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Experiences of adversity in the early years of life alter the developing brain. However, evidence documenting this relationship often focuses on severe stressors and relies on peripheral measures of neurobiological functioning during infancy. In the present study, we employed functional MRI during natural sleep to examine associations between a more moderate environmental stressor (nonphysical interparental conflict) and 6- to 12-month-old infants’ neural processing of emotional tone of voice. The primary question was whether interparental conflict experienced by infants is associated with neural responses to emotional tone of voice, particularly very angry speech. Results indicated that maternal report of higher interparental conflict was associated with infants’ greater neural responses to very angry relative to neutral speech across several brain regions implicated in emotion and stress reactivity and regulation (including rostral anterior cingulate cortex, caudate, thalamus, and hypothalamus). These findings suggest that even moderate environmental stress may be associated with brain functioning during infancy.

This study addressed early calibration of stress systems by testing links between adversity exposures, developmental stability of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity, and behavior problems in a sample of adopted children. Families (n = 200) were assessed when the child was 9, 18, and 27 months, 4.5 and 6 years to collect adversity information—parent psychopathology, stress, financial need, and home chaos. Morning and evening cortisol samples at the final two assessments indexed child HPA activity, and parent-reported internalizing and externalizing at the final assessment represented child behavior outcomes. Increases in cumulative adversity from 4.5 to 6 related to higher child morning cortisol, whereas age six cumulative adversities related to lower, unstable child evening cortisol. Examination of specific adversity dimensions revealed associations between (1) increasing home chaos and stable morning cortisol, which in turn related to internalizing problems; and (2) high parental stress and psychopathology and lower, unstable evening cortisol, which in turn related to externalizing problems. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 56: 340–354, 2014.

Behavioral parent training programs have documented efficacy for improving behaviors among parents and their children and are frequently used by child welfare agencies to prevent removal of a child from the parental home or to facilitate reunification. Although an ideal time for parent training might be during supervised visits where parents may practice skills with their children under the guidance and support of a therapist or caseworker, this is not typically the case. Most often, parents within the child welfare system receive parent training in small groups without their children present, and to date, few studies have examined effects of behavioral parent training interventions during supervised visitation. In this study, concurrent multiple baseline across behaviors design was used to examine effects of a behavioral parent training program, Filming Interactions to Nurture Development (FIND), on parental skill acquisition with four mothers who had lost custody of their children but were being considered for reunification. Children emitted little or no problem behaviors during baseline or intervention, so parenting behavior was the primary dependent variable. Results obtained across participants documented a clear functional relation between implementation of the FIND intervention and increases in developmentally supportive parenting behaviors. Results of social validity and contextual fit measures suggest the intervention was perceived by mothers to be positive, feasible, and appropriate within the child welfare context. Practical and conceptual implications, limitations of this study, and directions for future research are discussed.

Adolescents with prenatal substance (drug and alcohol) exposure exhibit inhibitory control (IC) deficits and aberrations in associated neural function. Nearly all research to date examines exposure to individual substances, and a minimal amount is known about the effects of heterogeneous exposure-which is more representative of population exposure levels. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we investigated IC (Go/NoGo) in heterogeneously exposed (n = 7) vs. control (n = 7) at-risk adolescents (ages 13-17). The fMRI results indicated multiple IC processing differences consistent with a more immature developmental profile for exposed adolescents (Exposed > Nonexposed: NoGo > Go: right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, right cuneus, and left inferior parietal lobe; NoGo > false alarm: occipital lobe; Go > false alarm: right anterior prefrontal cortex). Simple effects suggest exposed adolescents exhibited exaggerated correct trial but decreased incorrect trial activation. Results provide initial evidence that prenatal exposure across substances creates similar patterns of atypical brain activation to IC success and failure.

Children in foster care are at high risk for poor psychosocial outcomes, including school failure, alcohol and other substance abuse, and criminal behaviors. Promoting healthy development by increasing broad-impact positive skills may help reduce some of the risk factors for longer-term negative outcomes. School readiness has been linked to a number of positive outcomes across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, and may also boost intermediary positive skills such as self-competence. This paper presents findings from a longitudinal study involving 192 children in foster care who were 5 years old at the start of the study. They participated in a randomized controlled trial of a school readiness program to prepare them for kindergarten. Outcomes were assessed at third grade (9 years old) on variables associated with risk for later involvement in substance use and delinquency. These included positive attitudes towards alcohol use, positive attitudes towards antisocial behaviors, and involvement with deviant peers. Results showed that the intervention decreased positive attitudes towards alcohol use and antisocial behaviors. Further, the mediating role of children's self-competence was tested. The intervention positively influenced children's third-grade self-competence, which in turn, decreased their involvement with deviant peers. Findings suggest that promoting school readiness in children in foster care can have far-reaching, positive effects and that increased self-competence may be a mechanism for reducing risk.

In spite of extensive scientific knowledge about the neurobiological systems and neural pathways underlying addictions, only limited progress has been made to reduce the population-level incidence of addictions by using prevention and treatment programs. In this area of research the translation of basic neuroscience of causal mechanisms to effective interventions has not been fully realized. In this article we describe how an understanding of the effects of early adverse experiences on brain and biological development may provide new opportunities to achieve impact at scale with respect to reduction of addictions. We propose four categories of new knowledge that translational neuroscience investigations of addictions should incorporate to be successful. We then describe a translational neuroscience-informed smoking cessation intervention based on this model.

Rationale Although one quarter of US and UK families rely on grandparents as the main providers of informal childcare, grandparental perspectives on the feeding and physical activity of young children remain understudied. Objective The study's aim was to elucidate parents' and grandparents' perspectives on young children's feeding and physical activity, and identify how they negotiate potential differences between these perspectives. Methods We interviewed 22 parents and 27 grandparents from 16 families of children aged 3–5 years in the Pacific Northwest, US. Using familial homeostasis as a novel theoretical framework, the interviews were analyzed to assess differences between parental and grandparental perspectives on feeding and physical activity. Results The analysis yielded six thematic categories: (1) disagreements about feeding stem from parents' and grandparents' differing definitions of healthy feeding; (2) differences between parents' and grandparents' feeding practices reflect differences in perceived caretaking roles; (3) parents and grandparents negotiate differences in feeding practices through grandparental compliance and parental compromise; (4) differences in preschoolers' physical activity are influenced by parents' and grandparents' own access to and engagement in physical activity; (5) parents and grandparents express few disagreements about preschoolers' screen-time; (6) parents and grandparents rarely discuss preschoolers' physical activity. The findings suggest that parental and grandparental decision-making about feeding and exercise is informed by ideas of what constitutes familial balance and a balanced lifestyle for a preschool aged child, rather than by the child's weight status. Conclusions Parents and grandparents appear to engage in practices designed to preserve familial homeostasis, which may provide a compelling explanation for the persistent difficulties in implementing family-based childhood obesity interventions.

This chapter provides a developmental psychopathology perspective on foster care research. Empirical studies of foster children have existed for over 100 years, documenting risks faced by this population and instances in which foster children display remarkable resilience. Knowledge emanating from the published studies on foster children, especially where it intersects with research on other populations that have experienced early life adversity, has potential to shed light on how healthy development can be negatively affected, but also how it may be preserved, when adverse rearing conditions exist. Investigations in this area have been conducted across numerous disciplines. Following a brief history of foster care in the United States and elsewhere, we review what is known about nine topics that are germane to the study of foster children from a developmental psychopathology perspective and conclude with a discussion of the translational implications of prior research and directions for future research. Keywords: foster care; risk; resilience; review; development

Child hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) activity was investigated as a moderator of parental depressive symptom effects on child behavior in an adoption sample (n = 210 families). Adoptive parents' depressive symptoms and child internalizing and externalizing were assessed at 18, 27, and 54 months, and child morning and evening HPA activity measured through salivary cortisol at 54 months. Children's daily cortisol levels and day-to-day variability were tested as moderators of longitudinal associations between parent and child symptoms at within- and between-family levels. Mothers' symptoms related directly to child internalizing, but child evening cortisol moderated effects of fathers' symptoms on internalizing, and of both parents' symptoms on externalizing. Different paths of within-family risk dynamics versus between-family risk synergy were found for internalizing versus externalizing outcomes.

Maltreated foster children have a high prevalence of developmental delays, psychosocial maladjustment, and psychiatric symptoms (Klee, Kronstadt, & Zlotnick, 1997; Landsverk, Garland, & Leslie, 2002). Recent work has focused on understanding effects of maltreatment and caregiver transitions on neurobiological systems involved in the stress response, specifically the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (Bruce, Fisher, Pears, & Levine, 2009; Dozier et al., 2006). The HPA axis—indexed by cortisol levels—displays a diurnal rhythm, typically characterized by relatively high morning levels that decline to near-zero by bedtime (Kirschbaum et al., 1990). This change across the day is referred to as the diurnal cortisol slope. Previous work indicates that young foster children are more likely than their nonmaltreated peers to evidence a flattened diurnal cortisol slope (or less change across the day), resulting from low morning cortisol levels, which may indicate a poorly regulated system (Dozier et al., 2006; Fisher et al., 2006). However, despite the high prevalence of socioemotional difficulties in this population, only a minority of foster children display low morning cortisol levels (Bruce et al., 2009). Because the HPA axis is also designed to respond to physical and psychological challenges in the environment (Kirschbaum et al., 1990), examining the responsiveness of the system to stressors may provide further insight into potential effects of maltreatment and caregiver transitions. Although research with older children and adults has often employed laboratory stressors to measure immediate changes in cortisol levels, research with normative samples of young children has focused on changes in the diurnal cortisol rhythm in response to naturally occurring stressors, such as the start of school (Bruce, Davis, & Gunnar, 2002; Davis, Donzella, Krueger, & Gunnar, 1999; Quas, Murowchick, Bensadoun, & Boyce, 2002; Turner-Cobb, Rixon, & Jessop, 2008). This work provides evidence for a transient perturbation in the diurnal cortisol rhythm in response to the start of school, characterized by a steeper slope on the 1st day of school compared to weekend days later in the year (Bruce et al., 2002). This steeper slope, which has been viewed as a healthy adaptation to a novel, significant event, resulted from higher morning and lower evening cortisol levels on the 1st day of school. However, individual differences appear to play a large role, such that higher temperamental surgency (Bruce et al., 2002; Davis et al., 1999) and lower effortful control (Turner-Cobb et al., 2008) predict a steeper slope beyond the 1st day of school, potentially indicative of greater reactivity or less recovery of the system. Although Gutteling, de Weerth, and Buitelaar (2008) documented effects of prenatal stress on the diurnal cortisol rhythm across the start of school, the effects of severe early life stress, such as maltreatment and caregiver transitions, remain unknown. Moreover, it is unclear whether comprehensive early preventive intervention programs such as Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Preschoolers (MTFC-P; Fisher, Ellis, & Chamberlain, 1999) affect changes in the diurnal cortisol rhythm in response to a naturally occurring stressor. MTFC-P supports foster parents in providing consistent and contingent responses to positive and negative child behaviors. The child’s environment thus becomes more predictable, responsive and reinforcing, which has been shown to prevent the development of an increasingly flattened diurnal cortisol rhythm in foster children (Fisher, Stoolmiller, Gunnar, & Burraston, 2007). However, the impact of MTFC-P on the responsiveness of the HPA axis to important life events, such as the start of school, remains untested. Foster children often experience difficulties in school (Pears, Fisher, Bruce, Kim & Yoerger, 2010), and preventive interventions that influence the capacity of the HPA axis to respond to the challenge of the start of school may support a more adaptive transition. This pilot study examines changes in diurnal cortisol in response to the start of school for three groups of children: foster children who received regular foster care (RFC); foster children who received MTFC-P; and low-income, nonmaltreated children living with their biological parents (community comparison [CC]). We hypothesized that RFC children would show an extended cortisol response, characterized by a steeper slope on the 1st and 5th days compared to the week before school, and that MTFC-P and CC children would show a transient cortisol response, characterized by a steeper slope only on the 1st day of school.

Background: An increasing number of children are placed in foster care (i.e., a kin or nonkin family home other than the biological parent) due to experiences of physical, sexual, emotional, or psychological abuse, and/or neglect. Children in foster care are at increased risk for a host of negative outcomes encompassing emotional, behavioral, neurobiological, and social realms. Methods: Areas of risk and vulnerability among foster children are described, including emotional and behavioral deficits, impaired neurobiological development, and social relationship deficits. Evidence suggesting the significance of family placement changes and prenatal exposure to substances as contributing mechanisms is presented. Based on a systematic search of the PsycINFO database (to March 2012), eight efficacious evidence-based interventions for foster families are summarized. Findings: Although the development of evidence-based interventions that improve outcomes for foster children has lagged behind the delivery of interventions in other service sectors (e.g., mental health and educational sectors), several interventions across childhood and adolescence offer promise. Service system constraints offer both challenges and opportunities for more routine implementation of evidence-based interventions. Conclusions: Given the increased likelihood of poor outcomes for foster children, increased efforts to understand the pathways to vulnerability and to implement interventions shown to be effective in remediating risks and improving outcomes for this population are indicated. Evaluation of efficacious interventions in countries outside of the United States is also needed. © 2012 The Authors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry © 2012 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.

Despite growing concerns about foster placement instability, little information is available regarding the longitudinal patterns of placement histories among foster children. The purpose of the present study was to develop a charting system using child welfare records to facilitate a better understanding of longitudinal patterns of placement history for 117 foster children. The resulting Placement History Chart included all placements that occurred during the observed time period and accounted for various dimensions: number, length, type, and sequence of placements; timing of transitions; and total time in out-of-home care. The Placement History Chart is an effective tool for placing foster care experiences within a broader developmental context. As such, the Placement History Chart can be a valuable research tool for understanding various dimensions and variations of placement transitions among foster children by capturing sequences and cumulative risks over time. Furthermore, this chart can facilitate the development of intervention programs that are developmentally sensitive and effectively address particularly vulnerable subpopulations of foster children.

Dummy fill has been demonstrated to be an effective technique to reduce process variation and improve manufacturability for advanced integrated circuit (IC) designs. However, the computation load, often several days for a realistic IC design, is a significant portion of the cycle time for delivering first silicon on new or modified designs. In this paper, we propose a novel design flow and dummy-fill algorithm based on Boolean operations, which greatly improves computational efficiency and pattern density uniformity, and enables dummy generation to be combined with the mask-preparation Boolean operations performed by the mask-fabrication facility. Mask data preparation can be performed in parallel with dummy generation and post-dummy simulation checks at the design house, resulting in improved first-silicon cycle time. Experimental results demonstrate these benefits in the context of an advanced foundry process technology.

Poverty and single parent status, which often co-occur, have been shown to relate to lower effortful control, and this may be in part due to disruptions in hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity. Both poverty and single parent status may compromise parenting, which in turn may disrupt HPA axis activity and the development of effortful control. We examined whether parenting and HPA axis activity accounted for the effects of poverty and single parent status on the development of effortful control in preschool children (N=78). Effortful control was measured at two time points, 6months apart. Individually, poverty and single parent status were related to blunted HPA axis activity, characterized by low AM and PM cortisol. However, when examined together, the effects were present only for preschoolers whose parents were in poverty. Parental warmth and negativity accounted for the relations between poverty and blunted cortisol. Blunted cortisol was related to lower effortful control at Time 2. These results suggest a pathway through which poverty may impact children’ sd eveloping effortful control through parenting, which in turn may shape HPA axis activity. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Racial/ethnic minorities experience persistent health disparities due in part to their exposure to chronic SES and psychosocial risk. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and its hormonal end product, cortisol, are believed to mediate the associations between chronic stress and poor health. In this study, racial/ethnic differences in diurnal salivary cortisol rhythms in 179 preadolescent youths and the contributing roles of SES risk, psychosocial risk, perceived discrimination, harsh parenting, and parental monitoring were examined. The analyses revealed racial/ethnic differences in diurnal cortisol rhythms, with African Americans having significantly flatter morning-to-evening cortisol slopes than Caucasians and with Latinos having significantly lower evening cortisol levels than Caucasians. Greater psychosocial risk and less parental monitoring were associated with flatter cortisol slopes. Racial/ethnic differences on the cortisol measures persisted when controlling for SES, psychosocial risk, and parenting quality. The need to assess chronic risk across the lifespan and disentangle possible genetic from environmental contributors is discussed.

This study examined the relation of low income and poverty to cortisol levels, and tested potential pathways from low income to disruptions in cortisol through cumulative family risk and parenting. The sample of 306 mothers and their preschool children included 29 % families at or near poverty, 27 % families below the median income, and the remaining families at middle and upper income. Lower income was related to lower morning cortisol levels, and cumulative risk predicted a flatter diurnal slope, with a significant indirect effect through maternal negativity, suggesting that parenting practices might mediate an allostatic effect on stress physiology.

Cross-cultural differences in temperament were investigated between infants (n = 131, 84 Finns), children (n = 653, 427 Finns), and adults (n = 759, 538 Finns) from the United States of America and Finland. Participants from both cultures completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, Childhood Behavior Questionnaire, and the Adult Temperament Questionnaire. Across all ages, Americans received higher ratings on temperamental fearfulness than Finnish individuals, and also demonstrated higher levels of other negative affects at several time points. During infancy and adulthood, Finns tended to score higher on positive affect and elements of temperamental effortful control. Gender differences consistent with prior studies emerged cross-culturally, and were found to be more pronounced in the U.S. during childhood and in Finland during adulthood.

Aggression between partners represents a potential guiding force in family dynamics. However, research examining the influence of partner aggression (physically and psychologically aggressive acts by both partners) on harsh parenting and young child adjustment has been limited by a frequent focus on low-risk samples and by the examination of partner aggression at a single time point. Especially in the context of multiple risk factors and around transitions such as childbirth, partner aggression might be better understood as a dynamic process. In the present study, longitudinal trajectories of partner aggression from birth to age 3 years in a large, high-risk, and ethnically diverse sample (N = 461) were examined. Specific risk factors were tested as predictors of aggression over time, and the longitudinal effects of partner aggression on maternal harsh parenting and child maladjustment were examined. Partner aggression decreased over time, with higher maternal depression and lower maternal age predicting greater decreases in partner aggression. While taking into account contextual and psychosocial risk factors, higher partner aggression measured at birth and a smaller decrease over time independently predicted higher levels of maternal harsh parenting at age 3 years. Initial level of partner aggression and change over time predicted child maladjustment indirectly (via maternal harsh parenting). The implications of understanding change in partner aggression over time as a path to harsh parenting and young children's maladjustment in the context of multiple risk factors are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved). Language: en

Aunque existen muchos acercamientos terapéuticos para el tratamiento de los niños que han sufrido problemas y sus familias, ninguno de ellos ha sido validado en las investigaciones. Además, entre aquellos que han sido usados para generar evidencias, pocos han seguido el camino tan coherente y riguroso de investigación científica como las intervenciones que han sido desarrolladas en el Oregon Social Learning Center. Como tal, estas intervenciones sirven como un modelo "de investigación que va de la teoría a la práctica" y que no sólo puede ser empleado para apoyar familias con niños en la necesidad de tratamiento, sino que también puede servir para dirigir el desarrollo de otros programas de tratamiento. Esto es la historia de como se ha ido desarrollando este proyecto a lo largo de las cuatro últimas décadas.

Prior researchers have shown that the brain has a remarkable ability for adapting to environmental changes. The positive effects of such neural plasticity include enhanced functioning in specific cognitive domains and shifts in cortical representation following naturally occurring cases of sensory deprivation; however, maladaptive changes in brain function and development owing to early developmental adversity and stress have also been well documented. Researchers examining enriched rearing environments in animals have revealed the potential for inducing positive brain plasticity effects and have helped to popularize methods for training the brain to reverse early brain deficits or to boost normal cognitive functioning. In this article, two classes of empirically based methods of brain training in children are reviewed and critiqued: laboratory-based, mental process training paradigms and ecological interventions based upon neurocognitive conceptual models. Given the susceptibility of executive function disruption, special attention is paid to training programs that emphasize executive function enhancement. In addition, a third approach to brain training, aimed at tapping into compensatory processes, is postulated. Study results showing the effectiveness of this strategy in the field of neurorehabilitation and in terms of naturally occurring compensatory processing in human aging lend credence to the potential of this approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).

Young foster children have invariably faced a variety of risks that are strongly linked to long-term deficits in functioning across multiple developmental domains. Despite these risks, however, some children demonstrate more favorable outcomes and exhibit adaptation and the development of assets. In the present study, the relationship of early childhood factors (e.g., maltreatment history, placement history, parenting practices, environmental stress, developmental status, and attachment behavior) to the development of favorable outcomes in middle childhood were examined in a sample of foster children who had been in foster care in preschool (N = 35). Favorable outcomes were defined as demonstrations of emotion regulation and school adjustment in during middle childhood. Developmental status (particularly attention and executive functioning) and a lack of environmental stress during early childhood foster care experiences had a significant positive relationship with the development of emotion regulation and school adjustment in middle childhood.

Child maltreatment prevention programs typically identify at-risk families by screening for risk with limited consideration of how risk might vary by ethnicity. In this study, longitudinal data from mothers who participated in a randomized clinical trial of a home-visitation, child maltreatment prevention program (N = 262) were examined to determine whether risk for harsh parenting differed among mothers who identified themselves as Spanish-speaking Latinas (n = 64), English-speaking Latinas (n = 102), or non-Latina Caucasians (n = 96). The majority of the participants were first-time mothers (58.4%), and the average age of all participants was 23.55 years (SD = 6.04). At the time of their infants' births, the Spanish-speaking Latina mothers demonstrated higher SES risk, whereas the English-speaking Latina and non-Latina Caucasian mothers demonstrated higher psychosocial risk. Three years later, the English-speaking Latina and non-Latina Caucasian mothers reported harsher parenting behaviors than the Spanish-speaking Latina mothers. The need for prevention programs to consider how risk and protective factors differ by ethnic group membership when identifying at-risk mothers is discussed.

While outcome studies in pediatric obesity have received considerable attention, research on different components of effective interventions remains limited. Little is known which psychological method (i.e., behavior modification, cognitive behavior therapy and family therapy) is most useful or how the choice of program delivery (group/individual) influences the intervention outcomes. Group treatment is of particular interest for two reasons. First, motivation is important for behavior change; in group settings motivation can be increased in two ways: by the group leader and through the interaction with the group participants. Second, group treatment can be more cost-effective than individual approaches (i.e., it requires fewer staff resources and space). This paper aims to comment on the influence of the method choice and delivery in pediatric obesity interventions through discussion of the existing evidence on current programs. In addition, two examples of useful models will be described in more detail: the Yale Bright Bodies Weight Management Program and the Family Weight School. These are outpatients programs both targeting families with severely obese children but through different methodological approaches. Finally, directions for future research will be explored, particularly regarding how the selection of program delivery and psychological method affect treatment outcomes in various populations.

Dysregulated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis stress response has been reported among individuals with prenatal substance exposure and those with early adversity exposure. However, few researchers have examined the combined effects of these risk factors. Patterns of HPA reactivity among maltreated foster children with and without prenatal substance exposure ( N = 53; ages 9–12 years) were examined using the Trier Social Stress Test for Children. Area under the curve with respect to increase (AUCI) analyses revealed that prenatal substance exposure or physical abuse significantly increased the likelihood of a negative AUCI (i.e., little or no HPA reactivity). Among children with prenatal substance exposure and physical abuse, 85% exhibited a negative AUCI. The results underscore the importance of addressing this combined risk.

As process technologies continually advance, local process variation has greatly increased and gradually become one of the most critical factors for integrated circuit manufacturing. To monitor local process variation, a large number of devices-under-test (DUTs) in close proximity must be measured. In this paper, we present a novel array-based test structure to characterize local process variation with limited area overhead. The proposed test structure can guarantee high measurement accuracy by application of the test techniques proposed in this paper: hardware IR compensation, voltage bias elevation, and leakage-current cancelation. Furthermore, the DUT layout need not be modified for the proposed test structure. Thus, the measured variation exactly reflects the reality in the manufacturing environment. The measured results from the few most advanced process-technology nodes demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed test structure in quantifying local process variation.

Sleep has been referred to as a “window to the central nervous system”1 owing to its close associations with many other neurophysiological variables. Insufficient or inconsistent sleep is predictive of such regulatory problems as failure to thrive in infancy, poor neurobehavioral functioning in early childhood, and poor academic performance into adolescence.2 Sleep affects functioning via 2 primary mechanisms. First, sleep is a restorative mechanism that decreases daytime sleepiness and increases alertness, behavioral regulation, and cognitive performance. Second, sleep is an active state that is integral to such brain functions as memory consolidation, learning, mood and hormonal regulation, and brain development.3,4 Children are highly vulnerable to sleep disruption in early childhood, perhaps owing to the complexity of the sleep process and the children’s reliance on caregivers for achieving and maintaining sleep. Sleep disturbance, identified as early as infancy, is predictive of long-term sleeping problems, which may have negative implications for subsequent cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and physiological development.5 Sleep disturbance has been operationalized in such ways as reduced sleep duration, increased sleep fragmentation (ie, multiple awakenings), and problems initiating sleep. Researchers of children’s sleep have employed subjective (eg, caregiver-completed sleep diaries or retrospective report) and objective (eg, polysomnography or actigraphy) methodologies. Interestingly, the subjective measures have frequently shown stronger associations with criterion variables than have the objective measures.6 One explanation for this is that intermittent sleep disturbance might affect subjective more than objective measures. Specifically, poor sleep on only a few nights per week, referred to as the “pendulum effect,”7 might lead to caregiver perceptions of global sleep disturbance that would be picked up by subjective measures. In contrast, objective measures typically aggregate data from 2 or more consecutive nights, so poor sleep on only a few nights per week might not significantly elevate the mean values. Inconsistent sleep has been described as a stressor. When sleep is irregular, it is difficult to overcome accumulated lost sleep, often referred to as “sleep debt.” Bates et al8 likened the impact of high sleep variability to the extreme fatigue and cognitive impairment associated with jet lag. Other researchers have found that sleep variability is associated with poor developmental outcomes as early as infancy. Interestingly, Halpern et al1 found that the degree of stability in sleep time over the course of each 24-h period (but not the average amount of sleep) in infancy was predictive of subsequent developmental status, lower behavioral and medical problems up to age 30 months, lower mortality rates, and psychomotor and mental abilities as measured using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.9

In this study, 85 maltreated foster children and 56 nonmaltreated community children (M age = 3–6 years) were assessed across kindergarten and first grade to examine the hypothesis that inhibitory control and caregiver involvement mediate associations between a history of maltreatment and foster placement and early school adjustment. Specifically, academic and social-emotional competence were evaluated. The maltreated foster children performed more poorly in academic and social-emotional competence. Inhibitory control fully mediated the association of maltreatment and foster placement with academic competence, whereas inhibitory control and caregiver involvement mediated their association with social-emotional competence. The results suggest that inhibitory control and caregiver involvement might be promising targets for school readiness interventions for foster preschoolers.

This study examined children’s morning HPA axis activation as a moderator of links between hostile, over-reactive parenting at age 4.5 years and children’s skills for success in school (higher executive function and literacy, and less externalizing behavior) at age 6. Participants included 361 adoptive families. Parenting was self-reported. HPA axis activation was measured by basal levels in morning cortisol. Executive function and literacy were assessed via standardized tasks. Externalizing behavior was reported by teachers. Results indicated that hostile, over-reactive parenting predicted more externalizing behavior and lower executive functioning regardless of children’s morning HPA axis activation. HPA axis activation moderated the effects of hostile, over-reactive parenting on literacy. Among children with moderate to high morning HPA axis activation (approximately 60% of the sample), harsh parenting was linked with lower literacy; children with low morning HPA axis activation exhibited better literacy in the context of more hostile, over-reactive parenting. Yet, across the sample, hostile, over-reactive parenting remained in the low to moderate range, not in the high range. Findings are discussed in the context of considering not only whether children’s stress system activation moderates responses to their environments, but also how these processes operate for different developmental outcomes.

Demographic trends indicate that a growing segment of families is exposed to adversity such as poverty, drug use problems, caregiver transitions, and domestic violence. Although these risk processes and the accompanying poor outcomes for children have been well-studied, little is known about why some children develop resilience in the face of such adversity, particularly when it is severe enough to invoke child welfare involvement. This paper describes a program of research involving families in the child welfare system. Using a resiliency framework, evidence from four randomized clinical trials that included components of the Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care program is presented. Future directions and next steps are proposed.

Indiscriminate friendliness is well documented in children adopted internationally following institutional rearing but is less studied in maltreated foster children. Precursors and correlates of indiscriminate friendliness were examined in 93 preschool-aged maltreated children residing in foster care and 60 age-matched, nonmaltreated children living with their biological parents. Measures included parent reports, official case record data, and standardized laboratory assessments. Foster children exhibited higher levels of indiscriminate friendliness than nonmaltreated children. Inhibitory control was negatively associated with indiscriminate friendliness even after controlling for age and general cognitive ability. Additionally, the foster children who had experienced a greater number of foster caregivers had poorer inhibitory control, which was in turn associated with greater indiscriminate friendliness. The results indicate a greater prevalence of indiscriminate friendliness among foster children and suggest that indiscriminate friendliness is part of a larger pattern of dysregulation associated with inconsistency in caregiving.

The aims of the present study were to examine the effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers with histories of placement instability on permanency outcomes and to determine whether the intervention's effectiveness on these outcomes varied based on prior maltreatment experiences. Permanency outcomes for 52 children who had experienced 4 or more placements prior to study entry (n = 29 intervention condition; n = 23 regular foster care condition) were examined through 24 months post-study entry. The results indicated no group differences in permanency attempt rates but more than double the rate of successful permanency attempts for the intervention condition. The findings indicated that systematic interventions have the potential to impact permanency outcomes among children with prior instability.

Maltreated foster children are subjected to a range of early adverse experiences, including neglect, abuse, and multiple caregiver disruptions. Research suggests that such disturbances alter the development and subsequent functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system. The current study was designed to investigate morning cortisol levels in 117 foster children and 60 low-income, nonmaltreated children. Maltreatment and foster care placement experiences were coded from official records. Analyses revealed that the foster children were significantly more likely than the nonmaltreated children to have low morning cortisol levels. Additionally, specific maltreatment experiences were significantly associated with the foster children’s morning cortisol levels. Foster children with low morning cortisol levels experienced more severe physical neglect than the other foster children. In contrast, foster children with high morning cortisol levels experienced more severe emotional maltreatment. These results suggest that specific early adverse experiences have differential effects on the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system.

The current study was designed to explore the use of behavioral (i.e., accuracy and reaction times) and electrophysiological measures (i.e., event-related potentials) to assess the impact of a family-based preventive intervention for preschool-aged, maltreated children in foster care. These measures were recorded during a computerized flanker task designed to assess cognitive control and response monitoring. The sample was recruited from a larger randomized efficacy trial of Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Preschoolers (MTFC-P) and included foster children assigned to the intervention condition (n = 10), foster children assigned to a services-as-usual comparison condition (n = 13), and low-income, nonmaltreated community children (n = 11). The children's behavioral and electrophysiological performance on the task was generally consistent with previous research with adults and older children. There were no group differences on the behavioral measures of cognitive control or response monitoring. Notably, however, group differences were observed on the electrophysiological measures of response monitoring. Specifically, the foster children who received services as usual were significantly less responsive to performance feedback about errors than the foster children who received the intervention and the nonmaltreated children. Applications of this methodology and implications of the results for future prevention research are discussed.

Foster children exhibit high rates of atypical neuroendocrine functioning compared to children in the general population. In particular, alterations in the daytime diurnal activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis have been observed in foster children, often characterized by blunted salivary cortisol levels (i.e., low morning levels that remain low throughout the day). There is emerging evidence that therapeutic interventions for foster children can affect this pattern of HPA axis activity, but the specific intervention components responsible for change have not been fully explicated. Within a randomized trial to evaluate a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers (n= 57 intervention condition;n= 60 comparison condition;n= 60 community comparison condition), the present study examined whether diurnal cortisol activity was associated with caregiver self-reported stress in response to child problem behavior. Results showed immediate reductions in caregiver stress that were sustained through 12 months postbaseline in the intervention condition. In contrast, caregivers in the regular foster care condition showed higher rates of stress across time and increased stress sensitivity to child problem behaviors. In addition, among caregivers in regular foster care, higher self-reported stress was associated with lower morning cortisol levels and more blunted diurnal cortisol activity. These results provide evidence that interventions can simultaneously impact caregiver stress and buffer children from the negative impacts of caregiver stress on HPA axis regulation.

Parental substance use is a well-documented risk for children. However, little is known about specific effects of prenatal and postnatal substance use on child maltreatment and foster care placement transitions. In this study, the authors unpacked unique effects of (a) prenatal and postnatal parental alcohol and drug use and (b) maternal and paternal substance use as predictors of child maltreatment and foster care placement transitions in a sample of 117 maltreated foster care children. Models were tested with structural equation path modeling. Results indicated that prenatal maternal alcohol use predicted child maltreatment and that combined prenatal maternal alcohol and drug use predicted foster care placement transitions. Prenatal maternal alcohol and drug use also predicted postnatal paternal alcohol and drug use, which in turn predicted foster care placement transitions. Findings highlight the potential integrative role that maternal and paternal substance use has on the risk for child maltreatment and foster care placement transitions.

Converging evidence indicates that maltreated foster children have more behavior problems and poorer peer relations than nonmaltreated, biologically reared youths. However, it is unclear whether deficits in peer relations operate independently or as a result of increased behavior problems and whether outcomes for foster children differ by sex. To address these questions, multi-informant methods were used to assess peer relations at school entry among maltreated foster children and a comparison sample of low-income, nonmaltreated, biologically reared children (N = 121). Controlling for caregiver-reported behavior problems prior to school entry, results from a multigroup structural equation modeling analysis suggested significant relationships between foster care status and poor peer relations at school entry and between foster care status and level of behavior problems prior to school entry for girls only. These Sex * Foster Care Status interactions indicate that the unique needs of each sex should be addressed when intervening with maltreated foster children.

Background While obesity has been shown to be difficult to treat in school aged children and in adolescence, promising results have been detected for children who started treatment in early childhood. Yet knowledge on the effectiveness of structured early childhood obesity treatment programs is limited, preventing the widespread implementation of such programs. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of early treatment of childhood obesity with respect to treatment focus (parenting practices or lifestyle), length and intensity. The study will also examine the influence of gender, age, parental weight status, parenting practices, child behavior as well as parents’ socioeconomic status and child and parental psychosocial health on children’s weight status. Methods/design This is a parallel open label randomized controlled trial assessing two different behavioral treatment approaches offered in three conditions to families with children aged 4–6 years in Stockholm County, Sweden. Children (n = 180) identified as obese will be referred from primary child health care, school health care, and from outpatient pediatric clinics, and randomized to: 1) a standard treatment with focus on lifestyle, provided within the current healthcare system (n = 90); 2) a 10-session, 1.5 h/week group treatment with focus on parenting (n = 45); or 3) the same group treatment as 2) with additional follow-up sessions (n = 45). The primary study outcome is change in children’s body mass index standard deviation score (BMI SDS) one year post-baseline. Secondary outcomes include changes in children’s waist circumference, metabolic health, lifestyle patterns (Food Frequency Questionnaire), obesity-related child behaviors (Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire and Lifestyle Behavior Checklist, Problem Scale), parents’ general and feeding parenting practices (Communicating with Children and Child Feeding Questionnaire) and lifestyle-specific self-efficacy (Lifestyle Behavior Checklist, Confidence Scale), family functioning (Family Assessment Device), child and parental psychosocial health (Child Behavior Checklist and Beck’s Depression Inventory II). Discussion This study will facilitate a close examination of key components of treatment for obesity during early childhood and mechanisms of change. Results from this study will lead to better healthcare options for obesity treatment during early childhood and ultimately to the prevention of obesity later in life. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01792531 Registered February 14, 2013.

Maltreated youths in foster care often experience negative developmental and psychological outcomes, which have been linked with poor response inhibition. Recent evidence suggests that childhood maltreatment is also associated with alterations in the neural circuitry underlying response inhibition. However, a burgeoning line of research has begun to explore the mitigating effects of preventive interventions on neural functioning. The current study used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to explore the impact of early childhood maltreatment and a preventive intervention on response inhibition in early adolescence. Thirty-six demographically similar adolescents (ages 9-14 years) completed a Go/NoGo task. The sample included nonmaltreated adolescents (n = 14) and maltreated adolescents who were in foster care as preschoolers and randomly assigned to receive services as usual (n = 11) or a preventive intervention, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Preschoolers (n = 11). The groups demonstrated similar behavioral performance but significantly different neural patterns. The maltreated adolescents who received services as usual demonstrated subcortical hypoactivity during successful response inhibition and subcortical hyperactivity during unsuccessful response inhibition. In contrast, the nonmaltreated adolescents and maltreated adolescents who received the intervention exhibited strikingly similar neural patterns during successful response inhibition, but the maltreated adolescents who received the intervention demonstrated prefrontal hypoactivity during unsuccessful response inhibition. These findings offer preliminary evidence that early childhood maltreatment alters the neural patterns underlying response inhibition in early adolescence and that participating in a preventive intervention could mitigate maltreatment-related effects on these neural systems.

Few prospective studies have examined school mobility in children in foster care. This study described the school moves of 86 such children and 55 community comparison children (primarily Caucasian), living in a medium-sized metropolitan area in the Pacific Northwest who were approximately 3-6-years-old at the study start. Additionally, the effects of moves from kindergarten through Grade 2 on academic and social emotional competence in Grades 3 through 5 were examined. A greater number of early school moves was associated with poorer later social emotional competence and partially mediated the effects of maltreatment and out-of-home placement on social emotional competence. This was only the case for children with poorer early learning skills in kindergarten. Implications for preventive intervention are discussed.

Risk factors for the childhood development of co-occurring internalizing and externalizing symptoms are not well understood, despite a high prevalence and poor clinical outcomes associated with this co-occurring phenotype. We examined inherited and environmental risk factors for co-occurring symptoms in a sample of children adopted at birth and their birth mothers and adoptive mothers (N= 293). Inherited risk factors (i.e., birth mothers' processing speed and internalizing symptoms) and environmental risk factors (i.e., adoptive mothers' processing speed, internalizing symptoms, and uninvolved parenting) were examined as predictors for the development of internalizing-only, externalizing-only, or co-occurring symptoms using structural equation modeling. Results suggested a unique pattern of predictive factors for the co-occurring phenotype, with risk conferred by adoptive mothers' uninvolved parenting, birth mothers' slower processing speed, and the birth mothers' slower processing speed in tandem with adoptive mothers' higher internalizing symptoms. Additional analyses indicated that when co-occurring-symptom children were incorporated into internalizing and externalizing symptom groups, differential risk factors for externalizing and internalizing symptoms emerged. The findings suggest that spurious results may be found when children with co-occurring symptoms are not examined as a unique phenotypic group.

Background Extensive animal research has demonstrated the vulnerability of the brain to early life stress (ELS) with consequences for emotional development and mental health. However, the influence of moderate and common forms of stress on early human brain development is less well-understood and precisely characterized. To date, most work has focused on severe forms of stress, and/or on brain functioning years after stress exposure. Methods In this report we focused on conflict between parents (interparental conflict), a common and relatively moderate form of ELS that is highly relevant for children's mental health outcomes. We used resting state functional connectivity MRI to examine the coordinated functioning of the infant brain (N = 23; 6–12-months-of-age) in the context of interparental conflict. We focused on the default mode network (DMN) due to its well-characterized developmental trajectory and implications for mental health. We further examined DMN strength as a mediator between conflict and infants’ negative emotionality. Results Higher interparental conflict since birth was associated with infants showing stronger connectivity between two core DMN regions, the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the anterior medial prefrontal cortex (aMPFC). PCC to amygdala connectivity was also increased. Stronger PCC-aMPFC connectivity mediated between higher conflict and higher negative infant emotionality. Conclusions The developing DMN may be an important marker for effects of ELS with relevance for emotional development and subsequent mental health. Increasing understanding of the associations between common forms of family stress and emerging functional brain networks has potential to inform intervention efforts to improve mental health outcomes.

Young children in foster care are exposed to high levels of stress. These experiences place foster children at risk for poor social, academic, and mental heath outcomes. The role of adverse events in stimulating neurobiological stress responses presumably plays a role in shaping neural systems that contribute to these problems. Systematic and developmentally well-timed interventions might have the potential to change developmental trajectories and promote resilience. Moreover, understanding how specific dimensions of early adversity affect underlying stress response systems and how alterations in these systems are related to later psychosocial outcomes might facilitate more precise and targeted interventions. Data are drawn from two ongoing randomized trials involving foster infants/toddlers and preschoolers. Consistent with prior animal models of early adversity, these studies have shown that early adversity-particularly neglect, younger age at first foster placement, and higher number of placements-is associated with altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function. The interventions under investigation have produced evidence that it is possible to impact many areas that have been negatively affected by early stress, including HPA axis activity, behavior, and attachment to caregivers.

We examined postreunification variables regarding parent characteristics, child characteristics, parent service utilization, child service utilization, family environment, and neighborhood environment as they relate to reunification failure. The sample for the study included foster children who, at reunification with their birth parents, ranged in age from 4–7 years. All participants were reunified with at least one parent. Among the variables found to significantly differentiate between failed and successful reunifications were parental utilization of substance abuse treatment, child utilization of special educational services, child utilization of individual, family, or group therapy, overall parenting skill level, appropriate use of discipline, and quality of neighborhood. We discuss the implications of these results for policies aimed at increasing the success rate of reunifications following foster care.

Objectives Parents’ difficulties in perceiving children's weight status accurately pose a barrier for family-based obesity interventions; however, the factors underlying weight misinterpretation still need to be identified. This study's objective was to examine parents and grandparents’ perceptions of preschoolers’ body sizes. Interview questions also explored perceptions of parental responsibility for childhood obesity and appropriate contexts in which to discuss preschoolers’ weights. Design Semistructured interviews, which were videotaped, transcribed and analysed qualitatively. Setting Eugene and the Springfield metropolitan area, Oregon, USA Participants Families of children aged 3–5 years were recruited in February—May 2011 through advertisements about the study, published in the job seekers’ sections of a classified website (Craigslist) and in a local newspaper. 49 participants (22 parents and 27 grandparents, 70% women, 60% with overweight/obesity) from 16 low-income families of children aged 3–5 years (50% girls, 56% with overweight/obesity) were interviewed. Results There are important gaps between clinical definitions and lay perceptions of childhood obesity. While parents and grandparents were aware of their preschoolers’ growth chart percentiles, these measures did not translate into recognition of children's overweight or obesity. The participants spoke of obesity as a problem that may affect the children in the future, but not at present. Participants identified childhood obesity as being transmitted from one generation to the next, and stigmatised it as resulting from ‘lazy’ parenting. Parents and grandparents avoided discussing the children's weights with each other and with the children themselves. Conclusions The results suggest that clinicians should clearly communicate with parents and grandparents about the meaning and appearance of obesity in early childhood, as well as counteract the social stigma attached to obesity, in order to improve the effectiveness of family-based interventions to manage obesity in early childhood.

Although young children in foster care are at high risk for developmental delays and subsequent academic, social, and behavioral difficulties, many do not receive services for delays. We sought to explicate the types of developmental delays observed in young children (ages 3-6 years) in foster care and how placement and maltreatment experiences for these children were associated with such delays. Physical growth, neuropsychological functioning, executive functioning, language, and general cognitive functioning were compared for a sample of 99 foster children and 54 nonmaltreated, same-aged children from comparable socioeconomic status backgrounds. The foster children showed developmental lags on measures of height, head circumference, visuospatial functioning, language, and general cognitive functioning. A history of neglect was negatively associated with functioning in a number of domains; surprisingly, the number of maltreatment types experienced was positively associated with functioning. Placement history was generally not associated with scores in the various developmental domains. We discuss the need to screen and evaluate preschoolers and possible methods for doing so.

An experimental study of the effects of gate line edge roughness (LER) on the electrical characteristics of bulk MOSFET devices was performed. Device simulation had previously predicted that gate LER causes off-state current to increase. In our experiments, gate LER was deliberately introduced in devices with 40 nm or longer physical gate length, and we found about 3X I/sub OFF/ increase (for 40 nm gate length) in the I/sub OFF/-I/sub ON/ plot. In our devices, Source/Drain (S/D) extensions are produced by implants self-aligned to gate edges. Simulation results indicate that what really matters is the roughness induced of the S/D to channel junctions by gate LER. Implantation scattering and dopant diffusion cause the S/D to channel junctions to be smoother than the gate edges. This will partially reduce the differences in the I/sub OFF/-I/sub ON/ curves caused by differing amounts of gate LER. By optimizing our process flows, we obtained a minimized gate LER (EdgeRMS

Although much social science research has been conducted within American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) communities, relatively little research has been conducted by or for those communities. We describe an approach that facilitates the active involvement of AIAN communities in the research process, from conceptualizing the issues to be investigated to developing a research design, and from collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data to disseminating the results. The Tribal Participatory Research (TPR) approach is consistent with recent developments in psychology that emphasize the inclusion of community members and the social construction of knowledge. We describe the foundations of the approach and present specific mechanisms that can be employed in collaborations between researchers and AIAN communities. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the use of TPR regarding project timelines and budgets, interpretation of the data, and ultimately the relationships between tribes and researchers.

Previous longitudinal research has shown that parental monitoring is a powerful predictor of child outcomes. Children from families with low levels of monitoring are particularly at risk for antisocial behavior, difficulties in school, and related problems. We studied whether parental monitoring—as reported by mothers/stepmothers, fathers/stepfathers, interviewers, and teachers—differs across two-parent biological families, stepmother families, and stepfather families. Two-parent biological families were hypothesized to have higher levels of monitoring than stepparent families. Controlling for demographic differences, two-parent biological families showed higher levels of monitoring than stepfather families but did not differ significantly from stepmother families. The significant difference between stepfather and two-parent biological families involved the length of the relationship: only biological families of shorter duration (9 years or fewer) had higher levels of monitoring than stepfather families.

This paper describes a family-centered prevention intervention for preschool-aged children—the Indian Family Wellness (IFW) project. The development, implementation, and evaluation of IFW has been based upon a tribal participatory research model, an approach that emphasizes full participation of tribes and tribal members in all phases of the research process and incorporates cultural and historical factors vital to strengthening American Indian and Alaska Native families. We present four mechanisms of tribal participatory research, describe how they have been applied in the IFW project, and consider the implications of this work for the field of family-centered prevention research.

The birth of a child may represent a turning point in alcohol and other drug (AOD) use trajectories, particularly for families exposed to cumulative early adversity. This prospective longitudinal study aimed to examine differences in the problem drinking trajectories of primiparous and multiparous mothers around the birth of a child. A history of AOD problems was examined as a predictor of change in problem drinking.Primiparous (n = 245) and multiparous (n = 243) women were recruited on the basis of risk for child maltreatment. Past-year maternal problem drinking was assessed with the CAGE screener (cut down, annoyed, guilty, eye opener) at childbirth and child ages 12, 24, and 36 months. Latent growth modeling was used to estimate changes in CAGE scores over the four time points.Although maternal CAGE symptoms decreased linearly from the year before the child's birth to age 36 months at the sample level, substantial differences emerged when trajectories of primiparous and multiparous mothers were examined separately. CAGE trajectories of primiparous mothers decreased sharply from the year before the child's birth to age 12 months, whereas no change was observed among multiparous mothers. Of note, an equal proportion of primiparous and multiparous women consumed any alcohol during pregnancy. In addition, a history of AOD problems predicted a slower decline in CAGE symptoms across the transition to parenthood for primiparous mothers.Parity may be an important dimension of maternal identity for AOD-focused health professionals to consider in working with mothers at risk for child maltreatment because of their problem drinking.