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After birth, piglets undergo procedures likely to cause stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate stress responses evoked by 2 combinations (More Stressful [all a] or Less Stressful [all a] or More Stressful [all b]) of alternative methods for performing the following processing procedures: 1) teeth resection (TR) – [a] clip vs. [b] grind; 2) identification (ID) – [a] ear tag vs. [b] ear notch; 3)iron administration (FE) – [a] inject vs. [b] oral; 4) castration (CA) – [a] cords cut vs. [b] cords torn; 5) taildocking (TD) – [a] cold clip vs. [b] hot clip [corrected]. Ten litters of eight 2- and 3-d-old piglets were assigned to each procedure. Within each litter 1 male and 1 female piglet was assigned to 1 of 4 possible procedures: the 2 combinations, sham procedures, and sham procedures plus blood sampling. Blood was collected before processing and at 45 min, 4 h, 48 h, 1 wk, and 2 wk afterward and assayed for cortisol and β-endorphin concentrations. Procedures were videotaped and analyzed to evaluate the time taken to perform the procedure and the number of squeals, grunts, and escape attempts. Vocalizations were analyzed to determine mean and peak frequencies and duration. Piglets were weighed before the procedure and at 24 h, 48 h, 1 wk, and 2 wk afterward. Identification, tail docking, and castration lesions were scored on a 0 to 5 scale at 24 h, 1 wk, and 2 wk postprocedure. Both combinations of methods took longer to carry out than sham procedures and resulted in more squeals, grunts, and escape attempts during the procedures and higher peak frequencies of vocalizations compared with the control treatments (P0.05). Cortisol concentrations 45 min after processing were also higher in the 2 combination treatments than in the sham treatments (P0.05). Comparing between procedure treatments, the More Stressful combination of methods took longer to carry out, resulted in higher β-endorphin concentrations at 1 wk, had higher peak frequency of vocalizations, and increased ear (P0.05) and tail wound (P0.1) lesion scores at 1 wk than the Less Stressful combination. Growth during d 2 to 7 postprocedure was lower in More Stressful piglets than control piglets (P0.05) but by 2 wk, growth was unaffected. Using measures of behavior, physiology, and productivity, the More Stressful combination of procedures decreased welfare relative to the Less Stressful combination; however, both combinations decreased welfare relative to controls. The time taken to carry out the procedure would appear to be an important factor in the strength of the stress response.

The heart rates of 21 sows in three different dry sow housing systems were measured during feeding, drinking, rooting and lying with eyes open. Measurements were made on sows kept in: (1) a large group of 37 with an electronic sow feeder (n = 7); (2) small groups of five, with individual feeders (n = 7); (3) individual stalls (n = 7). For all three systems, heart rate was highest during feeding and lowest during lying, with rooting and drinking intermediate. When comparing between systems, stall-housed sows had significantly higher basal heart rates (54.1 b.p.m.) and average feeding heart rates (118.5 b.p.m.) than sows from large-group (45.9 b.p.m. and 105.9 b.p.m.) and small-group housing systems (46.7 b.p.m. and 102.5 b.p.m.). The variability of heart rate during feeding and the difference between average feeding heart rate and basal heart rate was also highest in stall-housed sows. Sows housed in the small group had higher mean peak heart rates during feeding than sows housed in the large group with stall-housed sows intermediate. Long-term confinement in stalls may induce a greater sympathetic nervous response to important stimuli such as feeding. However, a feeding environment in which there can be contact between sows results in higher mean peak feeding heart rates and heart rate variability probably due to short-term adrenal responses to agonistic interactions.

The intrauterine environment is influenced by maternal behaviour and programmes atherosclerotic disease susceptibility in offspring. The aim of this investigation was to test the hypothesis that mothers' exercise during pregnancy improves endothelial function in 3-, 5- and 9-month-old porcine offspring. The pregnant sows in the exercise group ran for an average of 39.35 ± 0.75 min at 4.81 ± 0.35 km h(-1) each day for 5 days per week for all but the last week of gestation. This induced a significant reduction in resting heart rate (exercised group, 89.3 ± 3.5 beats min(-1); sedentary group, 102.1 ± 3.1 beats min(-1); P0.05) but no significant differences in gestational weight gain (65.8 ± 2.1 versus 63.3 ± 1.9%). No significant effect on bradykinin-induced vasorelaxation with and without l-NAME was observed. A significant main effect was identified on sodium nitroprusside-induced vasorelaxation (P = 0.01), manifested by a reduced response in femoral arteries of all age groups from exercised-trained swine. Nitric oxide signalling was not affected by maternal exercise. Protein expression of MYPT1 was reduced in femoral arteries from 3-month-old offspring of exercised animals. A significant interaction was observed for PPP1R14A (P0.05) transcript abundance and its protein product CPI-17. In conclusion, pregnant swine are able to complete an exercise-training protocol that matches the current recommendations for pregnant women. Gestational exercise is a potent stimulus for programming vascular smooth muscle relaxation in adult offspring. Specifically, exercise training for the finite duration of pregnancy decreases vascular smooth muscle responsiveness in adult offspring to an exogenous nitric oxide donor.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of group size on behavior, growth, health, and welfare of veal calves. Holstein-Friesian bull calves (n=168; 44±3 d of age) were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 treatments of group housing with 2, 4, or 8 calves per pen. The pens used for housing were 3 by 1.20 m (2 calves per pen), 3 by 2.40 m (4 calves per pen), and 3 by 4.80 m (8 calves per pen), supplying a total pen space allowance of 1.82 m2/calf, regardless of pen size. Behavior was recorded from video data throughout the day from 0700 to 1900 h during a single day each month for 5 mo using scan sampling every 5 min within 30-min observation sessions. On d 0, 1, 5, 14, 42, and 70 after grouping, continuous focal sampling around feeding time (30-min intervals before, during, and after feeding) focused on oral and aggressive behaviors. Calves housed in large groups (4 or 8 calves per pen) showed more (P≤0.001) conspecific contact, walking, and standing and less (P0.001) manipulation of objects, self-licking, and lying when compared to calves housed in small groups (2 calves per pen). Group size had no effect on play behavior (P=0.11) throughout the experiment. During feeding times group size had no (P≥0.07) effect on any behavioral patterns except for duration of conspecific contact (P0.01). Aggression at feeding time was not (P0.23) affected by treatment. Group size treatments were similar for hip height change (P=0.41) and heart girth change (P=0.18) over the duration of the experiment; however, both hip height and heart girth increased (P=0.001) with calf age. During mo 1, calves in groups of 8 or 4 coughed more than calves in groups of 2 whereas calves in groups of 8 coughed more than calves in groups of 4 or 2 in mo 2 (treatment×month, P=0.03). Furthermore, during mo 4, calves in groups of 8 had less nasal discharge than calves in groups of 2 or 4 (treatment×month, P=0.02). Ocular discharge, ears, and fecal scores did not differ (P≥0.05) among treatments. Plasma cortisol was not (P≥0.37) affected by group size. The number of veal calves in a group when given the same space did not affect production and physiological indicators of welfare but had a transient effect on health during the 5-mo finishing period. If increased play and social contact and decreased aggression are considered as primary indicators of welfare, group size did not alter calf welfare.

Pediatric drug development is hampered by biological, clinical, and formulation challenges associated with age-based populations. A primary cause for this lack of development is the inability to accurately predict ontogenic changes that affect pharmacokinetics (PK) in children using traditional preclinical animal models. In response to this issue, our laboratory has conducted a proof-of-concept study to investigate the potential utility of juvenile pigs to serve as surrogates for children during preclinical PK testing of selected rifampin dosage forms. Pigs were surgically modified with jugular vein catheters that were externalized in the dorsal scapular region and connected to an automated blood sampling system (PigTurn-Culex-L). Commercially available rifampin capsules were administered to both 20 and 40 kg pigs to determine relevant PK parameters. Orally disintegrating tablet formulations of rifampin were also developed and administered to 20 kg pigs. Plasma samples were prepared from whole blood by centrifugation and analyzed for rifampin content by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Porcine PK parameters were determined from the resultant plasma–concentration time profiles and contrasted with published rifampin PK data in human adults and children. Results indicated significant similarities in dose-normalized absorption and elimination parameters between pigs and humans. Moreover, ontogenic changes observed in porcine PK parameters were consistent with ontogenic changes reported for human PK. These results demonstrate the potential utility of the juvenile porcine model for predicting human pediatric PK for rifampin. Furthermore, utilization of juvenile pigs during formulation testing may provide an alternative approach to expedite reformulation efforts during pediatric drug development.

The time taken to lie down and stand up was determined for dry sows from different housing systems and related to physical and genetic parameters. In experiment 1, the times taken to lie down by 32 sows in two dry-sow housing conditions were measured. Sows housed long-term in stalls took longer to lie down than group-housed sows (20·42 v. 9·28 s, P < 0·001). Group-housed sows took longer to lie down in the open than to lie down against a wall (11·07 v. 7·48 s, P = 0·004). The length of time taken for stall-housed sows to lie down had strongest association with body length (P = 0·033, R2 = 0·718). The length of time taken for group-housed sows to lie down in the open had strongest association with the proportional weight of the extensor carpi radialis, (P = 0·001, R2 = 0·915). In experiment 2, the times taken for 30 sows in stalls to lie down and stand up were measured and genotype differences investigated. There were no differences between genotypes in total times taken to stand up or lie down, but total times taken to stand up quickly and lie down had strongest association with body length (P = 0·032, R2 = 0·185, and P < 0·001, R2 = 0·574 respectively). The results indicate that sows housed long-term in gestation stalls experience difficulty of movement when standing up quickly and lying down. Although the chronic effects of lack of exercise and the acute effects offloor type may contribute to this difficulty, the major factor is likely to be space restriction as the times taken to lie down and stand up quickly both increase as body length, and hence dynamic space requirement, increases. Lying down in an unrestricted environment is under muscular control and the degree of control depends on the proportion of muscle weight to total body weight. The factors affecting lying down and standing up should be considered when designing dry-sow and farrowing accommodation.

Confinement has been shown to affect bone strenth in poultry but this weakness has not been documented in other species housed in confinement. The objectives of this experiment were to compare muscle weight and bone strength in non-pregnant sows, of similar age and parity, housed throughout eight or nine pregnancies in two different dry sow systems: (1) individually in stalls and (2) communally in a large group. Following slaughter, the left thoracic and pelvic limbs were dissected and 14 locomotor muscles removed and c. ???lied. A proportional muscle weight was then calculated by dividing individual muscle weight (g) by total body weight (kg). Where there were significant differences, stall-housed sows had lower absolute and proportional muscle weights than group-housed sows. The left humerus and femur were also removed. The bones were broken by a three-point bend test using an Instron Universal Tester. Both bones from stall-housed sows had breaking strengths that were about two-thirds those of group-housed sows. The results indicate that confinement of sows, with a consequent lack of exercise, results in reduction of muscle weight and considerable reduction of bone strength.

The search for alternative methods to euthanize piglets is critical to address public concern that current methods are not optimal. Scientific evidence supports that blunt force trauma is humane when performed correctly, but most people find it visually difficult to accept. The use of CO2 is often recommended; at the same time, it is criticized as being aversive to pigs. This research sought to 1) identify a method of scientifically determining if piglets find a gas aversive, using an approach-avoidance test, which relies on the perspective of the piglet, and 2) test different gas mixtures to determine if they are effective and humane for neonatal piglet euthanasia. Pigs were allowed to walk freely between 1 chamber filled with air and another chamber either gradually filled with gas mixtures (Exp. 1) or prefilled with gas mixtures (Exp. 2). Experiment 1 tested CO2 (90%) and air (10%), N2O (60%) and CO2 (30%), Ar (60%) and CO2 (30%), and N2 (60%) and CO2 (30%). Because piglets had to be removed when they started to flail, the test was shortest (P0.01) for the pigs in the CO2 treatment compared with pigs in the N2O/CO2, Ar/CO2, and N2/CO2 treatments, 3.1 ± 0.2, 8.5 ± 0.6, 9.6 ± 0.4, and 9.9 ± 0.1 min, respectively. Nonetheless, all gas mixtures adversely affected the pigs, causing the pigs to leave the test chamber. In Exp. 2, piglets were allowed to enter a chamber prefilled with N2/CO2 or N2O/CO2 (both 60/30%). Pigs exposed to the prefill chambers started to flail in fewer than 20 s, much faster in comparison with the gradual fill method, which supports that this method was more aversive. In Exp. 3, piglets were euthanized using a 2-step procedure. Pigs were first placed in a gradual fill chamber with 1 of 4 gas mixtures: 90% CO2, N2/CO2, N2O/CO2, or N2O/O2 (the last 3 mixtures at 60/30%) followed by placement into a 90% CO2 prefill chamber when the pigs started to flail or were anesthetized. All 3 gas treatments that contained CO2 killed pigs more quickly than N2O/O2 (P0.05). However, N2O/O2 was the only treatment that anesthetized the pigs instead of causing squeals or flailing although requiring about 12 min longer. Although longer, a 2-step procedure in which pigs are anesthetized with a mixture of N2O and O2 before being euthanized by immersion in CO2 may prove to be more humane than CO2 alone.

Inter-sow aggression can be a major welfare problem in group-housing systems and can also affect productivity. This experiment investigated the effect of different types of agonistic interaction using heart rate as an indicator of physiological response. The heart rates of nine Large White × Landrace sows housed in a large group with an electronic sow feeder system, were monitored during agonistic interactions. Interactions were categorised into: (1) interactions involving physical contact, (2) non-physical interactions involving threat only. Both were recorded as win or loss, giving a total of four encounter types. The data were analysed to give the peak heart rate value during the encounter and also the increase from the pre-encounter mean to the peak value. Although there were some statistical difficulties presented by small sample size, sows involved in physical encounters had a greater increase in heart rate and a higher peak value (+ 59.1 beats per min (bpm), 137.0 bpm) than sows involved in threat encounters (+ 31.6 bpm, 107.3 bpm). Sows which lost a physical encounter tended to have the highest heart rates (+ 85.7 bpm, 157.7 bpm). The results demonstrate that all sows involved in agonistic encounters show an acute and transient response indicated by a rise in heart rate; however, the rise is greatest for sows which lose a physical encounter.

Long distance transportation of weaned piglets (Sus scrofa) is increasingly common in the united states and may result in delayed eating, drinking, or normal social behaviors. A potential solution is a mid-journey rest (lairage). The objective of this study was to determine if a lairage altered behavior after a 16-h transport. Pigs that weighed approximately 18 kg each (n = 894) were housed in 16 pens with 8 pens per treatment. Lairaged pigs were transported for 8 h and given an 8-h rest with food and water, whereas control pigs were transported continuously for 16 h. The heaviest, the lightest, and 2 average-BW pigs relative to the average weight of the pen were observed by video recording for 24 h immediately before and after transport, and during d 6 and 13 after transport. Postures (lying, sitting, and standing) were recorded using 10-min-interval scan sampling, and behavioral categories included inactivity, activities (eating, drinking, alert, manipulating pen, rooting, and walking) and social interactions (aggression, belly nosing, playing, tail biting, and positive social behaviors). In both treatments, sitting occurred most before transport (P0.01) than at other times, but did not differ between treatments. Standing increased (time effect; P0.01) for both treatments immediately after transport through d 6, but returned to pre-transport values by d 13. In contrast, lying decreased (time effect; P0.01) after transport, but returned to above pre-transport values by d 13. Time effects were evident for activity (P0.01), pen manipulation (P = 0.05), rooting (P0.01), initiation of belly-nosing (P = 0.01), and receiving belly-nosing (P = 0.03); however, initiation of aggression did not differ for day (P = 0.19) or treatment (P = 0.56). Lairaged pigs initiated more (P = 0.05) play than continuously transported pigs, but no differences (P = 0.84) were seen in receipt of play behavior. Pigs that were to be transported for 16 h continuously walked less pre-transport, walked more post-transport (treatment × time interaction; P = 0.02), and drank less pre-transport, but drank more on all days post-transport compared with the lairage group (treatment × time interaction; P = 0.001). This study indicated that extended transport without lairage alters some swine behaviors relevant to production (water consumption) and demonstrated that a long-duration transport, regardless of the mid-journey lairage treatment, affects a number of behaviors up to 13 d after transportation.

A pure form of salbutamol has the potential to deliver positive production benefits to the swine industry. The aim of this experiment was to determine the effects of salbutamol on growth, carcass measures, and health of finishing pigs. The study used 192 pigs (89 ± 1 kg BW) housed in groups of 6 in 32 pens and assigned to 1 of 4 treatments: 1) control (CTL), 0 mg/kg salbutamol; 2) 2R, control diet with 2 mg/kg of the pure R-enantiomer of salbutamol; 3) 4R, control diet with 4 mg/kg of pure R-salbutamol; or 4) 8RS, control diet with 8 mg/kg of a 50:50 mixture of the R- and S-enantiomers. All diets were offered ad libitum for 4 wk. All pigs were weighed and pen feed intakes were recorded weekly. At slaughter, individual HCW and measurements of the 10th-rib loin muscle area (LMA), color, marbling, firmness, and back fat, last lumbar, and midline back fat depths were collected. Data were analyzed using Proc GLM of SAS, with pen as the experimental unit. Overall, 2R and 4R pigs had greater ADG than CTL pigs (P0.05) and, at slaughter, were heavier than CTL pigs (P0.01). Overall, 8RS pigs had decreased ADFI (P0.05), and CTL pigs had poorer G:F (P0.001) than the other 3 treatments. All salbutamol-fed pigs had 5 to 6 kg greater HCW (P0.001), 2% to 3% increased carcass yield (P0.001), 5.6 cm(2) larger LMA (P0.01), 3 to 4 mm less 10th-rib back fat (P0.01), and 2 mm less lumbar back fat (P0.05) than CTL pigs. However, control pigs had greater loin muscle color scores (P0.05) and marbling scores (P0.001) than all salbutamol-treated pigs. Taken together, these data indicate that as little as 2 mg/kg R-salbutamol has a positive effect on pig growth and carcass composition. However, the effects of salbutamol on meat quality require further research.

Understanding autonomic nervous system functioning, which mediates behavioral and physiological responses to stress, offers great potential for assessing farm animal stress and welfare. Evaluation of heart rate variability (HRV) and blood pressure variability (BPV), using time and frequency domain analyses may provide a sensitive and reliable measure of affective states and stress-mediated changes in sympathetic and parasympathetic tones. The aim of this research was to define low (LF) and high frequency (HF) power spectral ranges using pharmacological autonomic blockade, and to examine HRV and BPV parameter changes in response to atropine and propranolol in swine. Ten, 13-week old, barrows ( n = 6) and gilts ( n = 4) underwent surgery to place an intra-cardiac electrode and a blood pressure catheter attached to a biotelemetric transmitter; pigs had a 3-week recovery period prior to data collection. Each pig was subjected to administration of 4 intravenous (i.v.) drug treatments: a control treatment, 3 mL of saline, and 3 blockade treatments; 0.1 mg/kg of atropine, 1.0 mg/kg of propranolol, and .1 mg/kg of atropine together with 1.0 mg/kg of propranolol. All treatments were delivered by injection in the jugular vein with a minimum of 48 h between individual treatments. Behavior, ECG and blood pressure data were recorded continuously for a total of 1 h, from 30 min pre-injection to 30 min post-injection. For data analyses, two 512-beat intervals were selected for each treatment while the pig was lying and inactive. The first interval was selected from the pre-injection period (baseline), and the second was selected between 10 and 30 min post-injection. Time and frequency domain (power spectral density) analyses were performed on each data interval. Subsequent, LF and HF bands from the power spectral densities were defined based on general linear and regression analyses. The HRV and BPV were computed with a covariate (baseline) factorial analysis of treatment by sex interaction, and day of injection, with mixed models and Tukey's post-hoc tests. The best-fit range for LF was 0.0–0.09 Hz, and HF was 0.09–2.0 Hz ( r 2 : 0.41 and 0.43, respectively). Propranolol and saline injections led to a greater overall total power and overall higher inter-beat interval, HF and LF power. Atropine led to a dominant sympathovagal balance of the cardiac activity in pigs. In addition, atropine led to an increase in LF power of both systolic and diastolic blood pressures in gilts suggesting vagal tone mediation of BPV. The understanding of autonomic regulation of HRV and BPV in domestic swine facilitates our ability to detect and quantify stress responses, and broadens its application in assessing farm animal welfare.

Under farm conditions, aggression related to the formation of social hierarchy and competition for resources can be a major problem because of associated injuries, social stress, and carcass losses. Any factor that may affect the regulation and amount of aggression within a farmed system, for instance, feeding the beta-adrenoreceptor agonist ractopamine (RAC), is therefore worthy of investigation. The objectives of this study were to assess the effects of the widely used swine feed additive RAC, considering also the effects of sex and social rank on aggressiveness and concentrations of brain amines, neurotransmitters essential for controlling aggression, in finishing pigs. Thirty-two barrows and 32 gilts (4 pigs/pen by sex) were fed either a control diet or a diet with RAC (Paylean, Elanco Animal Health, Greenfield, IN) added (5 mg/kg for 2 wk, followed by 10 mg/kg for 2 wk). The top dominant and bottom subordinate pigs (16 pigs/sex) in each pen were determined after mixing by a 36-h period of continuous behavioral observation. These pigs were then subjected to resident-intruder tests (maximum 300 s) during the feeding trial to measure aggressiveness. At the end of wk 4, the amygdala, frontal cortex, hypothalamus, and raphe nuclei were dissected and analyzed for concentrations of dopamine (DA); serotonin (5-HT); their metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), respectively; norepinephrine; and epinephrine using HPLC. Ractopamine-fed gilts performed more attacks during the first 30 s of testing than pigs in all other subgroups (P0.05). By the end of the resident-intruder test (300 s), the dominant control gilts and barrows, and both dominant and subordinate RAC-fed gilts performed the greatest percentage of attacks (P0.05). Gilts had decreased norepinephrine and DOPAC concentrations in the amygdala and frontal cortex, and when fed RAC, gilts also had the least 5-HIAA concentration and greatest DA turnover rate in the amygdala (P0.05). The 5-HT concentration was less in the frontal cortex of gilts compared with barrows and in the raphe nuclei (single site for brain 5-HT synthesis) of dominant gilts (P0.05). Ractopamine may be affecting aggressive behavior through indirect action on central regulatory mechanisms such as the DA system. The aggressive pattern observed in the tested pigs, especially in gilts, is likely linked to brain monoamine profiling of a deficient serotonergic system in the raphe nuclei, amygdala, and frontal cortex, and enhanced DA metabolism in the amygdala, brain areas vital for aggression regulation.

Synthesized as anesthetic agent about fifty years ago, ketamine (Ketalar) has been supplanted by more attractive anesthetic agents with less adverse effects. Nevertheless, the potential of this drug, although often unknown by many practitioners, remains significant. Nowadays, ketamine is more and more used in the treatment and prevention of hyperalgesia and chronicisation of postoperative pain. Indeed, ketamine interacts with NMDA-receptors involved in spinal neuroplasticity and hyperexcitability responsible for these phenomena. Moreover, its efficacy to treat acute pain resistant to classic analgesics makes ketamine a very interesting and clinically-relevant drug for all practitioners facing this type of pain. This article reviews the clinical benefits of ketamine which has sometimes suffered from a negative reputation, but which possesses recently reconsidered wonderful pharmacological properties.

Aggression is a major source of social stress with negative effects on health and well-being, yet limited information is known about the molecular mechanisms mediating aggressive behavior in swine. Ractopamine (RAC) is a β-adrenoreceptor agonist that enhances growth but increases aggressive behaviors in female pigs. Thus, the effects of RAC, sex, and social rank on the mRNA abundance of genes encoding serotonin and dopamine receptors, and monoamine oxidase (MAO)-A in brains of sub-adult pigs were evaluated. Top dominant and bottom subordinate pigs (16/sex) in pens of 4 pigs were determined, and fed either the control or RAC diets. At day 31, their raphe nuclei (RN), amygdala (AMY), frontal cortex (FC), and hypothalamus (HYP) were dissected; relative mRNA abundance for 5-HT₁(B), 5-HT₂(A), 5-HT₂(B), and D₁ receptors, and MAO-A was determined by Q-RT-PCR and data subjected to multivariate linear mixed model analysis and Tukey post-hoc test. Expression of 5-HT₁(B) and MAO-A was suppressed in the AMY of female pigs; 5-HT₂(B) expression was also suppressed in the RN, FC and HYP of females and RN of dominant pigs (P < 0.05). Expression of 5-HT₂(A) was more up-regulated in RN of females compared to males (P < 0.05). Expression of D₁ varied in RN and FC mostly as a function of RAC feeding and its interaction with sex and social rank (P < 0.05). While RAC feeding is related to changes in expression of the D1 receptor mRNA, suppression in expression of serotonergic genes detected in the brain of pigs, especially in females independent of social rank, may be mediating the inter-individual offensive aggression.

Aggression can impair productivity and well-being. The association between aggression in finishing pigs and the feed additive ractopamine (RAC), a beta-adrenoreceptor agonist, is unknown and warrants further investigation. Our goal was to examine behavioral activity, including aggression, in the home pen and concentrations of peripheral amines in barrows and gilts, taking into account diet (RAC) and social rank. Sixty-four finishing pigs, housed in pens of 4 by sex, were fed either a control (CTL) or RAC-added (5 mg/kg for 2 wk plus 10 mg/kg for another 2 wk) diet. The top dominant and bottom subordinate pigs in each pen were determined at mixing (2 wk pretrial). The behavior of all pigs was recorded continuously during the pretrial week (baseline) and for the following 4 wk. These behavioral data were used to evaluate home pen aggression, including the number of agonistic interactions (AINX) and constituent aggressive actions, during a 3-h period (0800 to 1100 h) once per week and their change in relation to the baseline. Time-budget behaviors and postures were analyzed over eight 24-h periods (2 d/wk) using 10-min instantaneous scan sampling that focused on only the dominant and subordinate pigs in each pen. These 2 pigs were also subjected to blood collection once per week during the trial to determine concentrations of dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin (5-HT) using HPLC. Gilts performed more bites and total actions per AINX than barrows, and RAC-fed gilts increased bites and pursuits, whereas these behaviors decreased compared with baseline values in all other subgroups (P0.05). Gilts fed RAC increased the total number actions per AINX, whereas the occurrence of AINX decreased for all subgroups (P0.01). Overall, RAC-fed pigs were more behaviorally active, spending more time alert, bar biting, and sham chewing compared with CTL pigs (P0.05). The dominant RAC-fed pigs tended to have the greatest norepinephrine concentrations among the tested subgroups (P = 0.08). Dominant barrows had greater epinephrine concentrations than subordinate barrows (P0.05). The RAC-fed gilts tended to have lesser 5-HT concentrations than CTL gilts (P = 0.08), whereas concentrations were similar in barrows (P0.10). Greater activity and the increase in oral-related behaviors observed in RAC-fed pigs may be mediated by the increase in arousal caused by RAC. Intensified aggression in gilts, especially when fed RAC, may be linked to reduced central 5-HT and greater noradrenergic activity, and further research on brain neurotransmitters in gilts is needed.

Series Preface Acknowledgements List of Contributors 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE WELFARE OF PIGS Jeremy N. Marchant-Forde 2. THE NATURAL BEHAVIOR OF THE PIG Richard B. D'Eath and Simon P. Turner 3. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF COGNITION, BEHAVIOURAL PRIORITIES AND EMOTIONS Suzanne Held, Jonathan J. Cooper and Michael T. Mendl 4. WELFARE OF DRY SOWS Jeremy N. Marchant-Forde 5. WELFARE OF PIGS IN THE FARROWING ENVIRONMENT Anna K. Johnson and Jeremy N. Marchant-Forde 6. HOUSING THE FATTENING PIG Niamh E. O'Connell 7. PIGS AND HUMANS Hans A.M. Spoolder and Susanne Waiblinger 8. BALANCE BETWEEN PORCINE DISEASE AND WELFARE Wim J.A. Boersma, Jan van der Meulen and Theo A. Niewold 9. WELFARE INTO PRACTICE David C.J. Main 10. WELFARE OF PIGS DURING TRANSPORT AND SLAUGHTER Jeremy N. Marchant-Forde and Ruth M. Marchant-Forde 11. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF THE WELFARE OF PIGS Donald C. Lay, Jr and Jeremy N. Marchant-Forde INDEX

At any one time, a female breeding herd comprises both dry sows and farrowing/ lactating sows. The term ‘dry sow’ encompasses all gestating sows, sows awaiting service and barren sows within the herd. There is a great diversity of dry sow housing systems currently in use. Over the last few decades, sow housing has generally seen a move from somewhat extensive systems towards intensive systems, although this trend is reversing within Western Europe and a reversal is also beginning to show emergence in the pig industries of other developed countries, such as the U.S.A., Canada and Australia. Until this recent reverse, the major factor behind sow housing design was that of economics of production. Since World War II, there have been steady reductions in the number of individual pig producers, but increases in the size of herds. The trend away form extensive systems with small herd numbers towards larger intensive units was initially fuelled by price incentives in the late 1940s, when the production of cheap, plentiful food to meet post-war demand was often supported by governments. The intensification accelerated in the 1950s as new system-based technology was applied. The cyclical, profit-loss nature of the pig industry also accelerated the decline of the small producer. It made economic sense to increase herd size, increase stocking densities and decrease labor costs by mechanising where possible. The ultimate developments, in terms of gestation housing, were those of stalls and tethers. Keeping the sows in permanent confinement gave the farmer a number of advantages over less intensive systems. For example

In the U.S.A., housing for the lactating sow and her piglets can be divided into five main areas. Total confinement, defined as the farrowing crate, houses the highest number of sows at 83.4 4.0%. Remaining operations house fewer sows with open buildings that have outside access at 12.4 4.1%, open building with no outside access, 2.9 0.5%, lot with hut or no building, 0.6 0.2% and pasture with hut or no building the lowest at 0.7 0.3% (NAHMS, 2000). In the U.K., it is estimated that around 70% of sows farrow in crates, 27% farrow outdoors in farrowing arks and only 3% farrow in loose-housed indoor systems (BPEX, 2004). Farrowing crates have become widely accepted by the industry for numerous reasons: it has made sow management easier, it allows for a higher stocking density of sows/unit of land and it can help to reduce piglet mortality (Fraser and Broom, 1997). However, the farrowing crate has received criticism due to potential detrimental effects it may inflict on the welfare of the sow. The prevalence of decubital ulcers (Davies et al., 1996; Rountree et al., 1997), behaviours considered maladaptive (Cronin and Wiepkema, 1984; Rushen, 1984; Haskell andHutson, 1996), and a limitation on allowing the sow complete postural adjustments are a few considerations. The development of an alternative, economical farrowing system that retains the advantages of the conventional farrowing crate could be beneficial to the industry (Collins, 1987). Alternative outdoor swine operations for the gestating sow are increasing in popularity in some countries. In 1975, only 6% of the U.K.’s national herd was housed outdoors. This trend can be seen in other European countries, France now houses 10% of its herd outdoors, and Denmark and Sweden are conducting feasibility studies to determine if their cooler climates would permit

Atsomestageintheirlifetime,thevastmajorityofpigswillbetransported,exceptthosethatarebornandthendieorareeuthanizedonthesamefarm.Thenumberof times and distances over which they are transported will vary depending onwhether they are in the finishing or the breeding herd and the nature of the pigindustrywithinthecountryorregioninwhichtheyarebeingreared.Forexample,it is not uncommon for herds in North America to employ multi-site production,meaning that at weaning, pigs may be transported to a nursery unit and later on,transported again to a growing and finishing unit. Over the last few decades,slaughter plants have followed a similar trend to pig farms, meaning that theyarenowfewerinnumber,morespreadoutgeographically,butlarger.Thismeansthat the average distances that pigs have to be transported to reach the slaughterplanthaveincreasedandthus,averagejourneytimehasincreased.Themaximumjourney time in particular has been focus of much recent research with resultingrecommendations and legislation in some markets, such as the EuropeanUnion.If the process of transportation is too stressful for a pig, the ultimate resultcan be the death of that pig or the pig becoming non-ambulatory or ‘fatigued’.In North America, the current in-transit + post-transit mortality and non-ambulatory rates are around 0.15% and 0.40% respectively (Benjamin, 2005)representing in total around 11 pigs in every 2000 transported. It is therefore inthe interests of the producer (and of course the pig) that the stress of transpor-tation is minimized. In this chapter, we examine the welfare of pigs during theprocess oftransportationandtheir welfareonreachingtheslaughterhouse.Webegin by breaking the transportation and slaughter process up into its consti-tuent parts, namely loading, transport, unloading, lairage and slaughter, and,where information exists, we also examine how pigs at different stages of theproduction cycle respond to transport.

Over the next few years, it is estimated that the demand for pork and thus for raising pigs will increase between 6 and 14% over current levels, especially driven by increasing demand in South East Asia (EC, 2007). This is as a result of an increase in world population and, as per capita incomes rise in developing countries, there is likely to be a tendency toward higher intake of food of animal origin (Bellaver and Bellaver, 1999). As you have read in previous chapters, there are many concerns and issues that are being and need to be addressed in order to ensure that the welfare needs of pigs are met. The welfare of pigs in the future will be driven by many of the same things that creates their welfare status today: human virtue, social ethic, economics of production, scientific information, and the standards of an international community. Although the factors that determine pig welfare will stay the same, pig welfare will improve. The predominant driving forces of pig welfare that will change, are that countries will become more economically stable, science will discover new facts, and the international community will become more intertwined, perhaps resulting in global moves towards the highest common denominator, in welfare terms. Something that will not change in the future is those characteristics that make us humans. Characteristics like empathy, concern, compassion, guilt, responsibility, are all part of being human. It is these characteristics that motivate us to be concerned about animal welfare in the first place. Human characteristics such as these form the basis from which we make decisions on how animals, and other humans, are treated, albeit entrained with differing cultural and perhaps religious influences. Although humans will have all of these same characteristics in the future, the circumstances in which we live will allow for a different expression of these characteristics and thus allow for a different level of swine welfare. For example, although a farmer in a less

The aim of this study was to evaluate stress responses evoked by 2 alternative methods for performing the following processing procedures: 1) teeth resection-clipping vs. grinding; 2) tail docking-cold vs. hot clipping; 3) identification-ear notch vs. tag; 4) iron administration-injection vs. oral; 5) castration-cords cut vs. torn. Eight to 10 litters of 8-, 2-, and 3-d-old piglets were assigned to each procedure. Within each litter, 2 piglets were assigned to 1 of 4 possible procedures: the 2 alternative methods, a sham procedure, and a sham procedure plus blood sampling. Blood was sampled before processing and at 45 min, 4 h, 48 h, 1 wk, and 2 wk postprocedure and assayed for cortisol and beta-endorphin. Procedures were videotaped and analyzed to evaluate the time taken to perform the procedure and the number of squeals, grunts, and escape attempts. Vocalizations were analyzed to determine mean and peak frequencies and duration. Piglets were weighed before the procedure and at 24 h, 48 h, 1 wk, and 2 wk afterward. Lesions were scored on a scale of 0 to 5 on pigs in the identification, tail docking, and castration treatments at 24 h, 1 wk, and 2 wk postprocedure. For teeth resection, grinding took longer than clipping and resulted in greater cortisol concentration overall, poorer growth rates, and longer vocalizations compared with pigs in the control treatment (P0.05). For tail docking, hot clipping took longer, and hot-clipped piglets grew slower than cold-clipped piglets (P0.05). Hot clipping also resulted in longer and higher frequency squealing compared with pigs in the control treatment (P0.01). For identification, ear notching took longer than tagging, and ear-notched piglets had worse wound scores than tagged piglets (P0.05). Cortisol concentrations at 4 h also tended to be greater for ear-notched piglets (P0.10). Ear notching evoked calls with higher peak frequencies than the control treatments. For iron administration, oral delivery took numerically longer than injecting, but there were no significant differences between injecting and oral delivery for any of the measures. For castration, tearing took longer than cutting the cords (P0.05), but beta-endorphin concentrations at 45 min postprocedure were greater for cut piglets. When measures of behavior, physiology, and productivity were used, the responses to teeth resection, tail docking, and identification were shown to be altered by the procedural method, whereas responses to iron administration and castration did not differ. The time taken to carry out the procedure would appear to be an important factor in the strength of the stress response.

Increasing concern for animal well-being and food safety has stimulated the investigation of feed additives such as ractopamine (RAC), a beta-agonist widely used to improve production performance of finishing pigs. The objective of this study was to determine effects of RAC feeding, delivered as a "step-up" program (5 mg/kg for 2 wk followed by 10 mg/kg for 2 wk), on growth performance, Enterobacteriaceae shedding, including Salmonella, and hoof lesions, also taking into account sex and social rank of pigs. A total of 64 barrows and gilts (balanced by treatment and sex) were assigned to pens of 4 (by sex) as either control (CTL) or RAC treatment. Social ranks (dominant, intermediate, and subordinate) of pigs in each pen were determined by behavioral observation during 48 h post-mixing. Fecal samples were collected once per week for 5 wk. At slaughter, the 32 dominant and subordinate barrows and gilts (16/sex) were examined for hoof lesions, and luminal contents from ileum, cecum, and rectum were collected. Pigs fed RAC had increased growth performance (P0.05) with social rank of animals affecting overall ADG (P0.05). Gilts gained more backfat than barrows when comparing to baseline values at both 10th and last ribs (P0.05), whereas loin eye area increased at a similar rate for both barrows and gilts (P0.10). No significant effect of RAC feeding was found on backfat or loin eye area (P0.10). At slaughter, RAC-fed pigs had greater BW (P0.05). Despite the positive effects of RAC feeding on growth performance, pigs fed the compound had a greater frequency of front and rear hoof lesions as did barrows and dominant individuals (P0.05). Detectable concentrations of Salmonella shedding were not identified at any time during the experiment. Enterobacteriaceae shedding concentrations from RAC-fed pigs peaked at the first week of feeding and progressively decreased until slaughter. At slaughter, rectal and cecal Enterobacteriaceae concentrations were less in RAC-fed pigs than in CTL pigs (P0.05). Social rank tended to affect gut Enterobacteriaceae populations of barrows more than in gilts (P0.10). The effects of RAC feeding on hoof soundness and Enterobacteriaceae populations in the gastrointestinal tract of finishing pigs warrant further investigation. It is also proposed that the integration of the social rank status of the individual into future studies should be considered, because it may affect treatment responses.

Lameness in breeding-age gilts and sows is a major cause of culling, resulting in increased economic losses and welfare concerns. This study determined if exercise during gestation would affect the musculo-skeletal system, production variables, and behavior. Gilts were blocked by BW and assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups: control (n = 10; no exercise), low exercise (n = 14; 122 m/d for 5 d/wk), and high exercise (n = 14; 122 m/d for 2 d/wk and 427 m/d for 3 d/wk). All gilts were stall-housed during gestation, and gilts were exercised between d 35 and 110 of gestation. Lameness score, BCS, BW, and blood were taken at multiple points before gestation, and during gestation and lactation. Blood serum was analyzed for carboxy-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen. Sow lying behavior was recorded for 3 d after farrowing. Farrowing data included litter weight and size at birth and weaning, and preweaning mortality. After weaning, 38 sows were slaughtered and muscles and the bones of the left fore- and hind-limbs were harvested. Bone density and quality were determined by computed tomography (CT) scans, dual energy x-ray scans, and bone-breaking force tests. The control group took longer to lie down than both exercise groups, and the low exercise group took longer to lie down than the high exercise group (P0.05). The number of pigs weaned was greater in the high exercise group than the control group (P0.05). Piglet preweaning mortality was greatest in the control group compared with both exercise groups (P0.05). The low exercise treatments exhibited a greater bone density (CT) in the humerus, radius, and tibia compared with that of the control group (P0.05). The bone density (CT) of the humerus in the low exercise group was greater than that of the high exercise group (P = 0.03). Breaking force in the humerus and femur was greater (P0.05) in the low exercise group than the control group. Breaking force in the tibia of the high exercise group was greater than the control group (P = 0.01). The tibia of both the low and high exercise groups had a greater breaking force (P0.05) than the control group. Although there was no benefit of exercise on lameness, differences in bone density and quality, lying behavior, and piglet survivability may provide useful insight into alternative housing for sows.

Salbutamol has potential for use as a repartioning agent in swine. The aims of this experiment were to determine effects of salbutamol on behavior and physiology of finishing pigs. The study used 192 pigs (88.8 +/- 0.9 kg of BW) housed in groups of 6 in 32 pens and assigned to 1 of 4 treatments: 1) control-0 mg/kg of salbutamol, 2) 2R--control diet with 2 mg/kg of the pure R-enantiomer of salbutamol, 3) 4R--control diet with 4 mg/kg of pure R-salbutamol, or 4) 8RS--control diet with 8 mg/kg of a 50:50 mixture of the R- and S-enantiomers. All diets were offered ad libitum for 4 wk. Salbutamol diets were replaced with control diets 24 to 48 h before slaughter. Behavioral responses to handling during weighing were recorded immediately before assignment to the treatments (wk 0) and at weekly intervals over the next 4-wk period. Behavioral and heart rate (HR) responses to a 10-min human presence test in the home pen were measured during wk 0, wk 1, and wk 3. Heart rate responses to a 36-min transportation were recorded. One pig from each pen had blood collected 4 times: during wk 0, 2, 4, and at exsanguination. Blood was analyzed for NEFA, creatine kinase, glucose, lactate, blood urea nitrogen, ammonia, insulin, cortisol, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM of SAS, with pen as the experimental unit. Treatment had no effect on time spent lying laterally, overall activity, or time spent alert. Treatment had no effect on handling measures (P0.05) or on behavioral responses to human presence (P0.05), with all pigs willing to spend similar amounts of time close to and touching the human. However, during the human presence test in wk 1 and wk 3, control pigs had HR around 10 peats per minute less (P0.05) than pigs in the other 3 treatments. During transport, overall HR were similar across treatments (P0.05). However, at certain 1-min time points, control pigs had greater HR than salbutamol-treated pigs (P0.05). There were no treatment differences in lactate, epinephrine, or norepinephrine concentrations at any point. During wk 4, control pigs had less creatine kinase (P0.02) and greater blood urea nitrogen (P0.005) compared with pigs fed all the salbutamol treatments. The home pen behavior, handling, human presence test, and transport results indicate that salbutamol-treated pigs do not show marked differences in home pen time budgets and behavioral and HR responses to handling and transportation compared with control pigs. Thus, salbutamol did not have a negative effect on finishing pig well-being during this study.

Measurement of heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive technique that can be used to investigate the functioning of the autonomic nervous system, especially the balance between sympathetic and vagal activity. It has been proven to be very useful in humans for both research and clinical studies concerned with cardiovascular diseases, diabetic autonomic dysfunction, hypertension and psychiatric and psychological disorders. Over the past decade, HRV has been used increasingly in animal research to analyse changes in sympathovagal balance related to diseases, psychological and environmental stressors or individual characteristics such as temperament and coping strategies. This paper discusses current and past HRV research in farm animals. First, it describes how cardiac activity is regulated and the relationships between HRV, sympathovagal balance and stress and animal welfare. Then it proceeds to outline the types of equipment and methodological approaches that have been adapted and developed to measure inter-beats intervals (IBI) and estimate HRV in farm animals. Finally, it discusses experiments and conclusions derived from the measurement of HRV in pigs, cattle, horses, sheep, goats and poultry. Emphasis has been placed on deriving recommendations for future research investigating HRV, including approaches for measuring and analysing IBI data. Data from earlier research demonstrate that HRV is a promising approach for evaluating stress and emotional states in animals. It has the potential to contribute much to our understanding and assessment of the underlying neurophysiological processes of stress responses and different welfare states in farm animals.

Introduction L’hypoglycemie constitue un probleme majeur de prise en charge du patient diabetique. Les grandes etudes internationales ont montre le risque des hypoglycemies severes (HS). Leur frequence et les modalites de prise en charge sont mal evaluees en France. Materiels et methodes Identifier par une etude observationnelle, multicentrique (9 centres), prospective, les HS (critere ADA) parmi les recours au SAMU et caracteriser la typologie des patients et les modalites de prise en charge. Le cout du parcours de soins a ete calcule a partir du suivi de chaque dossier. Resultats 488 HS ont ete prises en charge sur une periode de 4 mois, soit une frequence estimee de 0,57 HS/100 patients/an. L’âge median des patients etait de 66 ± 21 ans, 1/3 avait plus de 75 ans, 60 % d’hommes ; 60,4 % avaient deja eu une HS dans l’annee. 85,1 % etaient traites par insuline (13,3 % sous traitement mixte). 1/3 avait recours a une IDE. 107 patients etaient sous ADO dont 38,3 % sous repaglinide et 28,9 % sous sulfamides (22,6 % gliclazide ; 45,2 % glibenclamide ; 32,2 % glimepiride). La glycemie moyenne a la prise en charge etait de 0,39 ± 0,30 g/L. L’HS survenait au domicile (83 %), a distance d’un repas (82,2 %), avec une alerte donnee par un proche (66 %). Un resucrage etait effectue par l’entourage dans 32 % des cas. Cause precisee pour 3/4 des patients: jeune (39 %), erreur de traitement (15 %), inexpliquee (29 %). Devenir: 55 % laisses sur place, 15 % hospitalises et 25 % transferes pour surveillance courte. Le cout moyen par evenement est estime a 2 000 euros. Conclusion Cette premiere etude multicentrique nationale montre la frequence (20 000 evenements estimes par an) et le cout des HS (plus de 40 millions d’euros par an) dans la gestion du diabete. Des actions d’education et de prevention des HS sont necessaires. Declaration d’interet Les auteurs declarent avoir un interet avec un organisme prive, industriel ou commercial en relation avec le sujet presente. Tous les membres du groupe GEODE font partie d’un board de reflexion subventionne par Lifescan, une compagnie du groupe Johnson & Johnson. Le support financier de cette etude a ete apporte par Lifescan.

The objectives of this study were to examine the effects of ractopamine (RAC) on the behavior and physiology of pigs during handling and transport. Twenty-four groups of three gilts were randomly assigned to one of two treatments 4 wk before slaughter: finishing feed plus RAC (10 ppm) or finishing feed alone. Pigs were housed in the same building in adjacent pens with fully slatted floors and ad libitum access to feed and water. Behavioral time budgets were determined in six pens per treatment over a single 24-h period during each week. Behavioral responses of these pigs to routine handling and weighing were determined at the start of the trial and at the end of each week. Heart-rate responses to unfamiliar human presence were measured in all pigs and blood samples were taken from a single pig in each pen on different days during wk 4. At the end of wk 4, all pigs were transported for 22 min to processing. Heart rate was recorded from at least one pig per pen during transport and a postmortem blood sample was taken from those pigs that were previously sampled. During wk 1 and 2, RAC pigs spent more time active (P0.05), more time alert (P0.05), and less time lying in lateral recumbency (P0.05). They also spent more time at the feeder in wk 1 (P0.05). At the start of the trial, there were no differences in behavioral responses to handling. However, over each of the next 4 wk, fewer RAC pigs exited the home pen voluntarily, they took longer to remove from the home pen, longer to handle into the weighing scale and needed more pats, slaps, and pushes from the handler to enter the scales. At the end of wk 4, RAC pigs had higher heart rates in the presence of an unfamiliar human (P0.05) and during transport (P0.05), but not during loading and unloading. Also at the end of wk 4, RAC pigs had higher circulating catecholamine concentrations (P0.05) than control pigs. Circulating cortisol concentrations and cortisol responses to transport did not differ between treatments. The results show that ractopamine affected behavior, heart rate, and catecholamine profile of finishing pigs and made them more difficult to handle and potentially more susceptible to handling and transport stress.

The objective of this analysis was to assess the cost-effectiveness of achieving 'tight control' versus 'less tight control' of blood pressure, as defined in the UK Prospective Diabetics Study 38, in type II diabetic patients in the UK and Italy. The effect of including doxazosin in a 'tight control' combination therapy was analysed. Given doxazosin's positive impact on lipid levels in addition to its antihypertensive effect, it is hypothesised that treatment including doxazosin will reduce the incidence of macrovascular complications. For each country, a Markov model was constructed to simulate macrovascular outcomes of patients on various drug combinations. Transitional probabilities were based on the risk rates presented in UKPDS 38. Risk rates were adjusted for the ageing of the cohort and the lipid-lowering properties of doxazosin using Framingham risk equations. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios ranged from 2224 Pounds to 4867 Pounds (US$3225-7057) per life-year saved for the UK and from L1.8-9.3 million (US$818-4159) per life-year saved for Italy. Doxazosin is a cost-effective agent when included in a combination therapy in the treatment of hypertension in the diabetic populations of the UK and Italy.

Vocal communication in the domestic pig is generally not well documented. The aim of this experiment was to categorise and ascribe the function of the vocalisations of 67 Large WhitexLandrace gilts during a standard human approach test. At testing, each group of 3-5 gilts was moved to a handling area where each individual in turn was fitted with a heart rate monitor and introduced individually to a 2.4mx2.4m test arena. After 2min familiarisation, an unfamiliar human entered the pen and stood for 3min against one wall. Behaviour and sound were recorded continuously with sound recordings transferred onto computer for analysis. Three categories of calls were initially identified: single grunts, single squeals and rapidly repeated grunts. Sixty-six gilts performed single grunts, whereas only 28 and 16 gilts performed the other two categories, respectively. Single grunts could be sub-divided into two types based on sound amplitude profile. These types differed significantly in duration. Gilts performed more short and long grunts per minute during the 3min test period than during the familiarisation period. Most short grunts observed in a subset of 15 gilts were performed with the snout close to a pen surface or the human. The rate of short grunts during the test period was negatively correlated with the time taken to make contact with the human and positively correlated with the amount of locomotor behaviour carried out, the total number of interactions with the human and the total time spent within 0.5m of the human. Most long grunts observed in a subset of 15 gilts were performed with the snout away from any surface. The rate of long grunts during the test period positively correlated with amount of locomotor behaviour and heart rate, after the effect of activity had been removed. Squeals could similarly be sub-divided into long and short types on the basis of amplitude profile. Gilts that squealed carried out more locomotor behaviour, interacted with the human more, had higher mean heart rates and lower heart rate rise when touched by the human, suggesting a higher degree of arousal. Rapidly-repeated grunts were associated with close human interaction. The results indicate that the domestic pig performs a number of distinct vocalisations during isolation. Short single grunts appear to be associated with investigatory behaviour. Long single grunts may be a form of contact call, the rate of which is related to physiological and behavioural activity. Squeals may have similar function but result from a higher level of arousal. Short, rapidly-repeated grunts appear to have either a greeting or threat function. With further research, certain pig vocalisations may be identified as providing useful additional information about an individual's welfare.

The causes and timing of piglet mortality were studied in different farrowing systems. In the first experiment 198 litters were recorded in three systems, two of which allowed the sows to move freely, and the third restricted them in conventional crates. More piglets were weaned from the conventional crates than from the open systems and they grew more quickly. More than half the liveborn mortality occurred during the first four days after parturition. In the open systems, 17 per cent and 14 per cent of the piglets born alive were crushed, compared with only 8 per cent in the crates. In the second experiment, 29 sows and litters were studied in detail in a communal pen system during the first seven days of lactation. Three-quarters of the liveborn mortality was due to crushing. The total number of piglets dying per litter, including stillbirths, was significantly associated with the total litter size and the sow's parity. The percentage liveborn mortality was significantly associated with the parity and body length of the sows and with the within-litter variation in the birth weight of the piglets. Individual birth weight was closely associated with percentage survival. Only 28 per cent of piglets weighing less than 1.1 kg at birth survived to seven days.

To observe pigs during road journeys in order to establish whether lavender straw was likely to decrease stress and incidence of travel sickness.Forty 70-kg Large White pigs were transported by road for 2 hours, 20 animals each day, over a 2-day period.On day 1, ample wheat straw was provided as bedding such that the floor of the vehicle was entirely covered (straw condition). On day 2, lavender straw was provided as bedding (lavender condition). During the journey, direct behavioral observations of the individually marked pigs were made by scanning every 10 minutes for incidence of standing and lying along with the less severe symptoms of travel sickness (foaming at the mouth and repetitive chomping). Incidences of retching and vomiting were noted as they occurred. A general activity index was also scored every 10 minutes (5 = high activity, 1 = low activity). Saliva samples were taken from each animal at different stages of the journey for analysis of cortisol.Pigs stood more when in the straw condition, but were more active when standing in the lavender condition. Symptoms of travel sickness appeared to be less acute in the lavender condition, with more animals exhibiting the less severe symptom, foaming and chomping (a total of 3 in straw compared with 6 in lavender), but fewer animals showing the more severe symptoms of retching and vomiting (in straw, 3 retched, 6 vomited; in lavender 0 retched, 3 vomited). A total of 6 animals retched or vomited in the straw condition but only 3 in the lavender. There was a significant difference in mean concentrations of cortisol between conditions but this was due to a difference in mean baseline concentrations between groups.Addition of lavender straw appeared to decrease incidence and severity of travel sickness but not overall levels of stress (as measured by concentrations of salivary cortisol).

It is generally accepted that routine invasive husbandry procedures, such as disbudding and dehorning, cause considerable distress in farmed animals. In the case of dehorning, it has repeatedly been shown that calves exhibit many pain related symptoms both during (e.g., withdrawal from noxious stimulus) the procedure and for some hours post procedure (e.g., rearing, tripping, head rubbing, etc.). Little is known about the long-term consequences of dehorning as previous studies have only monitored responses for up to 48 hours. The objectives of this work were to examine the long-term response of calves to hot-iron dehorning and to determine the effectiveness of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) for reducing post-operative distress.

Previous research into free-farrowing systems for pigs has found that although sow welfare is better than in crated systems, piglet mortality levels are often unacceptably high. Whilst on-going research programmes are investigating methods to address this problem, the effect of alternative farrowing systems on piglet behaviour and welfare post-weaning is largely unknown. A recent study found that the increased social contact between piglets reared outdoors prior to weaning resulted in welfare benefits post-weaning (Cox and Cooper, 1999). The aim of this experiment was to investigate whether offering different degrees of social contact in an indoor community-lactation system would confer similar enhancements to piglet welfare post-weaning.

Current commercial dairy practice involves the removal of the calf from the dam within the first two days of life. This early separation may result in stress for both cow and calf. However, it may also be that separation occurs before the cow-calf bond is established. The aim of this study was to determine if cows and calves respond to each other's calls after separation and whether they could distinguish their own calf's or dam's calls from another calf's or cow's calls.

Most indoor sows in Denmark and the UK continue to farrow in crates. Before farrowing, sows are highly motivated to nest-build and gilts farrowing in crates without straw have an especially large stress response over the nest-building period (Jarvis et al., 1997). In non-crated sows, the inability to nest-build affects the subsequent maternal behaviour of the sow after farrowing (Herskin et al., 1999). This study aimed to determine whether supplying straw before farrowing increased the anti-crushing and anti-predator behaviour of the crated sow after farrowing and improved piglet survival.

The ‘standard’ human approach test has been used extensively since the early 1980's to assess fear responses in most farmed species. However, in recent years, there has been considerable debate questioning its efficacy given the short duration of the familiarisation period and the suitability of the location of the testing environment, i.e. the home pen versus a novel arena (Pedersen, 1997). It is possible that the test simply reflects an animal's level of motivation to explore the novel arena and any novel objects therein rather than a specific response to the presence of a human. This work addresses both the length of acclimatisation period and the location of the test arena.

Community lactating systems offer a number of potential welfare benefits to the sow and her litter. However, giving the sow greater freedom of movement and choice of environments also has potential risks. With less restriction, the maternal qualities of the sow will have a greater influence on the survival and growth of her litter. The objectives of this experiment were to determine what behaviours of the sow influenced piglet mortality in an open communal farrowing system

The response of a prototype Helmholtz-type commercial pulse combustor to changes in two fundamental characteristic times has been investigated both experimentally and numerically. The natural resonant frequency and the fluid dynamic mixing geometry were modified separately. The response of the combustor to these changes was determined by measurements of pressure, frequency, and OH· chemiluminescence. The combustion chamber volume was modified to change the resonant frequency of the combustor. Changes in the fluid dynamic mixing time were obtained by injecting premixed reactants axially and then temporally and spatially modifying the injection profile by varying the geometry of a novel injection system. A wide dynamic range in pressure amplitude and frequency was obtainable by changing the characteristic fluid dynamic mixing time. Results from systematic changes in these two parameters compare well with the results from the numerical model of a pulse combustor that has been developed at Sandia Nat...