waxes were mostly straight, cylindrical, and ca. 1 in length. The epistomatal chambers of P. rigida were filled with the epicuticular waxes, whereas those of P. densiflora were not filled with the epicuticular waxes. Based on their micromorphology, the epicuticular wax structures of the pine species were identified as tubules. These results suggest that the HIM could be used for the investigation of the plant stomata and epicuticular waxes of uncoated plant leaves. Due to the smaller ion probe and interaction volume, the HIM has advantages over conventional field emission scanning electron microscopy in terms of image resolution and charge neutralization.

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of pyrolysis temperature on the physicochemical properties and structure of biochar. Biochar was produced by fast pyrolysis of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) using a fluidized bed reactor at different pyrolysis temperatures (300, 400 and 500 °C). The produced biochars were characterized by elemental analysis, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area, particle size distributions, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, solid-state (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The yield of biochar decreased sharply from 60.7% to 14.4%, based on the oven-dried biomass weight, when the pyrolysis temperature rose from 300 °C to 500 °C. In addition, biochars were further carbonized with an increase in pyrolysis temperature and the char's remaining carbons were rearranged in stable form. The experimental results suggested that the biochar obtained at 400 and 500 °C was composed of a highly ordered aromatic carbon structure.

The New York Pine Plains are a unique ecosystem with normal statured and a dwarfed variety of pitch pines (Pinus rigida Mill.). Growing interspersed with the dwarf pines are trees of intermediate height and features. Several hypotheses have been put forward as to why some of the trees are dwarfed, but none have been substantiated. In this study, we tested whether dwarf or medium trees are hydraulically limited compared to normally growing trees. Granier style sap flux sensors were installed in three to six trees of each tree type and sap flux was measured in early August 2004. Sap flux measurements were scaled to crown stomatal conductance using leaf area to sapwood area ratios for each tree. Contrary to expectation, dwarf and medium stature trees had very low leaf area to sapwood area ratios, but high crown stomatal conductances compared to normal trees. Analyses of leaf area, ring widths, and crown stomatal conductance indicate that differences between normal, and dwarf and medium pines are not due to hydraulic limitation, but that stunted growth may be due to other causes.

In this study, fast pyrolysis of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) was performed in a fluidized bed reactor under the temperature ranges between 400 and at the residence time of 1.9 sec. Essential pyrolytic products (bio-oil, biochar, and gas) were produced and their yield was clearly influenced by temperature. The maximum yield of bio-oil was observed to 64.9 wt% (wet basis) at the temperature of . As pyrolysis temperature increased, the yield of biochar decreased from 36.8 to 11.1 wt%, while gas amount continuously increased from 16.1 to 33.0 wt%. Water content as well as heating value of bio-oils were obviously sensitive to the pyrolysis temperature. The water contents in the bio-oil clearly decreased from 26.1 () to 11.9 wt% (), with increasing the fast pyrolysis temperature, while their higher heating values were increased from 16.6 MJ/kg to 19.3 MJ/kg. According to GC/MS analysis, 22 degradation compounds were identified from the bio-oils and 10 compounds were derived from carbohydrate, 12 compounds were derived from lignin.

Metals are toxic to both plants and fungi, and elevated soil metal concentrations have been documented to change the structure of ectomycorrhizal communities. Mercury (Hg) is a highly toxic metal and inhibits the growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECMF) in axenic culture. However, the effects of Hg on the growth of tree seedlings and the development of their ECMF communities have not been explored. In the current study, Pinus rigida seedlings were planted in soil amended with 0–366 μg g −1 Hg and incubated for 5 months. Survival and growth of P. rigida seedlings was determined, and their ECMF communities were characterized by morphotype analysis. Seedling survival declined with increasing Hg additions, although no reduction in growth was detected among surviving seedlings. The addition of 88 μg g −1 Hg to soil more than halved the total ectomycorrhizal colonization of root tips and reduced both richness and diversity of root tip morphotypes, while lower Hg additions did not significantly affect ECMF community composition relative to the no Hg control. This suggests that changes in the community of ECMF may occur in contaminated soils before any aboveground effects on surviving seedlings are noticeable, potentially altering the contribution of ECMF to the fitness of established host plants.

This study was conducted to examine the soil aggregate distributions and their relationship with microbial biomass carbon (C) concentration and soil C in Pinus rigida and Larix kaempferi plantations. Soil samples of 0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, and 20–30 cm depth were collected and the microbial biomass C concentration was measured. The soils were then classified into four aggregate size classes by wet-sieving procedure [large macroaggregate (>2000 μm), small macroaggregate (250–2000 μm), microaggregate (53–250 μm), and silt-plus-clay (

The pitch-loblolly pine hybrid (Pinus rigida × P. taeda) has useful characteristics of the parents, but its exploitation is hindered by restrictions of conventional breeding and propagation methods. This study was undertaken to establish an effective in vitro system for propagating pitch-loblolly hybrid pine through somatic embryogenesis and to unravel the relationship between the efficiency of embryogenic tissue initiation and zygotic embryo development. To initiate embryogenic tissue, megagametophytes of developing seeds were used as explants. Seeds were collected weekly, examined, and tested during June and July 2004. The medium and seed collection date were the most important factors for the successful somatic embryogenesis of P. rigida × P. taeda. Five embryogenic lines were obtained using a modified P. taeda basal medium, and the highest initiation rate was 0.55%, for seeds collected in 2 weeks, between July 3 and 16. Histological observation revealed that zygotic embryos of those seeds were mostly at the proembryonic stage or in transition to precotyledonary stages. For the successful maturation of somatic embryos, abscisic acid and gellan gum were needed in the medium. The results show that, although further tests and development are required, somatic embryogenesis could provide a viable option for propagating P. rigida × P. taeda hybrids.

The essential oils extracted from seven Pinus species were analyzed by GC-MS. More than 25 components in the essential oils of seven Pinus species were identified, including high contents of monoterpene hydrocarbons and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. The essential oils of Pinus densiflora, P. parviflora, P. rigida, P. strobus, and P. thunbergii were mainly composed of monoterpene hydrocarbons (α-pinene and β-pinene), while the essential oils of P. bungeana and P. koraienesis contained sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (β-caryophyllene and germacrene D) as the main components.

In New Hampshire, the Ossipee Pine Barrens is the largest and best example of a Pinus rigida-Quercus ilicifolia dominated ecosystem remaining in the state. Because of long-term fire suppression in the 20th century, we hypothesized that undisturbed stands may be undergoing succession to more shade-tolerant Pinus strobus and hardwoods. To test this hypothesis, we sampled 41 sites within the barrens covering the range of soils, landforms, stand age, and vegetational variation present in the barrens. Current (2002) tree (≥ 10 cm dbh) and sapling (taller than 1 m, < 10 cm dbh) densities were measured by quadrat sampling. Past (1952) vegetation was reconstructed using reverse-growth equations derived from increment cores from trees alive in 2002 and forensic evidence such as stumps. Future (2052) vegetation was estimated using a simple transition model based on 1952–2002 compositional changes. Community types were classified using cluster analysis of 80 communities based on the 2002 and back-casted 195...

Biomass conversion factors such as stem densities and biomass expansion factors of eight tree species and their applicability as national factors were determined. The stem densities of Cryptomeria japonica (III), Chamaecyparis obtuse (III), Pinus densiflora (IV), Pinus rigida (IV), Pinus koraiensis (IV), Larix leptolepis (IV), Quercus acutissima (III), and Liriodendron tulipifera (IV) were 0.37, 0.33, 0.46, 0.41, 0.58, 0.65, 0.88, and 0.58 g/ cm3, respectively. The biomass expansion factors of C. japonica (III), C. obtuse (III), P. densiflora (IV), P. rigida (IV), P. koraiensis (IV), and L. leptolepis (IV) were 1.393, 1.360, 1.150, 1.136, 1.212, and 1.097 (aboveground), respectively. Q. acutissima (III) had biomass expansion factors of 1.133 (aboveground) and 1.185 (underground), and L. tulipifera (IV) had biomass expansion factors of 1.161 (aboveground) and 1.216 (underground). As a result of verifying applicability as national factors using the investigated factors, it could be assumed that the stem density (0.47 g/ cm3) and biomass expansion factor (1.29 aboveground) in coniferous trees and the stem density (0.65 g/ cm3) and biomass expansion factor (1.22 aboveground) in hardwood trees were suitable for determining biomass. Based on these results, precise estimation of forest biomass classified by forest type, tree species, and age classes of Jeonbuk region would be possible.

Department of Environmental Horticulture, University of Seoul, Seoul 130-743, Korea (Received on June 6, 2011; Revised on August 23, 2011; Accepted on August 23, 2011)Four-year-old seedlings of Pinus thunbergii, Pinus densiflora and Pinus rigida were inoculated with Fusariumcircinatum isolate (FT-7), the pitch canker fungus, from P. thunbergii, to evaluate the effects of the pathogenon disease development and gas exchange rate. Needle dehydration was evident on 2 of 10 seedlings of P.thunbergii and P. rigida at 18 and 21 days after inoculation, respectively, while no symptoms were observed inP. densiflora seedlings throughout the experiment. Gas exchange stopped completely in 4 of 5 measuredseedlings of P. thunbergii and 2 of 5 measured seedlings of P. rigida at 25 days after inoculation, and in theremaining 3 seedlings of P. rigida at 39 days after inoculation. Disease development in P. thunbergii seedlingswas faster than that in P. rigida seedlings. By the time, the experiment was ended at 78 days after inoculation,9 of 10 seedlings of P. rigida and 8 of 10 seedlings of P. thunbergii seedlings treated with FT-7 was almost dead,but all seedlings of P. densiflora were still healthy. We suggest that P. densiflora is resistant to F. circinatum inthe current study, and gas exchange rate of the species after inoculation does not differ significantly comparedto that of untreated control. Keywords : Fusarium circinatum, Gas exchange, Inoculation, Pitch canker

We analyzed the basic characteristics and adsorption property of carbonized materials from thinning byproducts of major Korean wood species for evaluating as charcoal making raw material. Yield of charcoal was decreased with increasing the carbonization temperature for all wood species. Refining degrees was 9.0 at , 3.3~5.0 at and 0 at , and was no difference among wood species. With increasing the carbonization temperature, the fixed carbon content was also increased, and charcoal from softwoods had more fixed carbon content than that from hardwoods. Specific surface area was increased with increasing the carbonization temperature, softwood charcoal had more specific surface area than that of hardwood. Pinus rigida showed the highest specific surface area. In formaldehyde removal by charcoal, some materials had highest at and the others had highest at . Pinus koraiensis, Qurcus acutissima and MDF showed maximum formaldehyde removal ability at . Ethylene gas removal ability of charcoal was increased with increasing the carbonization temperature, and the charcoal from Pinus rigida and Robinia pseudoacacia had higher ethylene gas removal ability than the other species.

Pitch pine (Pinus rigida Miller) retaining walls using Steel bar, of which the constructability and strength performance are good at the construction site, were manufactured and their strength properties were evaluated. The wooden retaining wall using Steel bar was piled into four stories stretcher and three stories header, which is 770 mm high, 2,890 mm length and 782 mm width. Retaining wall was made by inserting stretchers into Steel bar after making 18 mm diameter of holes at top and bottom stretcher, and then stacking other stretchers and headers which have a slit of 66 mm depth and 18 mm width. The strength properties of retaining walls were investigated by horizontal loading test, and the deformation of structure by image processing (AlCON 3D OPA-PRO system). Joint (Type-A) made with a single long stretcher and two headers, and joint (Type-B) made with two short stretchers connected with half lap joint and two headers were in the retaining wall using Steel bar. The compressive shear strength of joint was tested. Three replicates were used in each test. In horizontal loading test the strength was 1.6 times stronger in wooden retaining wall using Steel bar than in wooden retaining wall using square timber. The timber and joints were not fractured in the test. When testing compressive shear strength, the maximum load of type-A and Type-B was 130.13 kN and 130.6 kN, respectively. Constructability and strength were better in the wooden retaining wall using Steel bar than in wooden retaining wall using square timber.

The primary objective of this study was to determine the composition of Armillaria species in northeastern North American Pinus- and Tsuga-dominated forests. This was accomplished by sampling 32 plots at eight sites within pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.), eastern white pine - mixed oak, and eastern hemlock (Tsuga can- adensis (L.) Carr.) forests. In total, 320 isolates were collected from 19 host tree species, with 207 of 320 (65%) of all isola- tions coming from Pinus and Tsuga. Armillaria solidipes Peck was the most abundant species, making up 188 of 320 (59%) of all isolations, which included 39 isolations from hardwoods. Meanwhile, Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm. was col- lected a total of 27 times from eastern white and pitch pine. These two Armillaria species co-occurred at five of the eight sites sampled. Chi-square analyses showed that incidence of Armillaria species were significantly different by forest type. Pitch pine forests had a higher incidence of A. solidipes (p < 0.001), eastern white pine forests had a higher incidence of A. mellea (p = 0.001), and eastern hemlock forests had a higher incidence of Armillaria gallica Marxm. & Romagn. ( p= 0.002) compared with expected values. The distribution of A. solidipes varied significantly by soil drainage and soil type, with a higher incidence on excessively drained ( p< 0.001) and loamy sand (p < 0.001) soils. Resume : Cette etude visait surtout a determiner la composition en especes d'Armillaria dans les forets dominees par Pinus et Tsuga dans le nord-est de l'Amerique du Nord. Elle a ete realisee en echantillonnant 32 places echantillons dans huit sta- tions situees dans des forets de pin rigide (Pinus rigida Mill.), de pin blanc (Pinus strobus L.), de pin blanc et d'un melange de chenes, ainsi que de pruche du Canada (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.). Au total, 320 isolats ont ete collectes sur 19 espe- ces d'arbres hotes et 207 de 320 (65 %) de tous les isolats provenaient de Pinus et de Tsuga. Armillaria solidipes Peck etait l'espece la plus abondante, constituant 188 de 320 (59 %) de tous les isolats, qui incluaient 39 isolats provenant de feuillus. Pendant ce temps, Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm. a ete isole 27 fois au total chez le pin blanc et le pin rigide. Ces deux especes d'Armillaria se cotoyaient dans cinq des huit stations echantillonnees. Des analyses du chi carre ont montre que l'incidence des especes d'Armillaria etait significativement differente selon le type de foret. Il y avait une plus forte in- cidence d'A. solidipes (p < 0,001) dans les forets de pin rigide, d'A. mellea (p = 0,001) dans les forets de pin blanc et d'Ar- millaria gallica Marxm. & Romagn. (p = 0,002) dans les forets de pruche comparativement aux valeurs esperees. La distribution d'A. solidipes differait de facon significative en fonction du drainage et du type de sol; l'incidence de cette espece etait plus forte sur les sols excessivement draines (p < 0,001) et les sols de sable loameux (p < 0,001). (Traduit par la Redaction)

Clones of mature aspen (Populus grandidentata, P. tremuloides) can rapidly spread and become invasive in the absence of regular fire. Aspen trees resprout vigorously when top-killed by fire in globally rare inland pitch pine (Pinus rigida)/scrub oak (Quercus ilicifolia, Q. prinoides) barrens; thus, complete aspen kill (all trees in a clone) is desirable before introducing fire into barrens. Manual girdling may achieve complete kill but the scale of invasion can easily exceed the capacity to girdle. We evaluated dormant-season herbicide treatments by measuring aspen diameters and kill rates in an urban pine barrens preserve in east-central New York State. Chainsaw frill and drill/fill applications of glyphosate clearly outperformed stem injection of glyphosate capsules and basal bark spraying of triclopyr. Chainsaw frill was 95% likely to kill aspen smaller than 18.3 cm diameter whereas drill/fill was 95% likely to kill aspen smaller than 23.6 cm diameter. A single-cut chainsaw frill approach was...

The strength properties of wooden retaining wall which was made with pitch pine were evaluated. Wooden retaining wall was made with diameter 90 mm of pitch pine round posts treated with CUAZ-2 (Copper Azole). The length of the front stretcher of the retaining wall was 3,000 mm. The distance between the headers (the notched member) is 1,000 mm in center and is 900 mm in side. There were connections every 2,000 mm because actually the length of stretcher is limited in the retaining wall. The strength test was carried out according to connection type because the section between stretchers can act as a defect. A result of the strength test according to connection type confirms that connection does not act as defect because the strength of retaining wall in single stretcher is similar to that in the section between stretchers. The strength test of the wooden retaining wall was carried out in 5 types according to the condition of the base section. When the upper soil pressure was 9.8 kN/, the maximum load of the retaining wall fixing the front foundation shows higher values than those of others. But the total deformation is lower in the retaining wall not to fix a base section than in that to fix a base section. It is thought that the retaining wall not to fix a base section shows low value because the deformation is distributed throughout the retaining wall and it is confirmed that the soil pressure affects supporting the structure because the deformation of the retaining wall under low pressure is 3~4 fold higher than those of others. The failure mode of the retaining wall is the overturning type because the high section is deformed. Mostly, the failure mode is the separation of the header in the notched section.

In 2001, we conducted a study to assess the effects of differential arrival times and nest-site selection on reproductive performance in a mixed-species heronry consisting of six species in Taeseong-ri, Chungbuk, Korea. We recorded the arrival dates, nest heights, clutch sizes, and brood sizes after 15–20 days of the age of the birds' chicks. The grey herons and cattle egrets arrived first and last, respectively, on the colony site. In the homogenous vegetation structure of the breeding site, the pitch pine trees (Pinus rigida) were mainly used for building nests on 48 of the 50 pine trees (96%). The breeding species vertically stratifies the nest sites according to their body size, except for the cattle egrets and black-crowned night herons that nested at sites higher than those predicted from their body size. The mean nest success rates of the six species under study were positively correlated with the mean nest heights. Our findings suggest that aggressive interspecific interactions among neig...

Fire-dependent ecosystems include some of the most threatened ecosystems in the world, and where fuels are allowed to accumulate, they can present significant threats to human life and property. Fuel reduction activities can be effective in reducing the risk of wildfire, but these practices need to be evaluated relative to their effect on biodiversity. We surveyed birds in an inland pitch pine–scrub oak barren, a fire-dependent plant community, in which fuel reduction had been carried out via thinning of canopy trees to reduce the risk of running crown fires. We hypothesized that thinning pitch pine forest would negatively affect the abundance of mature forest birds and positively affect the abundance of scrub–shrub birds. Our results confirmed these expectations: several mature forest bird species were less abundant in thinned pitch pine than unthinned pitch pine, although most of these species were also present in mixed deciduous forest, and therefore regionally well represented. In contrast, another group of bird species was scarce or absent from unthinned pitch pine and mixed deciduous forest, but present in thinned sites and scrub oak stands. These were scrub–shrub species that do not nest in mixed deciduous or pitch pine forest but depend on shrubland or savannah habitats that cover ∼3% of the region. We conclude that fuel reduction by thinning canopy trees at this site provides habitat for high-priority scrub–shrub bird species at the cost of modest reductions in numbers of forest birds whose regional aggregate population is large.

Southern Forest Research Center, Korea Forest Research Institute, Jinju 660-300, Korea(Received on April 12, 2010; Accepted on September 18, 2010)A half-sib family of two 4-year-old seedlings of Pinus×rigitaeda was inoculated with each of 20 Pinus thunbergiiisolates of Fusarium circinatum (syn. Fusarium sub-glutinans f. sp. pini) from two pitch canker damagedsites in Jeju Island, South Korea. Initial symptoms ofneedle damages were visible on most of the seedlings at18 days after inoculation. The 20 tested isolates were notsignificantly different in virulence, based on lesionlengths at the site of inoculation (P = 0.217). The mostvirulent isolate FT-7 showed the longest lesion length.Some seedlings began to die 46 days after inoculation.All seedlings were dead by 68 days after inoculationexcept two seedlings inoculated with each of isolates FS-2 and FS-13, respectively. Using the FT-7, 38-year-old 11P. × rigitaeda trees, which were survived from a seedorchard severely damaged by pitch canker, were ino-culated on branches in the seed orchard in Jeju Islandto assess differences in susceptibility to pitch canker.The 11 trees differed significantly (P < 0.001) in suscep-tibility to F. circinatum based on average lesion lengthsmeasured 56 days after inoculation. It is possible thatinduced resistance contributed to their capacity to limitlesion development. The susceptibility of natural selec-tion P. × rigitaeda trees are more likely affected by inter-action with F. circinatum rather than environmentalconditions. Keywords : Fusarium circinatum, Natural selection, Pinusthunbergii, Pinus × rigitaeda, SusceptibilityPitch canker is a serious disease of pines, which is causedby the fungus Fusarium circinatum Nirenberg & O’Donnell(syn. Fusarium subglutinans f. sp. pini; telemorph: Giberellacircinatum Nirenberg & O’Donnell) distributed in differentparts of the world (Correll et al., 1991; Dwinell et al., 1985;Gordon et al., 2001; Nirenberg and O’Donnell, 1998).Advanced symptoms of the disease result in crown diebackand resinous cankers on branches and main stems (Storer etal. 2002). Pitch canker was first reported in 1946 on Pinusvirginiana in North Carolina, USA (Hepting and Roth,1946), and it later appeared on Pinus elliottii in Florida,Pinus taeda in Mississippi, and on Pinus radiata inCalifornia where it has caused a significant epidemic in itsnative range (Dwinell and Phelps, 1977; Gordon et al.,2001; Storer et al., 1997). The pathogen is also found inJapan (Kobayashi and Muramoto, 1989), South Africa(Viljoen et al., 1994), Mexico (Guerra-Santos, 1999), SouthKorea (Lee et al., 2000), Chile (Wingfield et al., 2002),Spain (Landeras et al., 2005), and was recently reportedfrom Italy (Carlucci et al., 2007). In South Korea, pitch canker was first noticed as a causeof branch dieback on the exotic species Pinus rigida Mill.in Incheon city in the mid-1990s. Pitch canker may bealleged to have introduced into South Korea through tworoutes: one from the USA to Incheon city and the otherfrom Japan to Jeju Island. The disease has caused a seriousdamage mostly on three-needle pines, P. rigida and P. ×rigitaeda in the southwestern part of the Korean peninsulaand Jeju Island. Most infections appear to result fromweather-related wounds from wind that serves as entrypoints of micro- or macro-conidia. The seed orchards of P. rigida and P. × rigitaeda in JejuIsland have been damaged by pitch canker for about tenyears perhaps because of warm temperature and geographiclocation near to Japan where the disease has been establish-ed since the late 1980s (Kobayashi and Muramoto, 1989;Woo et al., 2005). Recently, the disease occurred moreoften on sapling stands of a native two-needle pine P.thunbergii on the roadside and a golf course in Jeju Island.The isolates of F. circinatum obtained from different pinehosts, for example, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. sylvestris, and P.radiata in Spain (Perez-Sierra et al., 2007) and P. taeda, andP. elliottii in USA (Hodge and Dvorak, 2007), were testedfor virulence. However, virulence to P. thunbergii isolatesof F. circinatum has not been reported previously.Phenotypes of relatively resistant pines are characterizedby a reduced rate of lesion development and thus less

Resin flow, symptom development, and lignin biosynthesis in response to wounding and fungal inoculation were investigated in Pinus rigida and Pinus densiflora. The two-year-old seedling stems were subjected to three types of treatments: (i) wounding without inoculation, (ii) wound-inoculation with a conidial suspension of Fusarium circinatum, and (iii) pre-wounding woundinoculation with the fungus 20 days after the initial wounding. Resin flow from wounding sites was more evident in P. rigida than P. densiflora in all treatments. The wound-inoculation with the fungus induced almost two-fold higher levels of resin flow than the other treatments in both species. The pre-wounding woundinoculation appeared to result in a decrease in pitch canker development in the two pine species. Some reductions in disease severity were observed in the prewounding wound-inoculated P. rigida, showing a mean disease severity of less than 85%, compared with approximately 100% in the wound-inoculated stems. Disease severity was approximately 50% in the woundinoculated P. densiflora, whereas 10% in the pre-wounding wound-inoculated stems. Higher amounts of lignin were found from bark (ca. 40%) than from xylem (ca. 30%). The wound-inoculated bark and the pre-wounding wound-inoculated bark exhibited higher amounts of lignin among the other treatments. These results suggest that the wound-inoculation apparently prompt the increase in resin flow and lignin biosynthesis from the two pine species, and the prior wounding may be involved in decreased disease severity against the further invasion of F. circinatum.

Shrubland birds are declining throughout the eastern United States. To manage scrub-shrub habitats for birds, managers need information on avian habitat relationships. Past studies have produced contradictory results in some cases and may be of limited generality because of site- and habitat-specific factors. We studied shrubland birds across 6 habitats in 3 New England states to provide more general information on habitat relationships than has been possible in past studies. Our study sites included all major scrub-shrub habitats in New England: wildlife openings, regenerating clear-cuts, beaver ponds, utility rights-of-way, pitch pine (Pinus rigida) woodlands, and scrub oak (Quercus ilicifolia) barrens and ranged from Connecticut to northern New Hampshire, with research conducted from 2002 to 2007. Using N-mixture models of repeated point counts, we found that 6 of 12 shrubland birds preferred areas with greater shrub cover. An additional 4 species appeared to prefer areas with lower-stature ve...

Three-dimensional surface topography of needle stomatal complexes was investigated in Pinus rigida, Pinus taeda, and their interspecific hybrid Pinus rigitaeda. The stomatal complexes of P. rigida appeared to be sunken and ca. 15 microm deep by white light scanning interferometry. Stomatal grooves were evident in P. taeda along the stomata and amounted to ca. 5 microm deep. The centers of stomata maintained the similar height to the stomatal apertures. Meanwhile, the stomatal complexes of P. rigitaeda (ca. 15 microm deep) were characterized by distinct stomatal grooves and sunken stomatal chambers. In addition, field emission scanning electron microscopy revealed the stomatal complexes of P. rigida partially filled with epicuticular waxes. It was common to observe distinct stomatal grooves and chamber-filled stomata on P. taeda needles. The stomatal complexes of P. rigitaeda had the distinct stomatal grooves and were partially filled with wax tubules and rodlets. Surface roughness measurements of stomatal complexes showed higher levels of roughness from P. rigida and P. rigitaeda than that from P. taeda. These results indicate that the hybrid species P. rigitaeda showed intermediacy in surface characteristics between the parent species, suggesting the genetic control of needle stomatal complexes in the hybrid species.

This study was designed to evaluate changes in the terpene composition of 3 types of pines (Pinus densiflora, Pinus thunbergii and Pinus rigida), while decomposing their leaf litter. Needle litters were placed at two different organic layer depths, one on the surface and the other beneath the litter layer. Changes in the terpene composition of this litter were detected using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Among the monoterpenes acquired from the fresh needles of P. densiflora and P. rigida, α-pinene (12.05% and 19.87%, respectively) was the major one, followed by β-pinene (2.90% and 14.07%). However, from the needles of P. thunbergii, β-pinene (20.77%) was the major one, followed by α-pinene (10.79%). Among the sesquiterpenes detected in P. densiflora , trans-caryophyllene (3.12%) was the highest composition compound, whereas germacrene-D (6.09%) for P. thunbergii and 1,6-cyclodecadiene (7.41%) and endo-1-bourbonanol (7.41%) for P. rigida were the highest content compounds. However, the total amounts of terpenes decreased sharply by 40-85.4% in all three types of pine needle after 90-120 days of the experiment. The concentration of each terpene differed during decomposition, and the majority of compounds disappeared from beneath the litter layer. It was determined that three types of reducing patterns of each compound appeared on the rate of loss of concentration during decomposition; one pattern decreasing sharply during the initial period, another pattern steadily or slowly decreasing, and a newly detected pattern at low concentration occurring during decomposition.

The purpose of this study is to grasp what characterizes the vegetation base of the natural forest as a latent vegetation in the middle region of Korea and thus to offer basic data when improving the vegetation base in the middle region being built or to be built in the future. The findings of this soil section survey show the following: The soil is brown to red color soil group on the whole. In addition, the soil's physical features like soil hardness are rated as high level, which results from the fact that the forest soil exits in its natural form under less influence of stamping. The pH of soil shows a weak acidity, like Korean normal soil. Specific electrical conductance is also rated as middle to high level in accordance with the standards of landscape architecture. The Salix koreensis community and the Pinus rigida community are different from other communities in terms of total nitrogen, available phosphate and exchangeable content. Specifically, the two communities are opposed to each other in terms of total nitrogen and available phosphate, while being similar to each other in terms of available phosphate and exchangeable content. This seems to result from the fact that they are located near each other. In addition, the two communities are characterized by the fact that they are distributed at the altitude mean relatively lowest and in the valley. To sum up, the forest soil around Goesan Gun is of middle level on the whole according to the landscape standards, when judging it in terms of vegetation base. Accordingly, it seems that the construction of the vegetation base around Goesan Gun will not require large investment expenses for soil improvement. Also, it seems that the spatial scope of research is needed to expand the basic data on the construction of the vegetation base for the whole middle region of Korea.

Lacking long-term dendrochronological and lake sediment data, little is known regarding the history of fire in southern Appalachian forests through the Holocene. Here we used 82 radiocarbon ages for soil charcoal collected from local depositional sites along a topographic gradient from mixed hardwood (Liriodendron tulipifera and Quercus spp.) to oak-pine (Quercus prinus and Pinus rigida) forest to provide a coarse-grained picture of changes in fire frequency within a 10-ha area during the Holocene. Charcoal ages ranged from 0 to 10 570 yr BP, with a single date older than 4000 yr BP. The data indicate that fires occurred regularly across the study area over the past 4000 yr. Further, such fires were not confined to dry oak-pine dominated ridges, but extended downslope into areas that are today dominated by mesic hardwood forest. Summed probability analysis taking into account radiometric errors suggests that fires became more frequent approximately 1000 yr ago, coinciding with the appearance of Woodland Tradition Native Americans in this region. We provide a direct demonstration of relatively frequent fire at the forest stand scale in Appalachian forests over a significant portion of the Holocene. Our results are consistent with the widely held view that fires have become less frequent in this region over the past 250 years. We discuss the difficulties in calculating the inbuilt error associated with estimating actual fire dates from charcoal fragments. But we conclude that such analysis of soil charcoal is a promising approach for reconstructing general trends in fire behavior within forest stands in this region.

Analyses of pollen, charcoal and organic content in a lake sediment core from Wild- wood Lake, Long Island, New York, provide insights into the ecological and environmental history of this region. The early Holocene interval of the record (ca. 9800-8800cal. a BP) indicates the presence of Pinus rigida-Quercus ilicifolia woodlands with high fire activity. A layer of sandy sediment dating to 9200cal. a BP may reflect a brief period of reduced water depth, consistent with widespread evidence for cold, dry conditions at that time. Two other sandy layers, bracketed by 14 C dates, represent a sedimentary hiatus from ca. 8800 to 4500cal. a BP. This discontinuity may reflect the removal of some sediment during brief periods of reduced water depth at 5300 and 4600cal. a BP. In the upper portion of the record (

Invasive insects can impact ecosystem functioning by altering carbon, nutrient, and hydrologic cycles. In this study, we used eddy covariance to measure net CO2 exchange with the atmosphere (NEE), and biometric measurements to characterize net ecosystem productivity (NEP) in oak- and pine-dominated forests that were defoliated by Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. Three years of data were used to compare C dynamics; 2005 with minimal defoliation, 2006 with partial defoliation of the canopy and understory in a mixed stand, and 2007 with complete defoliation of an oak-dominated stand, and partial defoliation of the mixed and pine-dominated stands. Previous to defoliation in 2005, annual net CO2 exchange (NEEyr) was estimated at � 187, � 137 and � 204gCm � 2 yr � 1 at the oak-, mixed-, and pine-dominated stands, respectively. Annual NEP estimated from biometric measurements was 108%, 100%, and 98% of NEEyr in 2005 for the oak-, mixed-, and pine-dominated stands, respectively. Gypsy moth defoliation strongly reduced fluxes in 2006 and 2007 compared with 2005; NEEyr was � 122, 1103, and � 161gCm � 2 yr � 1 in 2006, and 1293, 1129, and � 17gCm � 2 yr � 1 in 2007 at the oak-, mixed-, and pine-dominated stands, respectively. At the landscape scale, Gypsy moths defoliated 20.2% of upland forests in 2007. We calculated that defoliation in these upland forests reduced NEEyr by 41%, with a 55% reduction in the heavily impacted oakdominated stands. ‘Transient’ disturbances such as insect defoliation, nonstand replacing wildfires, and prescribed burns are major factors controlling NEE across this landscape, and when integrated over time, may explain much of the patterning of aboveground biomass and forest floor mass in these upland forests.

Postpenetration behavior of Fusarium circinatum in stems of pine species was investigated with light and transmission electron microscopy. Two-year-old stems of Pinus rigida and P. densiflora were wound-inoculated with the fungal conidial suspension and subjected to 25 degrees C for up to 30 days. It was common to observe the formation of wound periderm on each pine species, recovering wounded sites with newly formed tissues. The outermost thick layer of wound periderm was pink to red colored with the phloroglucinol-EtOH staining, indicating heavy deposition of lignin in wound periderm. The cork layers in the wound periderm of the two pine species consisted of cells that were mostly devoid of cellular contents in cytoplasm. The cork cells showed convoluted cell walls with different electron density (lamellations), which was seemingly more prevalent in P. densiflora than P. rigida. Hyphae of F. circinatum appeared normal with typical eucaryotic cytoplasm in P. rigida on ultrathin sections. Meanwhile, hyphae in P. densiflora were found to possess highly vacuolated cytoplasm, implying hyphal weakening and disintegration. Hyphal cytoplasm appeared to be a thin layer between the vacuole and the plasma membrane surrounded by cell wall. In addition, intrahyphal hyphae and concentric bodies were observed in hyphal cytoplasm. These results suggest that the architecture of wound periderm may be responsible for different responses of pine species to the invasion of F. circinatum.

The purpose of this greenhouse experiment was to examine the short-term effects of competition between pine seedlings and the soil microbial biomass in sandy oligotrophic pine barrens upland forest soils subjected to varying levels of prescribed fire severity. Pine seedling growth performance, microbial biomass nitrogen, extractable soil nutrients and leaching loss from the soil were determined, throughout a single growing season following fire treatment. Replicate soil cores exposed to three levels of fire severity were maintained in a greenhouse with or without a pine seedling. Throughout the following growing season replicate cores from each treatment were harvested and analyzed monthly. The data allowed testing for two main effects: soil fire treatment and tree presence/absence. In no instance was a significant fire treatment X tree presence/absence interaction found. Our results indicate that biological activity strongly influences soil conditions. Reduced microbial activity resulted from the interaction of soil microbial biomass and an individual pine seedling. Increased plant growth performance correlates with reduced soil mineral nitrogen concentration and decreased pH. At the levels of fire severity utilized in this experiment immobilization due to biological uptake and abiotic soil fixation prevented significant leaching losses above that of unburned control samples. In the oligotrophic, pine barrens soils, nitrogen and phosphorus mineralized by fire are largely conserved by biological processes. These results also suggest that plant growth is subject to limitation by phosphorus availability in these soils.

While it is established that increasing atmospheric inorganic nitrogen (N) deposition reduces ectomycorrhizal fungal biomass and shifts the relative abundances of fungal species, little is known about effects of organic N deposition. The effects of organic and inorganic N deposition on ectomycorrhizal fungi may differ because responses to inorganic N deposition may reflect C-limitation. To compare the effects of organic and inorganic N additions on ectomycorrhizal fungi, and to assess whether host species may influence the response of ectomycorrhizal fungi to N additions, we conducted an N addition experiment at a field site in the New Jersey pine barrens. Seedlings of two host species, Quercus velutina (black oak) and Pinus rigida (pitch pine), were planted at the base of randomly-selected mature pitch pine trees. Nitrogen was added as glutamic acid, ammonium, or nitrate at a rate equivalent to 227.5 kg ha(-1) y(-1) for eight weeks, to achieve a total application of 35 kg ha(-1) during the 10-week study period. Organic and inorganic N additions differed in their effects on total ectomycorrhizal root tip abundance across hosts, and these effects differed for individual morphotypes between oak and pine seedlings. Mycorrhizal root tip abundance across hosts was 90 % higher on seedlings receiving organic N compared to seedlings in the control treatment, while abundances were similar among seedlings receiving the inorganic N treatments and seedlings in the control. On oak, 33-83 % of the most-common morphotypes exhibited increased root tip abundances in response to the three forms of N, relative to the control. On pine, 33-66 % of the most-common morphotypes exhibited decreased root tip abundance in response to inorganic N, while responses to organic N were mixed. Plant chemistry and regression analyses suggested that, on oak seedlings, mycorrhizal colonization increased in response to N limitation. In contrast, pine root and shoot N and C contents did not vary in response to any form of N added, and mycorrhizal root tip abundance was not associated with seedling N or C status, indicating that pine received sufficient N. These results suggest that in situ organic and inorganic N additions differentially affect ectomycorrhizal root tip abundance and that ectomycorrhizal fungal responses to N addition may be mediated by host tree species.

We examined the long-term effects of a prescribed fire in a southern Appalachian watershed in Nantahala National Forest, western North Carolina, USA. Fire was prescribed in 1995 on this site by forest managers to restore a degraded pine (Pinus spp.)-hardwood community, specifically to stimulate forage production, promote pine and oak (Quercus spp.) regeneration, and increase plant diversity. Before and after the prescribed fire, permanent plots were sampled across a south-facing hillslope, which corresponded to three community types: mesic, near-stream cove (riparian); dry, mixed-oak (mid-slope); and xeric, pine-hardwood (ridge). In an earlier paper, we reported the first two years of post-burn vegetation response from this prescribed burn. In our current study, we compared the pre-burn (1994) forest condition with 10 years post-burn (2005) vegetation measurements to determine the effects of fire on the mortality and regeneration of overstory trees, understory shrubs, and herbaceous-layer species. Overstory mortality was high immediately after the burn at the ridge location and ten years after the fire. Mortality of pitch pine (Pinus rigida Miller) (91.8 %) and hickory (Carya spp.) (77.5 %) reduced overstory basal area from 26.97 m2 ha−1 pre-burn to 18.86 m2 ha−1 post-burn in 1995 and to 9.13 m2 ha−1 in 2005. At the mid-slope and riparian locations, no significant overstory mortality occurred over time. Understory density was significantly higher 10 years after the burn (2005) than pre-burn, and basal area had returned to pre-burn levels. Density of mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia L.), black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata [Wang.] K. Koch), and blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) had increased due to prolific sprouting. The prescribed fire had varying effects on diversity across the hillslope gradient over time. On the ridge, overstory diversity declined following the fire (H’basal area = 1.14 in 1994, H’basal area = 0.75 in 1995, and H’basal area = 0.80 in 2005). Diversity significantly increased in the herbaceous layer and remained higher than pre-burn conditions through 2005 (H’cover = 1.02 in 1994, H’cover = 1.97 in 1995, and H’cover = 2.25 in 2005). For the mid-slope and riparian positions, no change in diversity was observed in the overstory, understory or herbaceous layer.

The successional diversity of basidiomycetous fungi was studied on Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and pitch pine (Pinus rigida) logs that were left exposed on the forest floor based on fungal surveys conducted after 18, 42, and 54 months of exposure. A total of 131 basidiomycetous isolates were recovered from the logs and grouped by their cultural morphology. Fungal identification was achieved by a BLAST search of partial nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences in GenBank. The results of the 18 month survey revealed that the isolation frequency and fungal diversity were higher for pitch pine than Korean pine. The dominant species found on Korean and pitch pine logs during the first survey were Hypochnicium karstenii and Phlebiopsis gigantea, respectively. In the 42 and 54 month surveys, the primary species were replaced by Hypochnicium eichleri, Phanerochaete velutina, Phlebia radiata, Rhizochaete sp., and Trametes versicolor. These results showed that decay fungi have host preference for woody materials that vary according to the species of tree being colonized.

A village grove is the one fostered and protected for a district's traditional life near the vicinity of a ruderal village. This research is done to grasp potential natural vegetation, to use a basis data needed for its management and preservation as well as restoration project by examining the vegetation and flora targeting a village grove of the southern district of Gyeonggi-do which has been seriously damaged subsequent to a rapidly progressing city development. According to the survey, there appeared an outgrowth flora of Pteridophyta consisting of 69 families, 136 genera, 20 varieties, 3 forms, 170 species-totalling to 193 taxa. Urbanization index was revealed to 4.55% and naturalization rate 6.74%. In life-cycle pattern, perennials were found to show the highest distribution rate; in infiltration-multiplication strategies, human wave tactics type was found to be the highest 51%, consisting of 98 species, and naturalization rate also was revealed to be 6.74%. The vegetation unit was divided into a total of 11 patterns, such as a community of Pinus densiflora community, Pinus densiflora-Pinus rigida community, Pinus densiflora-Castanea crenata community, Pinus rigida community, Pinus rigida-Castanea crenata community, Pinus rigida-Quercus acutissima community, Castanea crenata community, Castanea crenata-Quercus acutissima community, Quercus acutissima community, Quercus acutissima-Robinia pseudo-acacia community and Robinia pseudo-acacia community. Quercus acutissima community is of a community type dominated by Quercus acutissima, in place of Pinus densiflora community selected by natural succession.

Low intensity control burns are a standard fuel reduction management tool used in pine barrens ecosystems. Periodic disturbances through fire can be an important influence on the cycling of nutrients within the ecosystem. Previous studies have shown that the inorganic chemistry of leaf litter residues differs with increasing temperature. Our study compared chemical changes in white oak ( Quercus alba ), pitch pine ( Pinus rigida ) and black huckleberry ( Gaylussacia baccata ), characteristic of the New Jersey pine barrens, during thermal decomposition using FT-IR spectroscopy. Three replicates of senescent leaf material were ground and separately heated for 2 h at: 100, 200, 300, 400 and 550 °C. These temperatures are representative of the range seen in fuel reducing prescribed burns in the pine barrens. Unburned litter of each species was used as a control. An optimization process using varying amounts of KBr and oak litter was performed to develop favorable FT-IR spectral conditions for a sample to KBr ratio of 0.75%. Chemometric analysis of the FT-IR spectra using principal component analysis (PCA) was used to analyze the changes in carbohydrate chemistry of each litter plant species (leaf litter species) at each temperature. In general, it appears that there is clear separation of leaf litter species at the different combustion temperatures. Infrared spectroscopy illustrated that all three species shared wavenumbers characteristic of the primary components of leaves such as cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose. Results from the PCA indicated separation of litter species and species by combustion temperature. PC axis 1 corresponds to the effects of temperature on leaf litter species and PC axis 2 separates the leaf litter species. At the low temperatures (control-200 °C), oak, pine and huckleberry litter species separated from each other. Wavenumbers that contributed to the separation of species at low temperatures belonged to functional group stretching frequencies of outer surface waxes, basic sugars, fatty acids and aldehydes. It appears that oak had more IR bands specific to suberin content. Convergence of these species occurs at 300 °C. Complexity of chemical composition decreases at this particular temperature as is shown by the decrease in wavenumber richness when compared to litters at low and high temperatures. Oak, pine and huckleberry had similar IR spectra showing bands belonging to outer surface wax content, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose. With increasing temperatures (400–550 °C), differences between litter species increased slightly. Plant material was reduced to similar composition due to thermal decomposition, which consisted of inorganic materials such as carbonate, phosphate and sulfate ions and possible fused aromatics.