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In schools where water supply is either unavailable or insufficient, rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems may be a low-cost solution. We piloted large-scale RWH systems in rural primary schools in Nyanza Province, Kenya to investigate the sustainability of these systems several years post-implementation. This paper discusses the main findings of our pilot and, to our knowledge, is the only published study on school RWH performance in a low-income setting.

Trichodinid ciliophorans are opportunistic parasites of many species of fish, amphibians, and molluscs, but yet never reported in association with lesions in birds. Postmortem and histopathological evaluation of a commercial adult Toulouse gander and female goose, and a wild Mallard drake revealed the presence of severe pathological parasitic colonization of their reproductive tracts. Histopathological findings included moderate to severe granulocytic inflammation, acanthosis, accentuation of the rete pegs, and proliferative hyperplastic squamous metaplasia of the mucosa of the ejaculatory ducts and groove, sulcus spermaticus, glandular part of the phallus (cavum penis), and oviduct in association with large numbers of ciliated protozoa anchored to the tissues or free in the lumen. These protozoa had characteristic morphological features analogous to the family of Trichodinidae. The source of this parasitism could not be determined. To our knowledge, this is the first report of trichodinosis associated with pathology in birds.

A 6-yr-old, intact male California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) with a systemic mycosis died after 5 wk of antifungal drug therapy. Antemortem clinical findings included hind flipper swelling, ring-lesions on skin of the flippers, and dermal nodules that increased in size and number spreading from the hind flippers and ventral abdomen to the foreflippers and muzzle. Lesions were accompanied by severe lymphadenopathy and development of systemic clinical signs despite therapy using itraconazole and later voriconazole. Histopathologic evaluation of biopsies revealed granulomatous dermatitis due to infection by fungus-producing yeast cells in tissue. Isolation attempts, using biopsied skin and tissue samples collected at necropsy, failed to yield growth of a fungus producing yeast cells like those in histologic section. Consensus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests of biopsied skin for fungal DNA produced an amplicon having significant sequence identity with a Cystofilobasidiales, a fungus belonging to a subclade that includes several Cryptococcus spp. Histopathologic evaluation of necropsy tissues revealed a systemic mycosis with yeast cells disseminated throughout subcutis, lymph nodes, and viscera. Hepatic necrosis was identified associated with acute liver failure, possibly from the voriconazole administration. This is the first report documenting the clinical presentation, treatment, and pathologic findings of infection associated with Cystofilobasidiales in a marine mammal and serves to expand the understanding of mycoses in pinnipeds.

Necropsy reports for 28 stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) that died between 2001 and 2006 were reviewed retrospectively. Gross and microscopic lesions were compiled to describe the pathologic and parasitologic findings in turtles that were found freshly dead on the beach or that died within 48 hr of stranding. Anatomic lesions of varying severity were identified in each of the examined turtles and were identified in tissues of the alimentary, respiratory, integumentary, nervous and sensory, and urogenital systems in order of decreasing frequency. Necrotizing enterocolitis and bacterial or fungal pneumonia were the most frequently encountered lesions that were considered clinically significant. Parasites and parasitic lesions were identified primarily in tissues of the alimentary system and included intestinal cestodiasis and parasitic granulomas containing larval cestodes or nematodes. Postlarval cestodes were also found in the coelom of two turtles. In many cases, the extent and severity of lesions were judged to be insufficient to have solely caused mortality, suggesting that additional factors such as metabolic, respiratory, and electrolyte derangements; hypothermia; and drowning may be important proximate causes of death in cold-stunned turtles. Results of this study provide insight into pathologic conditions that may be of clinical relevance to rehabilitation efforts for cold-stunned sea turtles.

A 31-yr-old male, captive harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) was evaluated for a 48-hr period of anorexia followed by the onset of seizures. A prolonged seizure failed to respond to anticonvulsant therapy and the animal was euthanized. At necropsy, no significant gross lesions were identified. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction testing of brain samples was positive for eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) RNA, and serum was positive for anti-EEEV antibodies by plaque reduction neutralization. Histopathologic evaluation revealed severe and multifocal encephalitis with leptomeningitis, characterized by neutrophilic infiltrates in neuropil, neuronal necrosis, satellitosis, neuronophagia, and perivascular cuffs of lymphocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. Additionally there was moderate, multifocal, adrenal cortical necrosis. Immunohistochemical staining for EEEV demonstrated viral antigen within necrotic neurons and glial cells. Virus was isolated from frozen brain tissue, sequenced for comparison to other strains, and determined to be a typical North American strain. EEEV should be included as a possible cause of neurologic disease in harbor seals with compatible signs located in geographic regions where vector transmission of EEEV is encountered.

Despite increasing concern for coral reef ecosystem health within the last decade, there is scant literature concerning the histopathology of diseases affecting the major constituents of coral reef ecosystems, particularly marine invertebrates. This study describes histologic findings in 6 species of marine invertebrates (California sea hare [ Aplysia californica], purple sea urchin [ Strongylocentrotus purpuratus], sunburst anemone [ Anthopleura sola], knobby star [ Pisaster giganteus], bat star [ Asterina miniata], and brittle star [ Ophiopteris papillosa]) with spontaneous copper toxicosis, 4 purple sea urchins with experimentally induced copper toxicosis, and 1 unexposed control of each species listed. The primary lesions in the California sea hare with copper toxicosis were branchial and nephridial necrosis. Affected echinoderms shared several histologic lesions, including epidermal necrosis and ulceration and increased numbers of coelomocytes within the water-vascular system. The sunburst anemone with copper toxicosis had necrosis of both epidermis and gastrodermis, as well as expulsion of zooxanthellae from the gastrodermis. In addition to the lesions attributed to copper toxicosis, our results describe normal microscopic features of these animals that may be useful for histopathologic assessment of marine invertebrates.

© 2014 The Author(s). Five horses originating from 4 different California race tracks were submitted to the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory for necropsy and diagnostic workup. The 5 horses had a history of sudden collapse and death during exercise. In all of them, massive hemoperitoneum and hemorrhages in other cavities or organs were observed. The liver from these 5 animals and from 27 horses that had been euthanized due to catastrophic leg injuries (controls) were subjected to a rodenticide anticoagulant screen. Traces of brodifacoum, diphacinone, or bromadiolone were detected in the 5 horses with massive bleeding (5/5), and no traces of rodenticides were detected in control horses (0/27). Other frequent causes of massive hemorrhages in horses were ruled out in 4 of the cases; one of the horses had a pelvic fracture. Although only traces of anticoagulants were found in the livers of these horses and the role of these substances in the massive bleeding remains uncertain, it is speculated that exercise-related increases in blood pressure may have reduced the threshold for toxicity of these anticoagulants.

Background 1.5 million Kenyans are living with HIV/AIDS as per 2015 estimates. Though there is a notable decline in new HIV infections, continued effort is still needed to develop an efficacious, accessible and affordable HIV vaccine. HIV vaccine clinical trials bear risks, hence a need to understand volunteer motivators for enrolment, retention and follow-up. Understanding the factors that motivate volunteers to participate in a clinical trial can help to strategize, refine targeting and thus increase enrolment of volunteers in future HIV vaccine clinical trials. The health belief model classifies motivators into social benefits such as ‘advancing research’ and collaboration with science, and personal benefits such as health benefits and financial interests. Method A thematic analysis was carried out on data obtained from four HIV clinical trials conducted at KAVI-Institute of Clinical Research in Nairobi Kenya from 2009 to 2015. Responses were obtained from a Questionnaire administered to the volunteers during their screening visit at the research site. Results Of the 281 healthy, HIV-uninfected volunteers participating in this study; 38% were motivated by personal benefits including, 31% motivated by health benefits and 7% motivated by possible financial gains. In addition, 62% of the volunteers were motivated by social benefits with 20% of who were seeking to help their family/society/world while 42% were interested in advancing research. Conclusion The majority of volunteers in the HIV vaccine trials at our site were motivated by social benefits, suggesting that altruism can be a major contributor to participation in HIV vaccine studies. Personal benefits were a secondary motivator for the volunteers. The motivators to volunteer in HIV clinical trials were similar across ages, education level and gender. Education on what is needed (including volunteer participation) to develop an efficacious vaccine could be the key to greater volunteer motivation to participate in HIV vaccine clinical trials.

This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Business Administration (MBA) There has been a renewed interest in the role of boards in performance of firms following several corporate scandals and failures and recurrent financial crisis around the world. This study examines the relationship between board composition and firm performance. Unlike most studies on board size which basically considers the number of directors on the board, this study includes diversity in the board with regards to gender. Gender diversity is determined by the number of female directors on the board. Based on existing literature, the study developed a conceptual framework and a set of hypotheses to examine the relationship between board composition and firm performance. The study adopts a descriptive survey design and tests the hypotheses on a sample of 49 firms over a five year period from 2003 to 2007. The sample includes all firms that were listed on the Nairobi Stock Exchange as of December 2007. Secondary data forms the basis of the main data source and data analysis is done using descriptive statistics and linear regression analysis guided by the ordinary least squares method of estimation. The findings of the study show that board size and gender diversity significantly influence firm performance, which leads to the recommendation, that managers and government policy makers must pay attention to the board composition.

Myxobolus albi was diagnosed in the cartilage of captive lumpfish ( Cyclopterus lumpus) from 2 public aquaria. Eleven fish were affected, with the most common clinical signs being exophthalmos and grossly visible 1- to 2-mm white to tan scleral nodules. Myxozoan cysts were identified in the cartilage of the skull, branchial arch, sclera, vertebrae, tongue, all fin insertions, and the pectoral girdle. Cysts resulted in expansile, deforming, space-occupying lesions, resulting in exophthalmos but often lacking significant tissue damage or inflammation. Once cysts ruptured, free spores elicited a mild to marked inflammatory response. Spores measured 7.5 to 9.0 µm × 3.0 to 6.0 µm and contained 2 pyriform polar capsules oriented at one pole as well as occasional 1-µm-diameter basophilic nuclei. Identification was based on spore morphology together with polymerase chain reaction and sequence comparison of 18S ribosomal DNA. Isolates had 99% similarity to M. albi.

Over 2 years, 24 dairy calves died of emphysematous abomasitis and abomasal bloat. Anaerobic cultures of necrotic abomasal mucosa yielded Clostridium perfringens from 10 of 15 calves. Sarcina were observed in 17 of 22 examined histologically. A change in the antibiotic regimen for newborns and improved sanitizing of feeding utensils eliminated further losses.

A novel siadenovirus was identified in the Sulawesi tortoise ( Indotestudo forsteni). A group of 105 Sulawesi tortoises was obtained by the Turtle Survival Alliance. Many of the tortoises were in poor health. Clinical signs included anorexia, lethargy, mucosal ulcerations and palatine erosions of the oral cavity, nasal and ocular discharge, and diarrhea. Initial diagnostic tests included fecal testing for parasites, complete blood count and plasma biochemical analysis, mycoplasma serology, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing for intranuclear coccidia and chelonian herpesvirus. Treatment included administration of antibiotics, antiparasitic medications, parenteral fluids, and nutritional support. Tissue samples from animals that died were submitted for histopathologic evaluation. Histopathologic examination revealed systemic inflammation and necrosis associated with intranuclear inclusions consistent with a systemic viral infection in 35 tortoises out of 50 examined. Fecal testing results and histopathologic findings revealed intestinal and hepatic amoebiasis and nematodiasis in 31 animals. Two of 5 tortoises tested by PCR were positive for Chlamydophila sp. Aeromonas hydrophila and Escherichia coli were cultured from multiple organs of 2 animals. The mycoplasma serology and PCR results for intranuclear coccidia and chelonian herpesvirus were negative. Polymerase chain reaction testing of tissues, plasma, and choanal/cloacal samples from 41 out of 42 tortoises tested were positive for an adenovirus, which was characterized by sequence analysis and molecular phylogenetic inference as a novel adenovirus of the genus Siadenovirus. The present report details the clinical and anatomic pathologic findings associated with systemic infection of Sulawesi tortoises by this novel Siadenovirus, which extends the known reptilian adenoviruses to the chelonians and extends the known genera of reptilian Adenoviridae beyond Atadenovirus to include the genus Siadenovirus.

During the period from January 2002 to March 2007, infections by melanized fungi were identified with greater frequency in aquarium-maintained leafy seadragons ( Phycodurus eques)and weedy seadragons ( Phyllopteryx taeniolatus), pivotal species to the educational and environmental concerns of the aquarium industry and conservation groups. The objective of this study was to characterize the pathology and identify fungi associated with phaeohyphomycotic lesions in these species. Samples from 14 weedy and 6 leafy seadragons were received from 2 institutions and included fresh, frozen, and formalin-fixed tissues from necropsy and biopsy specimens. Fresh and frozen tissues were cultured for fungi on Sabouraud dextrose agar only or both Sabouraud dextrose agar and inhibitory mold agar with gentamicin and chloramphenicol at 30°C. Isolates were processed for morphologic identification and molecular sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region and D1/D2 domains of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene. Lesions were extensive and consisted of parenchymal and vascular necrosis with fungal invasion of gill (11/20), kidney (14/20), and other coelomic viscera with or without cutaneous ulceration (13/20). Exophiala sp. isolates were obtained from 4 weedy and 3 leafy seadragons and were identified to species level in 6 of 7 instances, namely Exophiala angulospora (1) and a novel species of Exophiala (5), based on nucleotide sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analyses. Disseminated phaeohyphomycosis represents an important pathologic condition of both weedy and leafy seadragons for which 2 species of Exophiala,1a novel species, have been isolated.

Graphical abstract, Highlights • Mange causes significant morbidity and mortality in western gray squirrels. • N. centrifera was identified on affected squirrels in southern California. • Burrowing of mites in the skin causes severe dermatitis. • Sequences for the ITS-2 region of N. centrifera were submitted to GenBank., Notoedric mange, caused by the contagious, burrowing mite Notoedres centrifera, has been associated with several large-scale population declines of western gray squirrels (Sciurus griseus) and has been a significant obstacle to population recovery in Washington State where the species is listed as threatened. In 2009, residents and wildlife rehabilitators in the isolated San Bernardino Mountains of southern California reported a dramatic die-off of western gray squirrels, in what had been a previously dense and robust population. Individuals were observed suffering from abnormal neurologic behaviors (ataxia and obtundation) and severe skin disease. Full necropsy of five squirrels from the epidemic showed that all had moderate to severe infestation with mange mites and severe dermatitis characterized by hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, intralesional mites, intracorneal pustules and superficial bacteria. Mites from affected squirrels were evaluated by light and electron microscopy and identified as N. centrifera based on morphologic criteria. Additionally, the internal transcribed spacer-2 region of the mite was cloned, sequenced and accessioned in GenBank. The cause for the abnormal neurologic behavior was not confirmed on post-mortem examination. However, we hypothesize that mange can cause incoordination and obtundation as a result of malnutrition and dehydration, and intense pruritis may induce abnormal or erratic behavior that could be mistaken for neurologic signs. While we have characterized the severe impact this disease can have on individual animals, more work is needed to understand the impact on squirrel populations, particularly in view of the anecdotal reports of dramatic population declines that may take decades to recover.