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Documenting past changes in the East Antarctic surface mass balance is important to improve ice core chronologies and to constrain the ice sheet contribution to global mean sea level. Here we reconstruct the past changes in the ratio of surface mass balance (SMB ratio) between the EPICA Dome C (EDC) and Dome Fuji (DF) East Antarctica ice core sites, based on a precise volcanic synchronisation of the two ice cores and on corrections for the vertical thinning of layers. During the past 216 000 years, this SMB ratio, denoted SMBEDC=SMBDF, varied between 0.7 and 1.1, decreasing during cold periods and increasing during warm periods. While past climatic changes have been depicted as homogeneous along the East Antarctic Plateau, our results reveal larger amplitudes of changes in SMB at EDC compared to DF, consistent with previous results showing larger amplitudes of changes in water stable isotopes and estimated surface temperature at EDC compared to DF. Within interglacial periods and during the last glacial inception (Marine Isotope Stages, MIS-5c and MIS-5d), the SMB ratio deviates by up to 30% from what is expected based on differences in water stable isotope records. Moreover, the SMB ratio is constant throughout the late parts of the current and last interglacial periods, despite contrasting isotopic trends. These SMB ratio changes not closely related to isotopic changes are one of the possible causes of the observed gaps between the ice core chronologies at DF and EDC. Such changes in SMB ratio may have been caused by (i) climatic processes related to changes in air mass trajectories and local climate, (ii) glaciological processes associated with relative elevation changes, or (iii) a combination of climatic and glaciological processes, such as the interaction between changes in accumulation and in the position of the domes. Our inferred SMB ratio history has important implications for ice sheet modeling (for which SMB is a boundary condition) or atmospheric modeling (our inferred SMB ratio could serve as a test). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The end of the Last Glacial Maximum (Termination I), roughly 20 thousand years ago (ka), was marked by cooling in the Northern Hemisphere, a weakening of the Asian monsoon, a rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and warming over Antarctica. The sequence of events associated with the previous glacial-interglacial transition (Termination II), roughly 136 ka, is less well constrained. Here we present high-resolution records of atmospheric CO2 concentrations and isotopic composition of N2-an atmospheric temperature proxy-from air bubbles in the EPICA Dome C ice core that span Termination II. We find that atmospheric CO2 concentrations and Antarctic temperature started increasing in phase around 136 ka, but in a second phase of Termination II, from 130.5 to 129 ka, the rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations lagged that of Antarctic temperature unequivocally. We suggest that during this second phase, the intensification of the low-latitude hydrological cycle resulted in the development of a CO2 sink, which counteracted the CO2 outgassing from the Southern Hemisphere oceans over this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Correct estimation of the firn lock-in depth is essential for correctly linking gas and ice chronologies in ice core studies. Here, two approaches to constrain the firn depth evolution in Antarctica are presented over the last deglaciation: outputs of a firn densification model, and measurements of δ15N of N2 in air trapped in ice core, assuming that δ15N is only affected by gravitational fractionation in the firn column. Since the firn densification process is largely governed by surface temperature and accumulation rate, we have investigated four ice cores drilled in coastal (Berkner Island, BI, and James Ross Island, JRI) and semi-coastal (TALDICE and EPICA Dronning Maud Land, EDML) Antarctic regions. Combined with available ice core air-δ15N measurements from the EPICA Dome C (EDC) site, the studied regions encompass a large range of surface accumulation rates and temperature conditions.

Our δ15N profiles reveal a heterogeneous response of the firn structure to glacial–interglacial climatic changes. While firn densification simulations correctly predict TALDICE δ15N variations, they systematically fail to capture the large millennial-scale δ15N variations measured at BI and the δ15N glacial levels measured at JRI and EDML – a mismatch previously reported for central East Antarctic ice cores.

New constraints of the EDML gas–ice depth offset during the Laschamp event (~41 ka) and the last deglaciation do not favour the hypothesis of a large convective zone within the firn as the explanation of the glacial firn model–δ15N data mismatch for this site. While we could not conduct an in-depth study of the influence of impurities in snow for firnification from the existing datasets, our detailed comparison between the δ15N profiles and firn model simulations under different temperature and accumulation rate scenarios suggests that the role of accumulation rate may have been underestimated in the current description of firnification models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) on global climatic changes, with a focus on CO2 variations relative to time and temperature. Topics include preserved CO2 records in Antarctic ice cores which indicate past temperature levels; a proposed relative age scale based on the concentration of CO2 and temperatures in Antarctica during deglacial warming periods; and trends in CO2 concentration which suggests a direct correlation between increasing temperatures and CO2 concentration.

Correct estimate of the firn lock-in depth is essential for correctly linking gas and ice chronologies in ice cores studies. Here, two approaches to constrain the firn depth evolution in Antarctica are presented over the last deglaciation: output of a firn densification model and measurements of δ15 N of N2 in air trapped in ice core. Since the firn densification process is largely governed by surface temperature and accumulation rate, we have investigated four ice cores drilled in coastal (Berkner Island, BI, and James Ross Island, JRI) and semi coastal (TALDICE and EPICA Dronning Maud Land, EDML) Antarctic regions. Combined with available δ15 N measurements performed from the EPICA Dome C (EDC) site, the studied regions encompass a large range of surface accumulation rate and temperature conditions. While firn densification simulations are able to correctly represent most of the δ15N trends over the last deglaciation measured in the EDC, BI, TALDICE and EDML ice cores, they systematically fail to capture BI and EDML δ15N glacial levels, a mismatch previously seen for Central East Antarctic ice cores. Using empirical constraints of the EDML gas-ice depth offset during the Laschamp event (~41 ka), we can rule out the existence of a large convective zone as the explanation of the glacial firn model- δ15N data mismatch for this site. The good match between modelled and measured δ15N at TALDICE as well as the lack of any clear correlation between insoluble dust concentration in snow and δ15N records in the different ice cores suggest that past changes in loads of impurities are not the only main driver of glacial-interglacial changes in firn lock-in depth. We conclude that firn densification dynamics may instead be driven mostly by accumulation rate changes. The mismatch between modelled and measured δ15N may be due to inaccurate reconstruction of past accumulation rate or underestimated influence of accumulation rate in firnification models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An accurate and coherent chronological framework is essential for the interpretation of climatic and environmental records obtained from deep polar ice cores. Until now, one common ice core age scale has been developed based on an inverse dating method (Datice) combining glaciological modelling with absolute and stratigraphic markers between 4 ice cores covering the last 50 ka (thousand of years before present) (Lemieux- Dudon et al., 2010). In this paper, together with the companion paper of Veres et al. (2012), we present an extension of this work back to 800 ka for the NGRIP, TALDICE, EDML, Vostok and EDC ice cores using an improved version of the Datice tool. The AICC2012 (Antarctic Ice Core Chronology 2012) chronology includes numerous new gas and ice stratigraphic links as well as improved evaluation of background and associated variance scenarios. This paper concentrates on the long timescales between 120-800 ka. In this frame, new measurements of δ18 Oatm over Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11-12 on EDC and a complete δ18 Oatm record of the TALDICE ice cores permit us to derive new orbital gas age constraints. The coherency of the different orbitally deduced ages (from δ18 Oatm, δO2/N2 and air content) has been verified before implementation in AICC2012. The new chronology shows only small differences, well within the original uncertainty range, when compared with the previous ice core reference age scale EDC3. For instance, the duration of the last four interglacial periods is not affected by more than 5%. The largest deviation between AICC2012 and EDC3 (4.4 ka) is obtained around MIS 12. Despite significant modifications of the chronological constraints around MIS 5, now independent of speleothem records in AICC2012, the date of Termination II is very close to the EDC3 one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deep polar ice cores provide reference records commonly employed in global correlation of past climate events. However, temporal divergences reaching up to several thousand years (ka) exist between ice cores over the last climatic cycle. In this context, we are hereby introducing the Antarctic Ice Core Chronology 2012 (AICC2012), a new and coherent timescale developed for four Antarctic ice cores, namely Vostok, EPICA Dome C (EDC), EPICA Dronning Maud Land (EDML) and Talos Dome (TALDICE), alongside the Greenlandic NGRIP record. The AICC2012 time scale has been constructed using the Bayesian tool Datice (Lemieux-Dudon et al., 2010) that combines glaciological inputs and data constraints, including a wide range of relative and absolute gas and ice stratigraphic markers. We focus here on the last 120 ka, whereas the companion paper by Bazin et al., (2012) focuses on the interval 120-800 ka. Compared to previous timescales, AICC2012 presents an improved timing for the last glacial inception respecting the glaciological constraints of all analyzed records. Moreover, with the addition of numerous new stratigraphic markers and improved calculation of the lock-in depth (LID) based on δ15 N data employed as the Datice background scenario, the AICC2012 presents a new timing for the bipolar sequence of events over Marine Isotope Stage 3 associated with the see-saw mechanism, with maximum differences of about 500 yr with respect to the previous Datice-derived chronology of Lemieux-Dudon et al. (2010), hereafter denoted LD2010. Our improved scenario confirms the regional differences for the millennial scale variability over the last glacial period: while the EDC isotopic record (events of triangular shape) displays peaks roughly at the same time as the NGRIP abrupt isotopic increases, the EDML isotopic record (events characterized by broader peaks or even extended periods of high isotope values) reached the isotopic maximum several centuries before. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Toba eruption that occurred some 74 kyr ago in Sumatra, Indonesia, is among the largest volcanic events on Earth over the last 2 million years. Tephra from this eruption has been spread over vast areas in Asia where it constitutes a major time marker close to the Marine Isotope Stage 4/5 boundary. As yet, no tephra associated with Toba has been identified in Greenland or Antarctic ice cores. Based on new accurate dating of Toba tephra from Malaysia and on accurately dated European stalagmites the Toba event is known to occur between the onsets of Greenland Interstadials (GI) 19 and 20. Furthermore, the existing linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores by gas records and by the bipolar seesaw hypothesis suggests that the Antarctic counterpart is situated between Antarctic Isotope Maxima (AIM) 19 and 20. In this work we suggest a direct synchronization of Greenland (NGRIP) and Antarctic (EDML) ice cores at the Toba eruption based on matching of a pattern of bipolar volcanic spikes. Annual layer counting between volcanic spikes in both cores allows for a unique match. We first demonstrate this bipolar matching technique at the already synchronized Laschamp geomagnetic excursion (41 kyr BP) before we apply it to the suggested Toba interval. The Toba synchronization pattern covers some 2000 yr in GI-20 and AIM 19/20 and includes nine acidity peaks that are recognized in both ice cores. The suggested bipolar Toba synchronization has decadal precision. It thus allows a determination of the exact phasing of inter-hemispheric climate in a time interval of poorly constrained ice core records, and it allows for a discussion of the climatic impact of the Toba eruption in a global perspective. Furthermore, our bipolar match provides a way to place paleo-environmental records other than ice cores into a precise climatic context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main variations of ice volume of the last million years can be explained from orbital parameters (Laskar et al., 2004) by assuming climate oscillates between two states: glaciations and deglaciations (Parrenin and Paillard, 2003; Imbrie et al., 2011) (or terminations). An additional combination of ice volume and orbital parameters seems to form the trigger of a deglaciation (Parrenin and Paillard, 2003), while only orbital parameters seem to play a role in the triggering of glaciations (Khodri et al., 2001). Here we present conceptual models, which realistically reproduce ice volume variations during the past million years and in particular, the timing of the 11 canonical terminations. Exploring our model's parameters exhaustively, we show that obliquity plays a fundamental role in the triggering of termination VI (~ 530 kyr BP), while precession plays a fundamental role in the triggering of termination VIII (~ 720 kyr ago). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compare a variety of methods for estimating the gas/ice depth offset (Δdepth) at EPICA Dome C (EDC, East Antarctica). (1) Purely based on modelling efforts, Δdepth can be estimated combining a firn densification with an ice flow model. Observations allow direct and indirect estimate of Δdepth. (2) The diffusive column height can be estimated from δ15N and converted to Δdepth using an ice flow model and assumptions about past average firn density and thickness of the convective zone. (3) Ice and gas synchronisation of the EDC ice core to the GRIP, EDML and TALDICE ice cores shifts the ice/gas offset problem into higher accumulation ice cores where it can be more accurately evaluated. (4) Finally, the bipolar seesaw hypothesis allows us to synchronise the ice isotopic record with the gas CH4 record, the later being taken as a proxy of Greenland temperature. The bipolar seesaw antiphase relationship is generally supported by the ice-gas cross synchronisation between EDC and the GRIP, EDML and TALDICE ice cores, which provide support for method 4. Applying the bipolar seesaw hypothesis to the deeper section of the EDC core confirms that the ice flow is complex and can help improving our reconstruction of the thinning function and thus of the EDC age scale. We confirm that method 1 overestimates the glacial Δdepth at EDC and we suggested that it is due to an overestimation of the glacial Close Off Depth by the firn densification model. In contrast we find that the glaciological models probably underestimate the Δdepth during termination II. Finally, we show that method 2 based on 15N data produces for the last deglaciation a Δdepth estimate which is in good agreement with methods 3 and 4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims at refining the synchronisation between the EPICA Dome C (EDC) and Vostok ice cores in the time interval 0-145 kyr BP by using the volcanic signatures. 111 common volcanic events were identified by using continuous electrical conductivity (ECM), di-electrical profiling (DEP) and sulfate measurements while trying to minimize the distortion of the glaciological chronologies. This is an update and a continuation of previous works performed over the 0-45 kyr interval which provided 56 tie points to the ice core chronologies (Udisti et al., 2004). This synchronisation will serve for the establishment of the next synchronised Antarctic dating. A change of slope in the EDC-depth/Vostok-depth diagram is probably related to a change of accumulation regime as well as to a change of ice thickness upstream of the Vostok lake, but we did not invoke any significant temporal change of surface accumulation at EDC relative to Vostok. A significant phase difference is detected between the EDC and Vostok isotopic records during the 95-120 kyr interval, but not during Termination II. Three possible candidates for the Toba volcanic super-eruption ∼73 kyr ago are suggested in the Vostok and EDC volcanic records. However the ECM, DEP and sulfate fingerprints for these three events are not significantly larger than many others in the records. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 (GICC05) is a time scale based on annual layer counting of high-resolution records from Greenland ice cores. Whereas the Holocene part of the time scale is based on various records from the DYE-3, the GRIP, and the NorthGRIP ice cores, the glacial part is solely based on NorthGRIP records. Here we present an 18 ka extension of the time scale such that GICC05 continuously covers the past 60 ka. The new section of the time scale places the onset of Greenland Interstadial 12 (GI-12) at 46.9±1.0 ka b2k (before year AD 2000), the North Atlantic Ash Zone II layer in GI-15 at 55.4±1.2 ka b2k, and the onset of GI-17 at 59.4±1.3 ka b2k. The error estimates are derived from the accumulated number of uncertain annual layers. In the 40-60 ka interval, the new time scale has a discrepancy with the Meese-Sowers GISP2 time scale of up to 2.4 ka. Assuming that the Greenland climatic events are synchronous with those seen in the Chinese Hulu Cave speleothem record, GICC05 compares well to the time scale of that record with absolute age differences of less than 800 years throughout the 60 ka period. The new time scale is generally in close agreement with other independently dated records and reference horizons, such as the Laschamp geomagnetic excursion, the French Villars Cave and the Austrian Kleegruben Cave speleothem records, suggesting high accuracy of both event durations and absolute age estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a response by F. Parrenin on the paper "Ice Thinning, Upstream Advection, and Non-Climactic Biases for 89% of the EDML Ice Core From a Nested Model of the Antarctic Ice Sheet" by P. Huybrechts et al. that was published in the previous issue in the journal. The editor notes that while the paper is well written, details on the models and sensitivity experiments are missing. He also questions the clarity of the coupling schemes. He suggests showing some snapshots of the LSM surface for several typical climates.

The article presents a response by F. Parrenin et al. to a comment on their paper "The EDC3 Chronology for the EPICA Dome C Ice Core" that was published in a previous issue of the journal. The authors of the paper offer the new EDC3 time scale for the EPICA Dome-C deep ice core. They provide a useful discussion on the different types of accuracies involved, such as absolute, relative and the duration of climatic events.

The article comments on the paper "Ice flow modelling at EPICA Dome C and Dome Fuji, East Antarctica" by F. Parrenin et al. The authors, in the submitted manuscript, summarized theoretical issues and provided further development of their previous work on the application of a 1-D glaciological model, first implemented to construct a chronology for the Vostok ice core.

The Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 (GICC05) is a time scale based on annual layer counting of high-resolution records from Greenland ice cores. Whereas the Holocene part of the time scale is based on various records from the DYE-3, the GRIP, and the NorthGRIP ice cores, the glacial part is solely based on NorthGRIP records. Here we present an 18 kyr extension of the time scale such that GICC05 continuously covers the past 60 kyr. The new section of the time scale places the onset of Greenland Interstadial 12 (GI-12) at 46.9±1.0 kyr b2k (before year AD 2000), the North Atlantic Ash Zone 2 layer in GI-15 at 55.4±1.2 kyr b2k, and the onset of GI-17 at 59.4±1.3 kyr b2k. The error estimates are derived from the accumulated number of uncertain annual layers and can be regarded as 1σ uncertainties. In the 40-60 kyr interval the new time scale has a discrepancy with the Meese-Sowers GISP2 time scale of up to 2.4 kyr, whereas GICC05 compares well to the dating of the Hulu Cave record with absolute age differences of less than 800 years throughout the 60 kyr period. The new time scale is generally in close agreement with other independently dated records and reference horizons, such as the Laschamp geomagnetic excursion and the Kleegruben speleothem record from the Austrian Alps, suggesting high accuracy of both event durations and absolute age estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there are no indications of mixing back to 800 000 years in the EPICA Dome C ice core record, comparison with marine sediment records shows significant differences in the timing and duration of events prior to stage 11 (∼430ka, thousands of years before 1950). A relationship between the isotopic composition of atmospheric oxygen (δ18O of O2, noted δ18Oatm) and daily northern hemisphere summer insolation has been observed for the youngest four climate cycles. Here we use this relationship with new δ18O of O2 measurements to show that anomalous flow in the bottom 500 m of the core distorts the duration of events by up to a factor of 2. By tuning δ18Oatm to orbital precession we derive a corrected thinning function and present a revised age scale for the interval corresponding to Marine Isotope Stages 11-20 in the EPICA Dome C ice core. Uncertainty in the phasing of δ18Oatm with respect to insolation variations in the precession band limits the accuracy of this new agescale to ±6 kyr (thousand of years). The previously reported ∼ 30 kyr duration of interglacial stage 11 is unchanged. In contrast, the duration of stage 15.1 is reduced by a factor of 2, from 31 to 16 kyr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there are no indications of mixing back to 800 000 years in the EPICA Dome C ice core record, comparison with marine sediment records shows significant differences in the timing and duration of events prior to stage 11 (∼430 ka, thousand of years before 1950). A relationship between the isotopic composition of atmospheric oxygen (δ18O of O2, noted δ18Oatm) and daily northern hemisphere summer insolation has been observed for the youngest four climate cycles. Here we use this relationship with new δ18O of O2 measurements to show that anomalous flow in the bottom 500m of the core distorts the duration of events by up to a factor of 2. By tuning ∼18Oatm to orbital precession we derive a corrected thinning function and present a revised age scale for the interval corresponding to Marine Isotope Stages 11-20 in the EPICA Dome C ice core. Uncertainty in the phasing of δ18Oatm with respect to insolation variations in the precession band limits the accuracy of this new agescale to ±6 kyr (thousand of years). The previously reported ∼30 kyr duration of interglacial stage 11 is unchanged. In contrast, the duration of stage 15.1 is reduced by a factor of 2, from 31 to 16 kyr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of the distribution of the crystallographic orientations (the fabric) along ice cores supplies information on the past and current ice flows of ice-sheets. Beside the usually observed formation of a vertical single maximum fabric, the EPICA Dome Concordia ice core (EDC) shows an abrupt and unexpected strengthening of its fabric during termination II around 1750 m depth. Such strengthenings were already observed for sites located on an ice-sheet. This suggests that horizontal shear could occur along the EDC core. Moreover, the change in the fabric leads to a modification of the viscosity between neighbouring ice layers. Through the use of an anisotropic ice flow model, we quantify the change in viscosity and investigate its implication on ice flow and dating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author comments on the manuscript "Direct North-South Synchronization of Abrupt Climate Change Recordin Ice Cores Using Beryllium, 10," by G. M. Raisbeck et al. He notes that the authors addresses the main remarks made by the reviewers, thus making the paper fit for publication. However, he implores the authors to consider reorganizing the introduction of the paper. He outlines minor comments and corrections to specific parts of the paper, addressing such details as punctuation and citation of references.