Search

Research teams face complex leadership and coordination challenges. We propose shared authentic leadership (SAL) as a timely approach to addressing these challenges. Drawing from authentic and functional leadership theories, we posit a multiple mediation model that suggests three mechanisms whereby SAL influences team effectiveness: shared mental models (SMM), team trust, and team coordination. To test our hypotheses, we collected survey data on leadership and teamwork within 142 research teams that recently published an article in a peer-reviewed management journal. The results indicate team coordination represents the primary mediating mechanism accounting for the relationship between SAL and research team effectiveness. While teams with high trust and SMM felt more successful and were more satisfied, they were less successful in publishing in high-impact journals. We also found the four SAL dimensions (i.e., self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing, and internalized moral perspective) to associate differently with team effectiveness.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine and reinterpret information ecology in the context of the changing environment of services, which has been strongly affected by digitalisation and increasing citizen engagement. Here, information ecology refers to the interaction and co-evolution of technologies, human beings and the social environment.Design/methodology/approachThe data consist of 25 thematic interviews conducted in a public Finnish organisation responsible for organising welfare services, and in its collaborating organisations. The interviews were analysed qualitatively. The analytical framework is based on Nardi and O'Day's five components of information ecology: system, diversity, co-evolution, keystone species and locality.FindingsThe analysis shows that these basic components still exist in the digitalisation era, but that they should be interpreted and highlighted differently, for example, stressing the openness of the information system instead of closed systems, as well as emphasising the increasing meaning of diversity amongst digitalisation, and the dynamic co-evolution between the elements of the system. New capabilities, such as the ability to combine various kinds of information and knowledge, are needed in this adaptation.Research limitations/implicationsThe study illustrates a wider, updated information-ecology concept with the help of empirical research. Technology affects care organisations' information ecologies in numerous – often invisible – ways, which this study brings into light.Originality/valueSo far, information-ecology research has overlooked social and healthcare, but this study provides findings concerning this societally important sector.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to introduce the concept of team entrepreneurial competence, a team-level construct representing the level of shared abilities toward entrepreneurial activities within a new venture team. A multilevel model of the influence of team entrepreneurial competence and team entrepreneurial experience on the cognitive strategies of team members is developed and tested. Design/methodology/approach Using a sample of 47 early stage entrepreneurial teams (144 individuals), a set of hypotheses regarding the effect of team entrepreneurial competence on team member reliance on effectual and causal reasoning, together with the moderating effect of team entrepreneurial experience, are tested. Findings The results provide support for a positive multilevel association between team entrepreneurial competence and the reliance by team members on both causal and effectual reasoning strategies; members of teams with higher entrepreneurial competence and more entrepreneurial experience are more likely to engage in effectuation. Research limitations/implications Understanding how team-level predictors and moderators have a role in determining individual effectuation and causation strategies offers promise in advancing effectuation theory. Practical implications Teams develop entrepreneurial competencies that transcend those of individual team members; where teams have more collective entrepreneurial experience, the effect on the tendency of individuals to engage in effectual reasoning is enhanced, which can be beneficial in highly uncertain contexts. Originality/value The results of this study are a step forward for effectuation theory, as it demonstrates the role of team-level variables in explaining individual causal and effectual reasoning.

This article 1 , 2 has two aligned aims: (i) to espouse the value of a strategic research orientation for the Information Systems Discipline; and (ii) to facilitate such a strategic orientation by recognising the value of programmatic research and promoting the publication of such work. It commences from the viewpoint that Information Systems (IS) research benefits from being strategic at every level, from individual researcher, to research program, to research discipline and beyond. It particularly advocates for more coordinated programs of research emphasising real-world impact, while recognising that vibrant, individual-driven and small-team research within broad areas of promise, is expected to continue forming the core of the IS research ecosystem. Thus, the overarching aim is the amplification of strategic thinking in IS research – the further leveraging of an orientation natural to the JSIS community, with emphasis on research programs as a main strategic lever, and further considering how JSIS can be instrumental in this aim.

To compete successfully in today's business environment, which is fraught with very heterogeneous and uncertain customer demands, manufacturing organizations are increasingly aiming to develop their mass customization capability (MCC), defined as the ability to fulfill each customer's idiosyncratic needs without considerable trade-offs in cost, delivery, and quality. The literature has overlooked the role of individual competencies (ICs) in the development of MCC, even though companies are paying growing attention to the challenge of developing their employees' competencies. The present study was aimed at narrowing this gap by using a well-established method for conducting IC assessments - namely, the behavioral event interview - to investigate the ICs of an operations manager (OM), which is among the professional roles most affected by product customization, that enhance the MCC of the manufacturing organization for which the OM works. A multiple-case study was designed involving eight cases chosen according to literal and theoretical replication logic among the machinery manufacturers of one European country. From this sample, I collected multilevel data on the MCC of each organization and on the OMs' ICs. Five OM ICs - negotiation, information seeking, efficiency orientation, analytical/systems thinking, and pattern recognition - emerged from this study, and this thesis provides empirical evidence and logical explanations for the positive effects of these ICs on a manufacturing organization's MCC. This PhD thesis is the first research on MCC-enabling managerial competencies that relies on multilevel data, considering both an organization's MCC and its managers' ICs, rather than on practitioners' experiences and opinions. This study also has managerial implications, providing guidance for the human resources management practices of companies pursuing a mass customization strategy. This study could be replicated for other managerial roles as well as in other industries and countries.

The purpose of this methodological insight is to analyze the foundations of multilevel research, answering two main questions: why this methodological approach is important for management research and how to conduct a multilevel study. We examine why multilevel research is relevant, emphasizing its potential, opportunities and basic principles. Moreover, we point out the main theoretical, methodological and analytic aspects to be considered for an appropriate application of multilevel research. The paper refers throughout to the basic literature on multilevel research, reviewing conceptual, methodological and empirical works. This work has been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Research Grant ECO2015-67310-P).

The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of how entrepreneurial leadership relates to workplace creativity in organizations from the compatibility perspective. Drawing on social cognitive theory, we propose that individual creative self-efficacy and team creative efficacy beliefs mediate the relationships between entrepreneurial leadership and individual and team creativity. This study examines the relationship between entrepreneurial leadership and creativity through creative efficacy. Survey data were collected from multiple sources, including 43 leaders and 237 employees in eight Chinese companies. Cross-level relationships are tested by means of a hierarchical linear modeling analysis (HLM). The results reveal that entrepreneurial leadership is positively related to employee and team creativity, and these relationships are found to be mediated by both employee creative self-efficacy and team creative efficacy. Furthermore, team creative efficacy is found to exert a cross-level mediating influence on the entrepreneurial leadership-employee creativity relationship. This study suggests that employees and teams led by entrepreneurial leaders are likely to produce creative outcomes. The findings further confirm the important role of creative efficacy beliefs in explaining how entrepreneurial leadership relates to employee and team creativity, as such beliefs serve as a within-level and cross-level mediating mechanism in these relationships. Our study is among the first to empirically investigate the concept of entrepreneurial leadership in a broader organizational context. We examine how entrepreneurial leadership contributes to workplace creativity. Our study shows that creative efficacy beliefs exert both within-level and cross-level mediating influences in the entrepreneurial leadership-creativity relation.

Most grade retention research focuses on cognitive learning effects, while research into non-cognitive outcomes, such as academic self-concept, is scarcer and remains largely inconclusive. Therefore, our objectives are to investigate if there is an association between academic self-concept and grade retention, if this association is mediated by sense of belonging and if the retention composition influences academic self-concept in both a direct and indirect way. We aim to contextualize retention research by using the reference group theory (RGT). Multilevel analyses were performed on data from the first wave of the International Study of City Youth (ISCY), gathered in Ghent (Belgium). The sample consisted out of 2354 students (56.5% female) in 30 schools, most of whom were born in a West European country (91.46%). Following the comparative reference group theory (CRGT), we expected that retainees make an assessment of the prevalence of grade retention among their peer group and adjust their interpretation of the event accordingly: the more people repeat a grade, the less a stigma it becomes for the retainees, which should result in a higher academic self-concept. On the other hand, we also expected that, based upon the normative reference group theory (NRGT), schools with a high retention composition would have a lower academic self-concept, since the norms of retainees are more likely to be reproduced by all students. Results showed that academic self-concept is negatively related to grade retention. This, however, stems from a mediation effect of sense of belonging. Grade retention is associated with a lower sense of belonging, which, on its turn, associates with a lower academic self-concept. Results further showed that there is no significant interaction effect of retention composition, so we were not able to confirm the CRGT. There was, however, a direct negative effect of retention composition upon academic self-concept, which supports the NRGT. In summary, we can conclude that academic self-concept is negatively related to school composition in a direct way and negatively related to individual grade retention in an indirect way.

Doutoramento em Gestão Information systems (IS) usage has been a topic of research for several years. After deciding to adopt an IS, organizations must ensure that the system is being correctly used in order to achieve the expected benefits from it. Different usage behaviors may arise as a result of continued IS usage. Routine use refers to usage behavior characterized by adopting standardized ways of IS usage to support work tasks. In innovative usage, users find new ways to use the IS to perform their work tasks. Most research is focused on the individual usage of systems but in organizations, system usage has a multilevel nature. The nature of IS use evolves from individual to collective level usage. These divergent usage behaviors are not currently well understood in the existent literature, especially as multilevel constructs. Each IS usage behavior at the individual level produce different outcomes in the collective level usage. However, the impacts of those behaviors are not explored in IS research. How teams behave when using the IS may allow them to become more ambidextrous and therefore, achieve better performance. To fulfill the existing gaps, based on IS continuance models, prior guidelines for studying system usage as a multilevel construct, and the extant literature, this study develops a comprehensive multilevel research model, for IS usage behaviors as multilevel constructs, team ambidexterity, and team performance. The proposed research model was empirically tested based on data of 109 individuals in 34 teams. The measurement and structural models were then assessed using structural equation modeling as implemented in Smart PLS 3.0 with data collected with a survey in a given organization. The results showed different findings for routine and innovative usage behaviors, at the individual and team levels. Routine usage is strongly related to habit in usage practices, while innovative usage with user satisfaction. Data also supported the direct relationship between individual and team level usage behaviors. Moreover, team routine usage behavior has a positive and significant impact on team performance mediated by team ambidexterity. In contrast, team innovative usage behavior is not related to team ambidexterity or performance. Additionally, team innovative usage negatively affects the team’ adaptability capacity. O comportamento de utilização de Sistemas de Informação (SI), tem sido objeto de estudo ao longo de muitos anos. Após a adoção de um SI, as organizações devem garantir que o mesmo é utilizado corretamente de forma a maximizarem os seus benefícios. Dois comportamentos de utilização de SI coexistem nas organizações. O uso rotineiro de SI caracterizado pela adoção de formas de utilização padrão de suporte à realização de tarefas de trabalho. Com uso inovador de SI, os utilizadores exploram e experimentam novas formas de utilização do SI. Estes comportamentos de utilização divergentes ainda não foram devidamente estudados como constructos multi-nível, no que concerne aos seus antecedentes como aos seus impactos. Neste estudo consideramos o uso de SI ao nível individual e da equipa. Com base em modelos teóricos de uso continuado de SI e diretrizes para estudar a utilização de SI como constructo multi-nível, desenvolvemos um modelo de investigação abrangente para comportamentos de utilização de SI a nível individual e da equipa, ambidestria e desempenho da equipa. O modelo proposto foi testado empiricamente com dados de 109 indivíduos e 34 equipas. Os modelos de medida e estrutural foram testados utilizando modelos de equações estruturais, conforme implementado no SmartPLS 3.0, com dados recolhidos através de um questionário numa organização. Da análise obtiveram-se resultados diferentes para o uso de rotina e uso inovador. O uso rotineiro de SI está fortemente associado ao hábito nas práticas de utilização, enquanto que o uso inovador com a satisfação do utilizador. Em ambos os comportamentos de utilização, existe uma relação direta entre o uso de SI dos indivíduos e o da sua equipa. A utilização rotineira de SI da equipa tem um efeito positivo no desempenho da equipa através da sua ambidestria. O comportamento inovador de SI não influencia o desempenho da equipa, embora afete negativamente a sua capacidade de adaptação à mudança. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Based on the perspective of conservation of resources (COR) theory, this study adopts a multilevel approach to examine the influences of employees&rsquo, personal resources (i.e., work engagement and intrinsic motivation) and external resources (i.e., transformational leadership) on knowledge sharing. This study conducts a survey to explore the interrelationships among transformational leadership, work engagement, intrinsic motivation, and knowledge sharing. The sample includes 33 healthcare work groups consisting of 214 group members. The results show that an individual&rsquo, s personal and external resources are positive and benefit the promotion of knowledge sharing. As for personal resources, work engagement has a positive impact on knowledge sharing by increasing intrinsic motivation. Regarding external resources, transformational leadership acts as a facilitator for knowledge sharing. Specifically, the conditional indirect effects of work engagement on knowledge sharing through intrinsic motivation are more positive under high levels of transformational leadership, rather than low levels of transformational leadership. Based on the COR theory, this is the first study to argue that knowledge sharing could be considered as an active activity and that individuals could be eager to perform knowledge sharing when they possess significant personal and external resources. The results of this study provide new insights into knowledge sharing.

Although all types of public collaborative networks are aimed towards taking joint actions, relations between partner organizations are not always so explicit. Referring to the dialectic approach, it may be concluded that a number of tensions are identifiable in networks, among them tension between cooperation and competition. Understanding the tensions that exist in inter-organizational networks is vital for a proper comprehension of networks, as continuous efforts to meet multiple, divergent demands should bring about long&ndash, term sustainability. To examine the phenomena of cooperation and competition in interorganizational networks, a quantitative study on local partnerships among Social Welfare Centers and other public institutions and non-profit institutions was conducted. Using a multi-level perspective, the research introduces orientation towards both cooperation and competition at different levels of analysis and examines the tensions between them. The results of this research show that there is a mutual influence of orientation towards competition/cooperation, both at the individual level and the network level, and that there is a mutual influence of the reconciliation of the contradictions between orientation towards cooperation and orientation towards competition both at the individual level and the network level.

The aim of the our paper is to discuss the relationships between organizational culture, Public Service Motivation (PSM) and organizational commitment (OC). On the basis of literature review we formulated hypotheses presenting potential relationships between mentioned constructs. We propose that there is a mutual influence between PSM and organizational culture and that organizational culture moderates the influence of Public Service Motivation on organizational commitment. Due to the presence of variables on different levels of analysis, we also discuss some issues of multilevel approach.

This article aims to verify the factors associated with the development of human resource management (HRM) competences in foreign subsidiaries of Brazilian multinationals. These competences are essential in that they allow foreign units to adopt HRM practices that are consistent with the countries or markets in which they operate. A multilevel research was conducted, involving headquarters and subsidiaries of major Brazilian companies; the empirical analysis employed hierarchical linear modelling. Despite the recurrent debate on global standardisation versus local adaptation, it was identified that the integration of international HRM policies (addressing simultaneously global guidelines and local response) may stimulate competences development. In addition, interaction in external networks in the host country may enhance the development of HRM competences in the subsidiaries. However, specific cultural factors of the company may inhibit development activity in units abroad. Neste artigo, tem-se por objetivo investigar os fatores associados ao desenvolvimento de competências de gestão de recursos humanos (GRH) em subsidiárias estrangeiras de multinacionais brasileiras. Essas competências são essenciais por permitirem às unidades estrangeiras adotar práticas de GRH consistentes com os países ou mercados nos quais operam. Uma pesquisa multinível foi realizada, envolvendo as matrizes e subsidiárias de empresas brasileiras; na análise empírica empregou-se modelagem hierárquico-linear. Apesar do debate recorrente sobre estandardização global versus adaptação local, identificou-se que a integração de políticas de GRH (focando simultaneamente diretrizes globais e resposta local) pode estimular o desenvolvimento de competências. Além disso, a interação com redes externas no país hospedeiro pode intensificar o desenvolvimento de competências de GRH. No entanto, determinados fatores culturais da empresa podem inibir tal desenvolvimento nas subsidiárias estrangeiras. El objetivo en este artículo es analizar los factores asociados con el desarrollo de competencias de gestión de recursos humanos (GRH) en subsidiarias extranjeras de multinacionales brasileñas. Estas competencias son fundamentales, pues permiten que las unidades extranjeras adopten prácticas de GRH que estén en consonancia con los países o mercados en los que operan. Se llevó a cabo un estudio multinivel, con la participación de matrices y subsidiarias de empresas brasileñas. Para el análisis empírico se utilizaron modelos lineales jerárquicos. A pesar del recurrente debate sobre la estandarización global en oposición a la adaptación local, se verificó que la integración de las políticas de GRH (con enfoque simultáneo en directrices globales y respuesta local) puede estimular el desarrollo de competencias. Asimismo, la interacción con redes externas en el país de acogida puede incrementar el desarrollo de competencias de GRH. Sin embargo, algunos factores culturales de la empresa pueden inhibir el desarrollo de esas competencias en sus subsidiarias en el extranjero.

Over the last few years, a new stream of research has emerged in the field of strategic management which focuses on the analysis of its microfoundations. This line of research analyzes strategic topics examining their foundations rooted in individual actions and interactions. The main purpose of this paper is to examine this emerging literature of microfoundations, indicating its usefulness and main characteristics. Through a systematic literature review, this paper contributes to the field by identifying the main areas studied, the benefits and potential of this approach, and some limitations and criticisms. Moreover, the paper studies how the integration of micro and macro aspects in strategy research may be carried out, examining several works that use a multilevel approach. Some methodological approaches that may help to effect this integration are indicated. These aspects will be analyzed in relation to the resource-based theory.

Far too often do management scholars resort to crude and often inappropriate measures of fundamental constructs in their research; an approach which calls in question the interpretation and validity of their findings. Scholars often legitimize poor choices in measurement with a lack of availability of better measures and/or that they are simply following existing research in adopting previously published measures without critically assessing the validity, appropriateness, and applicability of such measures in terms of the focal study. Motivated by a recent dialog in Journal of Business Research , this research note raises important questions about the use of proxies in management research and argues for greater care in operationalizing constructs with particular attention to matching levels of theory and measurement.

This paper sets out a typology for organizational ICT practice in order to derive a more holistic perspective of sociomateriality and its constituent elements (i.e. humans, objects, and practice). Seminal literature by Parsons and Bourdieu is combined with sociomateriality literature in order to offer insights into the factors that need to be investigated when conducting research into organizational ICT practice. The outlined typology is evaluated through an empirical case study of a connected health ICT project to show how the dimensions of the typology come together and contribute to a better understanding.

Researchers have emphasized theory's pivotal importance in the information systems (IS) discipline since its inception. As in many science disciplines, IS scholars' ability to understand and contribute to theory is an important qualification in research practice. As a discipline, we require solid foundations for why we engage with theory, what theory is for us, and how we work with theory. We synthesize and reflect on the debates on theories and theorizing in the IS discipline. In doing so, we inform (particularly new) authors about the current state of the IS discipline's debate on theory and theorizing and help them identify opportunities in theorizing to put theory to work. We do not intend to advocate or cement that status quo we portray but rather, through informing the community about it, to support early efforts to further develop and move beyond the current state of the debate on theory and theorizing in IS research.

This article empirically investigates the role of organizational structure in the transformational leadership (TFL) process. We examine organizational centralization, formalization, and size as antecedents of an organization's TFL climate, and as moderators of the relationship between TFL climate and productive organizational energy (POE). Hypotheses are tested using a sample of 125 organizations. Results show that both the centralization and size of an organization are negatively related to its TFL climate, whereas formalization has a positive association. Further, while there is a positive linkage between TFL climate and POE, both centralization and formalization moderate this relationship. The TFL climate-POE linkage is diminished under conditions of high centralization, and it is enhanced under conditions of high formalization. These findings point to the role of organizational structure as a boundary condition for both the occurrence and the effectiveness of TFL in organizations. The paper concludes by acknowledging its limitations and discussing its implications for practice and research. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Joint venture (JV) research continues to flourish as researchers seek to advance our understanding of why so many JVs fail. Cui and Kumar (this issue) take a contingency approach to explain how and why business relatedness may provide new insights as to what determines JV termination. This commentary essay evaluates their study against the backdrop of a considerable literature on JV success and failure and provides guidelines as to how future research may advance the field even further. The commentary concludes that scholars need to (1) develop and position their research in a coherent, theoretical framework suitable for investigating the complex JV phenomena, (2) pay attention to the relational nature of JVs as they evolve over time, and (3) avoid mismatches between levels of theory, measurement and analysis when conducting JV research.

Frontline employees in traditional customer service units are under increasing pressure to pursue the twin goals of providing quality service while achieving productivity gains by meeting increased sales targets—that is, being service-sales ambidextrous. Drawing from literature on organizational ambidexterity, this study explores forces that facilitate the conversion from a service-only environment to one that emphasizes both sales and service behavior. With a sample of more than 2,306 frontline employees in 267 bank branches, this study examines the impact of contextual variables on service-sales ambidexterity from a multilevel perspective. It then explores the consequences by analyzing objective financial data at the retail branch level, which reveal a significant relationship between ambidexterity and financial performance. Empowerment and transformational leadership are positively associated with service-sales ambidexterity at individual and branch levels; team support is associated with ambidexterity only at the individual employee level. Managers thus should let service workers exercise their own judgment when deciding when or what to up- or cross-sell. The delegation of authority works best for branch office veterans whose service excellence and selling both are recognized and rewarded.

Tese submetida como requisito parcial para obtenção do grau de Doutoramento em Psicologia especialização em Psicologia Comunitária As parcerias comunitárias são estruturas privilegiadas para a adopção de recursos sociais e abordam problemas que uma organização, serviço ou população não podem autonomamente resolver ou ultrapassar. Com este estudo desenvolvido através de uma abordagem de investigação multi-método, procurou-se explorar as antinomias e complementaridades das abordagens preventivas e de resposta directa articulada às situações de abuso ou negligência de crianças e jovens através das Comissões de Protecção de Crianças e Jovens (CPCJ’s). Foram conduzidas trinta e três entrevistas-chave, a nível nacional, com presidentes das Comissões ou um representante por este designado, procurando compreender as suas prioridades, como consideram ter alcançado os objectivos a que se propunham e documentar os seus esforços para promover uma colaboração frutífera com a comunidade e 244 questionários de eficácia percepcionada foram validados para a prossecução deste estudo, a membros das referidas CPCJ’s. O estudo destas parcerias a partir de um mesmo enquadramento legal (Lei 174/ 99 1 de Setembro), permitiu a análise da implementação de uma mesma proposta em contextos diversificados, tendo sido possível compreender a diversidade e a confluência de padrões organizacionais e procedimentais. Os resultados demonstraram a variabilidade das realidades em função da localização geográfica das Comissões (urbanas, rurais, mistas), como o tempo de funcionamento, remetendo para a experiência acumulada também influencia os resultados e que as variáveis associadas ao clima social (partilha de poder no processo de decisão, a resolução de conflitos, a liderança inclusiva e a presença de uma missão partilhada) tem uma influência positiva significativa na eficácia e na influência percepcionada pelo trabalho em parceria desenvolvido pelas CPCJ’s e não tem uma influência significativa nas mudanças sociais observadas ao longo do tempo nas comunidades. ---------- Abstract ---------- Community Coalitions are privileged endeavors to activate social resources and address problems that a single organization, service or group cannot autonomously solve or overcome. With this proposal we aim to present a multi-method study that explores antinomies and complementarities of preventive efforts and the search for articulated response to child abuse and neglect. Key-Informant Interviews (N=33), were conducted in Portugal (nationwide) to presidents of county Commissions for the Protection of Children & Youth, probing to understand their priorities, the perceived levels of goal attainment, to document successful collaborative efforts, and identify preventive and articulated response at the community level. Perceived effectiveness questionnaires (N=244) were validated to members of these community councils. Results indicate that though these coalitions are created by Law (147/99, Sept 1st), which provided a common set of procedures and aims, facilitating the emergence of patterns for organizational, procedural and result analysis, the achievements and actions have a high degree of variance determined by the location of the commissions (Urban/ Rural), by the length of time in place. Significant differences were also found in the variables associated with social climate (shared power in decision making; conflict resolution, inclusive leadership and the presence of a shared mission) that are positively correlated with the perceived influence and effectiveness concerning the coalition’s work with the community. No significant correlations were observed with the social climate factors and changes in the community overtime. Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia

The hierarchical linear model approach to a two-level design is considered, some variables at the lower level having fixed and others having random regression coefficients. An approximation is derived to the covariance matrix of the estimators of the fixed regression coefficients (for variables at the lower and the higher level) under the assumption that the sample sizes at either level are large enough. This covariance matrix is expressed as a function of parameters occurring in the model. If a research planner can make a reasonable guess as to these parameters, this approximation can be used as a guide to the choice of sample sizes at either level.