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Big data research on genomic sequence analysis has accelerated considerably with the development of next-generation sequencing. Currently, research on genomic sequencing has been conducted using various methods, ranging from the assembly of reads consisting of fragments to the annotation of genetic information using a database that contains known genome information. According to the development, most tools to analyze the new organelles’ genetic information requires different input formats such as FASTA, GeneBank (GB) and tab separated files. The various data formats should be modified to satisfy the requirements of the gene annotation system after genome assembly. In addition, the currently available tools for the analysis of organelles are usually developed only for specific organisms, thus the need for gene prediction tools, which are useful for any organism, has been increased. The proposed method—termed the genome_search_plotter—is designed for the easy analysis of genome information from the related references without any file format modification. Anyone who is interested in intracellular organelles such as the nucleus, chloroplast, and mitochondria can analyze the genetic information using the assembled contig of an unknown genome and a reference model without any modification of the data from the assembled contig.

Utricularia amethystina Salzm. ex A.St.-Hil. &amp, Girard (Lentibulariaceae) is a highly polymorphic carnivorous plant taxonomically rearranged many times throughout history. Herein, the complete chloroplast genomes (cpDNA) of three U. amethystina morphotypes: purple-, white-, and yellow-flowered, were sequenced, compared, and putative markers for systematic, populations, and evolutionary studies were uncovered. In addition, RNA-Seq and RNA-editing analysis were employed for functional cpDNA evaluation. The cpDNA of three U. amethystina morphotypes exhibits typical quadripartite structure. Fine-grained sequence comparison revealed a high degree of intraspecific genetic variability in all morphotypes, including an exclusive inversion in the psbM and petN genes in U. amethystina yellow. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that U. amethystina morphotypes are monophyletic. Furthermore, in contrast to the terrestrial Utricularia reniformis cpDNA, the U. amethystina morphotypes retain all the plastid NAD(P)H-dehydrogenase (ndh) complex genes. This observation supports the hypothesis that the ndhs in terrestrial Utricularia were independently lost and regained, also suggesting that different habitats (aquatic and terrestrial) are not related to the absence of Utricularia ndhs gene repertoire as previously assumed. Moreover, RNA-Seq analyses recovered similar patterns, including nonsynonymous RNA-editing sites (e.g., rps14 and petB). Collectively, our results bring new insights into the chloroplast genome architecture and evolution of the photosynthesis machinery in the Lentibulariaceae.

Eighteen classical mutant strains of Neurospora crassa were subject to whole genome sequence analysis and the mitochondrial genome is analyzed. Overall, the mitochondrial genomes of the classical mutant strains are 99.45 to 99.98 % identical to the reference genome. Two-thirds of the SNPs and three-fourths of indels identified in this analysis are shared among more than one strain. Most of the limited variability in mitochondrial genome sequence is neutral with regard to protein structure. Despite the fact that the mitochondrial genome is present in multiple copies per cell, many of the polymorphisms were homozygous within each strain. Conversely, some polymorphisms, especially those associated with large scale rearrangements are only present in a fraction of the reads covering each region. The impact of this variation is unknown and further studies will be necessary to ascertain if this level of polymorphism is common among fungi and whether it reflects the impact of ageing cultures.

The sister phyla dinoflagellates and apicomplexans inherited a drastically reduced mitochondrial genome (mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA) containing only three protein-coding (cob, cox1, and cox3) genes and two ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. In apicomplexans, single copies of these genes are encoded on the smallest known mtDNA chromosome (6 kb). In dinoflagellates, however, the genome has undergone further substantial modifications, including massive genome amplification and recombination resulting in multiple copies of each gene and gene fragments linked in numerous combinations. Furthermore, protein-encoding genes have lost standard stop codons, trans-splicing of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) is required to generate complete cox3 transcripts, and extensive RNA editing recodes most genes. From taxa investigated to date, it is unclear when many of these unusual dinoflagellate mtDNA characters evolved. To address this question, we investigated the mitochondrial genome and transcriptome character states of the deep branching dinoflagellate Hematodinium sp. Genomic data show that like later-branching dinoflagellates Hematodinium sp. also contains an inflated, heavily recombined genome of multicopy genes and gene fragments. Although stop codons are also lacking for cox1 and cob, cox3 still encodes a conventional stop codon. Extensive editing of mRNAs also occurs in Hematodinium sp. The mtDNA of basal dinoflagellate Hematodinium sp. indicates that much of the mtDNA modification in dinoflagellates occurred early in this lineage, including genome amplification and recombination, and decreased use of standard stop codons. Trans-splicing, on the other hand, occurred after Hematodinium sp. diverged. Only RNA editing presents a nonlinear pattern of evolution in dinoflagellates as this process occurs in Hematodinium sp. but is absent in some later-branching taxa indicating that this process was either lost in some lineages or developed more than once during the evolution of the highly unusual dinoflagellate mtDNA.

Transcripts from mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA of land plants often undergo cytidine to uridine conversion-type RNA editing events. RESOPS is a newly built database that specializes in displaying RNA editing sites of land plant organelles on protein three-dimensional (3D) structures to help elucidate the mechanisms of RNA editing for gene expression regulation. RESOPS contains the following information: unedited and edited cDNA sequences with notes for the target nucleotides of RNA editing, conceptual translation from the edited cDNA sequence in pseudo-UniProt format, a list of proteins under the influence of RNA editing, multiple amino acid sequence alignments of edited proteins, the location of amino acid residues coded by codons under the influence of RNA editing in protein 3D structures and the statistics of biased distributions of the edited residues with respect to protein structures. Most of the data processing procedures are automated; hence, it is easy to keep abreast of updated genome and protein 3D structural data. In the RESOPS database, we clarified that the locations of residues switched by RNA editing are significantly biased to protein structural cores. The integration of different types of data in the database also help advance the understanding of RNA editing mechanisms. RESOPS is accessible at http://cib.cf.ocha.ac.jp/RNAEDITING/.

Background Mitochondria (mt) contain their own autonomously replicating DNA, constituted as a small circular genome encoding essential subunits of the respiratory chain. Mt DNA is characterized by a genetic code which differs from the standard one. Interestingly, the mt genome of nematodes share some peculiar features, such as small transfer RNAs, truncated ribosomal RNAs and - in the class of Chromadorean nematodes - unidirectional transcription. Findings We present the complete mt genomic sequence (16,791 bp) of the plant-parasitic nematode Radopholus similis (class Chromadorea). Although it has a gene content similar to most other nematodes, many idiosyncrasies characterize the extremely AT-rich mt genome of R. similis (85.4% AT). The secondary structure of the large (16S) rRNA is further reduced, the gene order is unique, the large non-coding region contains two large repeats, and most interestingly, the UAA codon is reassigned from translation termination to tyrosine. In addition, 7 out of 12 protein-coding genes lack a canonical stop codon and analysis of transcriptional data showed the absence of polyadenylation. Northern blot analysis confirmed that only one strand is transcribed and processed. Furthermore, using nucleotide content bias methods, regions for the origin of replication are suggested. Conclusion The extraordinary mt genome of R. similis with its unique genetic code appears to contain exceptional features correlated to DNA decoding. Therefore the genome may provide an incentive to further elucidate these barely understood processes in nematodes. This comprehension may eventually lead to parasitic nematode-specific control targets as healthy mitochondria are imperative for organism survival. In addition, the presented genome is an interesting exceptional event in genetic code evolution.