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This article aims to understand local views and understandings of livelihood impacts of flash floods, and how to tackle the challenges. The work is completed through case studies of two villages in Cox's Bazar District in south-east Bangladesh, Manirjhil and Chotojamchori. Based in theoretical understandings from disaster research of how underlying conditions rather than hazards cause disasters, this empirical study combined household surveys and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques for collecting field data. The results detail local perspectives of underlying conditions--namely poverty, inequity, precarious livelihoods, and few contingency options--impacting livelihoods, especially highlighting food, water, disease, and migration, all of which link directly to livelihoods. A significant concern is the need to take out loans which can contribute to continuing poverty. Suggested strategies for dealing with flash flood impacts were based in local contexts and did not always account for broader remits, such as the deep-seated gendered nature of societal roles in Bangladesh or power and governance structures within the Bangladeshi context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, there has been a paradigm shift in research from 'top-down' directives to 'bottom-up' planning. Thus, there has been a change from imposing strategies to a participatory approach by indigenous people. This study uses the participatory approach to flood disaster management in Thohoyandou and its environs. The aim of this study is twofold: first, to understand the perception of communities towards floods hazards; and second, to probe how communities respond to flood hazards and how this knowledge can be used in the planning and management of future disasters. In order to achieve these objectives, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), interviews and observation were used as data collection techniques. The study found that there was consensus among the participants that flooding is a natural process, but human activities enhance the risks of flooding. Human activities that were found to be the causes of flood included clearance of vegetation, cultivation in steep slope areas, the effect of relief, urbanisation, poor designs and maintenance of drainage system and settlement in inadequate areas. The study found that local communities did not cope when there was flooding. However, they suggested strategies that should be used to cope with future flood hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a developing country, Indonesia has a tolerant society. Nonetheless, demands are currently rising for exclusive real estate models which are bounded from the vicinity by ring-fenced or portals. Understanding the socio-economic conflict is essential for developing urban housing at the gated community. This research is focused on the gate community housing in Makassar, which represents the condition of cities in Indonesia. The study combines both quantitative-qualitative analysis and spatial analysis. The data collection was obtained by observation and interviewing the neighborhood community. The data analysis uses triangulate combinations, which are essential performance analysis (IPA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), and the system information of geography analysis. The results show from 272 real estates in the city of Makassar there are 85.7percent of the gate communities in the city of Makassar which all show vulnerability to socio-economic conflicts. Although, the level of exclusivity increases, the socio-economic interactions tied between gate community residents and non-residents prevent social conflict from emerging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important food and cash crop globally. The eastern region of Ethiopia is known for its groundnut production despite the low productivity attributable to diverse biotic and abiotic stresses and socioeconomic constraints. The objective of this study was to assess farmers' perceived production constraints, variety choice, and preferred traits of groundnut in eastern Ethiopia to guide future groundnut variety development and release. Participatory rural appraisal studies were conducted in two major groundnut-producing districts (Babile and Fedis) in eastern Ethiopia. Data were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire, transect walks, and focus group discussions. All respondent farmers widely cultivated local or obsolete, introduced varieties because of a lack of seed of modern groundnut cultivars. Ninety percent of respondents reported drought stress, mainly occurring during the flowering stage, as the leading constraint to groundnut production. Other groundnut production constraints included poor soil fertility (reported by 88% of respondents), lack of access to improved seed (67%), pre-harvest diseases (59.5%), use of low yielding varieties (52.5%), inadequate access to extension services (41.5%), limited access to credit (21.5%), and limited availability of improved varieties (18.5). Farmer-preferred traits included high shelled yield (reported by 27.67% of respondents), early maturity (16.84%), tolerance to drought stress (13.67%), market value (11.17%), good seed quality (10%), adaptability to local growing conditions (5.8%), and resistance to diseases (5.17%). Therefore, the aforementioned production constraints and farmer-preferred traits are key drivers that need to be integrated into groundnut breeding and variety release programs in eastern Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how the values, doctrines, and methodologies of orthodox heritage practice are incorporated into legal regulatory systems and thereby concentrate power in the hands of heritage professionals. The values, doctrines, and methodologies of orthodox heritage practice do not consider marginalization, segregation, and exploitation of traditionally disenfranchised groups. Socially vulnerable groups are at a particular disadvantage in post-disaster scenarios and are excluded from the planning and decision-making process for the recovery and preservation of their heritage. Using Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in the United States of America as an example, this article argues that orthodox heritage practice's neglect of crucial social trends limit citizen empowerment and decision-making abilities for traditionally disenfranchised groups in heritage recovery, management, and planning after disaster. It goes on to propose a sequential mixed-method approach wherein heritage professionals can expand their roles from regulators to facilitators by adopting participatory methods. Though this article examines the issues of vulnerability and exclusion through a U.S. example, the authors hope that this article can open a deeper discussion of these themes in an international context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Bangladesh is highly disaster-prone, with drought being a major hazard which significantly impacts water, food, health, livelihoods, and migration. In seeking to reduce drought vulnerabilities and impacts while improving responses, existing literature pays limited attention to community-level views and actions. This paper aims to contribute to filling in this gap by examining how an indigenous group, the Santal in Bangladesh's northwest, responds to drought through local strategies related to water, food, and migration which in turn impact health and livelihoods. A combination of quantitative data through a household survey and qualitative data through participatory rural appraisal is used. The results suggest that the Santal people have developed and applied varied mechanisms for themselves to respond to drought. The categories of responses found are water collection and storage, crop and livestock selection, and migration. These responses might not be enough to deal with continuing droughts, yielding lessons for Bangladesh and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Despite the increasing interest of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework in the field of international development and in academia and the recent call for the use of mixed-methods approach, there has been little analysis that brings together qualitative and quantitative methods over a large geographical extent. Based on findings from participatory rural appraisals during which participants identified the key assets needed to achieve their livelihoods, this paper argues that common-pool resources (community capitals) should be differentiated from private goods (household capitals) as they operate under different dynamics of decision-making and management. We then create quantitative indicators that can be mapped across a large geographical extent by using data derived from national census and satellite sensors. Spatial patterns and differentials in access to livelihood capitals across the case study are examined and the associations that exist between household capitals, between community capitals, and between both are quantified. The results demonstrate that household physical capital is positively associated with household financial and social capitals but negatively associated with household natural capital, supporting the hypothesis that households trade their natural assets to cope with shocks. It is also shown that proximity to main axes of communication increases access to village amenities but decreases access to natural resources, while remoteness increases household human capital but decreases household physical and financial capitals. Such a cross-scale study adds to the understanding of the question of scale regarding rural livelihoods and community development, which could act as a bridge between the implementation of policy programmes (often targeted at the community level) and their expected outcomes (often targeted at the household level). Highlights • We advocate for the separation of community capitals from household livelihood capitals to characterise rural livelihoods. • We observed spatial variability in access to common-pool resources and private assets affecting livelihoods in rural India. • Workforce availability and access to community natural resources increase with remoteness. • Access to community natural capital is negatively associated with access to community infrastructures. • Households make trade-offs between natural and financial assets to meet their needs and mediate vulnerabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food and Nutritional Security (FNS) is still an outstanding problem, and rural areas of Guatemala demonstrate this by an increase in the undernourished population from 1.4 million in 1991 to 2.5 million in 2014. Some FNS programs were developed in the past, and our research evaluates the following: (1) the critical points perceived by farmers related to the sustainability of their systems, (2) the performance of FNS program through a set of 7 indicators, and (3) how the FNS levels are related to sustainability indicators among hamlets. We used mixed methods (participatory rural appraisals and 64 semi-structured household surveys) across six hamlets. The most robust 15 indicators were selected through correlation analysis. Two series of five least squares regression models determined that the critical points had significant impacts on economic disparities but failed to explain malnutrition levels. Consequently, we compared two contrasting hamlets according to their energy and protein supply. The results showed that FNS is linked to sustainability as the more self-reliant and equitable community exhibited higher food security. However, FNS depends upon a complex array of self-sufficiency strategies that remain linked to individual household idiosyncrasies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women and climate-change studies have neglected the resource-nexus and intersectionality perspectives. This study investigates the perceptions of climate vulnerability of rural women to food, energy and water (FEW) resources. The study assesses adaptation opportunities and constraints, using a marital lens. The methodology utilised focus group discussions (FGDs). Data collection and analysis employed participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques. The findings reveal both groups have high temperature but divergent rainfall perceptions evidenced by contradictions between perceptions and meteorological data. Vulnerability emerged as comparable between groups, obviating strong conclusions. Adaptation strategies indicate that single women are concerned with crops and married women with livestock. Financial barriers affect only single women. The study concludes that analysing women as a homogenous group is inadequate, and it recommends intersectionality for robust adaptation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to appraise the role of local institutions in adaptation to changing climate at the local level in the Bilate Basin Agropastoral Livelihood Zone of Ethiopia. Thirty-one years of climate data were analyzed by employing the Mann–Kendall trend and Sen’s slope test techniques. The survey was conducted on 400 households that were systematically randomized from 7066 households, while community-level data were collected through the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) technique. The entire analysis was framed by a tetragonal model. The results of the analysis indicated that temperature exhibited a significantly increasing trend, while rainfall, which is statistically related to temperature, showed a decreasing trend, resulting in lingering droughts and human and animal diseases. Major livestock declined by 69%. As a response, while Sidama indigenous institutions were well-functioning and nurtured through local knowledge, and the governmental and civic ones were entrenched with various limitations. Contextual fitness and compatibility, interplay, inclusiveness, and sustainability of their operations in temporal and spatial scales were some of their limitations. Therefore, federal and local governments should focus on monitoring, evaluating, and learning aspects of their grand strategies, review general education, farmers’ credit, and civic institutions’ governance policies and strengthen the synergy of civic, government, and indigenous institutions.

Irrigation and drainage networks are having numerous problems in various stages such as design, implementation and utilization usually that reduce efficiency and destroy its structures. Also its reform and restructuring is difficult and unprofitable. This subject is main concern for water planners in the country and so far several activities for management of irrigation and drainage networks have been taken but most of these measures have not had significant success due to the lack of holistically. The main purpose of this study was to assess the irrigation and drainage networks performance (Gavoshan B2 unit (from the viewpoint of water user cooperatives in Kamyaran Township. To prepare the questionnaire, preliminary data were collected by PRA techniques and analysed using SWAT model and 12 point of strength, 10 weakness, 8 opportunity, 11 threats were ranked and 25 strategy have been presented. Findings showed that internal factors (strength and weakness points) had higher score weight than external factors (treatments and opportunities). Strength points with mean score weight of 3.97 had maximum and opportunities with mean score weight of 3.36 had minimum score. Score weight of strength points are more than score weight of weakness, that it shows its related Criteria has positive effect of on project. Also score weight of threats points are more than score weight of opportunity, that it shows its related Criteria has negative effect of on project. Hence, based on results is determined that diversification strategy should be considered as priority for optimization development of irrigation networks performance.

Cattle disease can have severe negative impacts on the livelihoods of the poor, but still, animal disease management and outreach often remain suboptimal in low-income settings. In a study on Basongora pastoralists in Uganda, we examined local priorities, perceptions and practices regarding cattle disease, in order to improve outreach and disease control advisory work in such contexts. We also investigated how participatory epidemiology can be better equipped for gathering situated knowledge. Empirical material obtained in focus group discussions, interviews, participatory mapping, and wealth-ranking was used to perform a thematic, bottom-up analysis. The concepts of situated knowledge and embodied objectivity and insights from participatory research and interdisciplinary dialogue were applied to better embrace local perspectives. Cowdriosis, trypanosomosis, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, East Coast fever and anthrax were high-priority diseases for participants. Lack of control over the animal health situation and money invested in treatments that did not guarantee recovery were of general importance for disease prioritization. Participants' descriptions of diseases sometimes diverged from textbook definitions. Co-infections, chronic and recurring infections and lack of access to formal knowledge were identified as important factors for differences between formal and situated knowledge. Paying attention to situated knowledge and particular context-specific issues such as proximity to a national park proved to be of special relevance for local understanding and experiences with disease. Another factor was the local importance ascribed to number of cattle, rather than production levels. These factors need to be taken into consideration when formulating disease control advice, as does the complex disease landscape. The results reveal the importance of moving research and advice beyond curing “knowledge-gaps” and creating different ways of understanding disease so that situated knowledge can be considered, and disease control improved.

The Cacheu Mangroves Natural Park (PNTC) was established in the year 2000 with the objective of protecting the coastal forests of Northern Guinea-Bissau, which have been subject to deforestation and are at risk. Concomitantly, the need to find sustainable financial revenues to support forest conservation motivated the development of projects that explore avoidance of deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) as a potential income possibility. The 886,150 ha of forest in the PNTC include a mosaic of different villages where communities with different cultural and socio-economic habits reside. In addition to the uncontrolled expansion of subsistence agriculture with the associated shortening of fallow periods, forests may have also been subject to degradation from selective logging, fuel wood collection, and charcoal production. To contribute to a forest degradation baseline forest uses for household fuel consumption (wood and charcoal) were surveyed using questionnaires, interviews and focus groups. The data were collected from a representative sample of circa 200 households within a 2 km buffer of the PNTC. These data are analyzed and the results are discussed according to a scenario of ethnic diversity, i.e., a diversity of approaches relating to forest conservation. Even though the results indicate that fuel wood is the main (and almost sole) source of energy for cooking, they also show that the average daily fuel consumption per capita (1.21 kg) is well below the sub-Saharan average and that fuel is obtained from downed dead wood or dead trees. Therefore, it is concluded that reported forest degradation in PNTC cannot be attributed to fuel wood consumption by local populations.

Highlights • Spate irrigation modernization in Ethiopia failed due to lack of farmers’ involvement. • We developed a participatory design approach for traditional spate systems development. • Hybrid diversions and bank protection have been designed. • Innovative solutions developed by farmers should be inserted in technical design. • Flood risk is a main constraint to development, a new approach is requested. Abstract Spate Irrigation represents the main source of livelihood for rural population of many communities living in arid and semi-arid areas of the world. The area of Raya Valley (Ethiopia), is one such example that is used here to analyse the importance of participatory approach in making this irrigation technique sustainable, effective and durable. Spate irrigation development projects realised in Raya Valley during the last twenty years led to a partial failure, due to the low involvement of local farmers who have experience of the local environment and who have been practising the techniques from centuries. This paper describes the implementation of a participatory methodology, based on the integration of Participatory Rural Appraisal and Participatory Design, for the design of effective improvements in a traditional spate irrigation system in Raya Valley. Water is harvested from seasonal floods of wadis (ephemeral rivers) using diversion bunds made by local materials or concrete. Farmers’ participation allowed to defining gabions as a suitable solution and to realise a technical design of improved structures. The design of an improved diversion structure and a gabion wall against bank erosion was completed. The structures resulted in line with operation and maintenance strategy and with traditional spate irrigation management. New insights from local farmers knowledge, to be considered for future spate irrigation development projects, are analysed and presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Groundnut is an important legume crop in Togo. However, groundnut yield has been steadily decreasing for decades as a result of lack of organized breeding program to address production constraints. Though, low yielding varieties and late leaf spot have been often reported as the most important constraints, there is no documented evidence. Identifying and documenting the major production constraints is a prerequisite for establishing a good breeding program with clearly defined priority objectives and breeding strategies. Thus, the objectives of this study were to identify groundnut production constraints and assess farmers’ preferred traits. Methods: A participatory rural appraisal approach was used to collect data on agronomic practices, farmers’ preferences, and possible threats to production through individual and group interviews. Three regions and three villages per region were selected based on the representativeness of groundnut production systems. In each village, 20 farmers were randomly selected and interviewed; thus, a total of 180 farmers were interviewed. Content analysis was carried out for qualitative data and for quantitative data generated within and across regions, comparative descriptive statistics were carried out. Differences in perception and preferences were assessed using chi-square tests. Results: The study has revealed that, though there were some variation across the regions, traits pertaining to yield such as pod yield (66.66%) and pod size (12.12%) were the most important. Leaf spot diseases, rosette and peanut bud necrosis (37.77%) and insects such as pod sucking bug and bruchid (27.77%) were considered to be the most important constraints limiting groundnut production. Among diseases, farmers in all the three regions indicated that late leaf spot is of economic importance which they associated to various causes such as maturity, drought, or insects. No gender differences were observed for the perception of constraints and groundnut traits preferences. Land size is significantly influenced by age and gender. Besides, farmers have pointed the lack of improved varieties and the unavailability of groundnut seeds highlighting the necessity of a sustainable groundnut seed system linked with a strong breeding program. Conclusion: This study has enabled understanding of the farming practices, constraints, and farmers preferred characteristics, thus providing the basis for a participatory breeding program in Togo which should consider that farmers perceive low yielding varieties and diseases as major constraints to production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, around 1.2 billion people remain without access to electricity in rural areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America. In order to achieve universal access, a wide range of institutions must be involved in long-term rural electrification programs within a regional and national scope. In this context, the main objective of this research is to propose an evaluation methodology which aims to promote continual improvement of the programs underway, by undertaking the appropriate modifications in terms of their design and implementation. In this regard, a formative approach is sought, as the programs underway require from elements for continual improvement. In addition, a management perspective is also sought, as the results focus on program leaders for the implementation of suitable modifications, as and when needed. The proposed evaluation methodology considers 4 sustainability dimensions: environmental, technical, socioeconomic and institutional, in turn composed of 15 criteria that allow the design and implementation of the program to be analyzed in detail. The criteria are assessed by means of indicators dealing with the specific conditions of each program. As a case study, the Venezuelan program "Sowing Light" is taken as an empirical application of the proposed methodology. Launched in 2005, this program has been developed in three phases, reaching 900 rural communities to date, and is expected to benefit 2020 more in the near future. Hence, the proposed evaluation methodology aims to provide useful results to compare RET-based electrification programs with conventional grid extension. Similarly, the methodology promotes continual improvement in favor of universal electricity access in rural communities in this country, as well as lessons learned that can be useful for the development of similar initiatives in other developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) production in Tanzania is affected by a multitude of biotic and abiotic stresses and socioeconomic constraints. The objective of this study was to document the groundnut farmers' major production constraints, farming systems, and varietal trait preferences in selected agroecologies of Tanzania. A participatory rural appraisal study was conducted in three groundnut-producing zones: Lake, Central, and Southern. Data were collected from 170 groundnut farmers using a semistructured questionnaire, focus group discussions, and field observations. The production constraints were mainly diseases and pests, which were reported by 87.7% and 84.9% of respondents, respectively. Groundnut rust, caused by Puccinia arachidis Speg, was the major cause of yield reduction, as reported by 30% of the respondents. Drought stress and nonavailability of seed of improved varieties were other important constraints, as reported by 83.9% and 76.1% of the respondents, respectively. Groundnut agronomic attributes preferred by farmers were as follows: high yield (reported by 78.4% of respondents), disease resistance (71.2%), early maturity (66%), drought tolerance (63.0%), and pest resistance (63%). Medium-to-large grain size (reported by 62.6% of respondents) and tan and red seed color (59.2%) were the main farmer- and market-preferred groundnut seed quality traits. Groundnut variety development programs should therefore address the above constraints and farmer-preferred traits for sustainable groundnut production and productivity in Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study describes the formation of nutrition gardening and pond fish farming communities of practice (CoPs) among small-scale farmers of the Malayalis tribe living in the Kolli Hills region of Tamil Nadu, India. We examine the factors that have shaped the formation of these CoPs, their purpose and function, who is involved, what activities hold these communities together, and their role in strengthening sustainable food production and consumption practices. Data were obtained through participatory rural appraisals (PRAs), key stakeholder interviews, and participant observations during four months of fieldwork. The primary motivations that led the nutrition gardeners and pond fish farmers to become part of CoPs were to improve the health and nutrition of their families and to obtain expert advice in sustainable food production practices. Both CoPs are in the early stages of development and differ not only in the types of food they produce and the skills and tools needed for their success, but also in their structure; nutrition gardening takes place at the individual and/or household level, whereas pond fish farming operates at the group and/or community level. The ways in which members experience being in a community also differs. Nutrition gardeners rely on open-ended conversations and community creation through relationship building; in contrast, fish farmers find that group meetings and maintaining transparent record-keeping are most important. Sustainability of these practices and the CoPs depended on factors internal to the communities (e.g., leadership, knowledge mobilization) as well as external factors (e.g., rainfall and market potential). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] has been cultivated for centuries as a staple food crop for millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. In Ethiopia a total of 4.34 million tons of sorghum is being produced per annum, predominantly in the arid and semi-arid areas. However, the yield and quality of sorghum is affected by a wide array of production constraints, notably severe and recurrent drought stress. The aim of this study were to determine the impact of drought on sorghum production and productivity over time and space, and to identify farmers’ trait preferences, production constraints and coping strategies when dealing with drought in north eastern Ethiopia.Materials and methods: Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was employed in three administrative zones of north eastern Ethiopia. One Woreda from each Zone and two Kebeles from each Woreda were selected on the basis of sorghum area coverage, production, consumption and prior information on the intensity, duration and spatial coverage of drought. In each kebele, 30 respondents were selected for interview and 12 key informants were selected for group discussions and transect walk personal observations. Data collected from 180 respondents was subjected to statistical analysis and the information gathered from 72 key informants through focus group discussions and transect walk observations were used in discussing the results.Results and discussion: The present study found that productivity of sorghum was challenged by recurrent droughts, Striga infestation, insects, birds, diseases, a lack of varieties with farmers-preferred traits and high yield potential, limited policy support, a lack of improved seed system, poor sorghum production practices and application of crop input and poor soil fertility, in a decreasing order of importance. Among the listed sorghum production constraints, severe drought in the post-flowering stage was identified by most interviewed farmers as the leading constraint across the three study zones. Focus group discussions and transect walk observations held in each Kebele revealed that farmers’ had lost numerous valuable local landrace varieties due to extreme drought conditions over the years. A significant number of interviewed farmers preferred to grow high grain and biomass yielder medium-maturing sorghum varieties which can be sown at the normal planting time but which would escape post-flowering drought.Conclusion: Overall, sorghum breeding programme should be directed at developing farmers’ ideal sorghum varieties with high grain and biomass yield, adequate level of drought and Striga tolerance. In addition, development of farmer preferred medium-maturing sorghum varieties suitable for April planting should be strengthen to boost its productivity and to increase varietal adoption rate in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild foods contribute towards the food security of an estimated one billion people. In light of expectations of the contribution of wild foods to sustainable and climate-resilient livelihoods and widespread evidence of their consumption, their contribution to households’ diets requires a more nuanced understanding, specifically with respect to their safety net function during food shortages. Data were collected from two villages in Venda, South Africa, selected due to differences in mean annual precipitation. Semi-structured interviews were administered to 170 households and a Participatory Rural Appraisal was conducted to assess the influence of multiple variables, including household characteristics and site, on wild food use. Household archetypes were defined based on the frequency of consumption in response to increasing food scarcity. Our findings suggest limitations to the safety net function of wild foods including seasonal fluctuations in availability and decreased availability during extreme events, with dependent households decreasing their consumption frequency in response to food scarcity. Given this potential poverty trap, further research is required, particularly in terms of when the safety net function of wild foods may be weak or detrimental to the livelihoods of the vulnerable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]