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We present a pore-scale model of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) cathode. Volatile chromium species are known to migrate from the current collector of the SOFC into the cathode where over time they decrease the voltage output of the fuel cell. A pore-scale model is used to investigate the reactive transport of chromium species in the cathode and to study the driving forces of chromium poisoning. A multi-scale modeling approach is proposed which uses a cell level model of the cathode, air channel and current collector to determine the boundary conditions for a pore-scale model of a section of the cathode. The pore-scale model uses a discrete representation of the cathode to explicitly model the surface reactions of oxygen and chromium with the cathode material. The pore-scale model is used to study the reaction mechanisms of chromium by considering the effects of reaction rates, diffusion coefficients, chromium vaporization, and oxygen consumption on chromium's deposition in the cathode. The study shows that chromium poisoning is most significantly affected by the chromium reaction rates in the cathode and that the reaction rates are a function of the local current density in the cathode.

A phase-field model is developed to investigate the migration of vacancies, interstitials, and voids during irradiation in a thermal gradient. Void growth kinetics during irradiation are also modeled. The model accounts for the generation of defects including vacancies and interstitials associated with the radiation damage, recombination of vacancies and interstitials, defect diffusion, and defect sinks. The effect of void size, vacancy concentration, vacancy generation rate, recombination rate, and temperature gradient on a single void migration and growth is parametrically studied. The results demonstrate that a temperature gradient causes void migration and defect fluxes, i.e., the Soret effect, which affects void stability and growth kinetics. It is found that (1) void migration mobility is independent of void size, which is in agreement with the theoretical prediction under the assumption of bulk diffusion controlled migration; (2) void migration mobility strongly depends on the temperature gradient and (3) the effect of defect concentration, generation rate, and recombination rate on void migration mobility is minor although they strongly influence void growth kinetics.

In this paper, the microstructure-based finite element modeling method is used as a virtual design tool in investigating the respective influence of various material design parameters on the deformation behaviors of transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels. For this purpose, the separate effects of several different material design parameters, such as the volume fraction and stability of austenite phase and the strengths of the constituent phases, on the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and ductility/formability of TRIP steels are quantitatively examined using different representative volume elements (RVEs) representing different TRIP steels. The computational results suggest that higher austenite stability is helpful in enhancing the ductility and formability of TRIP steels by delaying the martensitic transformation to a later stage, whereas increase of austenite volume fraction and/or ferrite strength alone is not beneficial to improve the performance of TRIP steels. The results also indicate that various material design parameters must be adjusted concurrently to develop high-performance TRIP steels. The information based on investigations in this paper can help guide the development of high-performance TRIP steels by providing the microstructure level deformation mechanisms.

Recent developments on decreasing the operating temperature for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) have enabled the use of high-temperature ferritic alloys as interconnect materials. Oxide scale will inevitably grow on the ferritic interconnects in a high-temperature oxidation environment of SOFCs. The growth of the oxide scale induces growth stresses in the scale layer and on the scale/substrate interface. These growth stresses combined with the thermal stresses induced after stacking cooling by the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the oxide scale and the substrate may lead to scale delamination/buckling and eventual spallation, which may lead to serious cell performance degradation. Hence, the interfacial adhesion strength between the oxide scale and the substrate is crucial to the reliability and durability of the metallic interconnect in SOFC operating environments. In this article, we applied an integrated experimental/modeling methodology to quantify the interfacial adhesion strength between the oxide scale and the SS 441 metallic interconnect. The predicted interfacial strength is discussed in detail.

An integrated experimental/modeling approach was utilized to assess the structural integrity of Ni–yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) porous anode supports during the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) operation on coal gas containing trace amounts of phosphorus impurities. Phosphorus was chosen as a typical impurity exhibiting strong interactions with the nickel followed by second phase formation. Tests were performed using Ni–YSZ anode-supported button cells exposed to 0.5–10 ppm of phosphine in synthetic coal gas at 700–800 °C. The extent of Ni–P interactions was determined by a post-test scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Severe damage to the anode support due to nickel phosphide phase formation and extensive crystal coalescence was revealed, resulting in electric percolation loss. The subsequent finite element stress analyses were conducted using the actual anode support microstructures to assist in degradation mechanism explanation. Volume expansion induced by the Ni phase alteration was found to produce high stress levels such that local failure of the Ni–YSZ anode became possible under the operating conditions.

This paper examines the electrochemical and direct internal steam–methane reforming performance of the solid oxide fuel cell when subjected to pressurization. Pressurized operation boosts the Nernst potential and decreases the activation polarization, both of which serve to increase cell voltage and power while lowering the heat load and operating temperature. A model considering the activation polarization in both the fuel and the air electrodes was adopted to address this effect on the electrochemical performance. The pressurized methane conversion kinetics and the increase in equilibrium methane concentration are considered in a new rate expression. The models were then applied in simulations to predict how the distributions of direct internal reforming rate, temperature, and current density are effected within stacks operating at elevated pressure. A generic 10 cm counter-flow stack model was created and used for the simulations of pressurized operation. The predictions showed improved thermal and electrical performance with increased operating pressure. The average and maximum cell temperatures decreased by 3% (20 °C) while the cell voltage increased by 9% as the operating pressure was increased from 1 to 10 atm.

A full statistical analysis of the microstructure of glass–ceramic solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) seal material, G18, is performed to calculate elastic properties. Predictions are made for samples aged for 4 h and 1000 h, giving different crystallinity levels. Microstructure of the glass–ceramic G18 is characterized by correlation function for each individual phase. Predicted results are compared with the Voigt and Reuss bounds in this study. The weak contrast analysis results in elastic modulus predictions between the upper and lower bounds but closer to the upper bound.

This study utilizes nanoindentation to investigate and measure creep properties of a barium calcium alumino-silicate glass–ceramic used for solid oxide fuel cell seals (SOFCs). Samples of the glass–ceramic seal material were aged for 5, 50, and 100 h to obtain different degrees of crystallinity. Instrumented nanoindentation was performed on the samples with different aging times at different temperatures to investigate the strain rate sensitivity during inelastic deformation. The temperature dependent behavior is important since SOFCs operate at high temperatures (800–1000 °C). Results show that the samples with higher crystallinity were more resistant to creep, and the creep compliance tended to decrease with increasing temperature, especially with further aged samples.

High-temperature ferritic alloys are potential candidates as interconnect (IC) materials and spacers due to their low cost and coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) compatibility with other components for most of the solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) . However, creep deformation becomes relevant for a material when the operating temperature exceeds or even is less than half of its melting temperature (in degrees of Kelvin). The operating temperatures for most of the SOFCs under development are around 1,073 K. With around 1,800 K of the melting temperature for most stainless steel, possible creep deformation of ferritic IC under the typical cell operating temperature should not be neglected. In this paper, the effects of IC creep behavior on stack geometry change and the stress redistribution of different cell components are predicted and summarized. The goal of the study is to investigate the performance of the fuel cell stack by obtaining the changes in fuel- and air-channel geometry due to creep of the ferritic stainless steel IC, therefore indicating possible changes in SOFC performance under long-term operations. The ferritic IC creep model was incorporated into software SOFC-MP and Mentat-FC, and finite element analyses were performed to quantify the deformed configuration of the SOFCmore » stack under the long-term steady-state operating temperature. It was found that the creep behavior of the ferritic stainless steel IC contributes to narrowing of both the fuel- and the air-flow channels. In addition, stress re-distribution of the cell components suggests the need for a compliant sealing material that also relaxes at operating temperature.« less

Statistical correlation function, including two-point function, is one of the popular methods to digitize microstructure quantitatively. This paper investigated how to represent statistical correlations using layered fast spherical harmonics expansion. A set of spherical harmonics coefficients may be used to represent the corresponding microstructures. It is applied to represent carbon nanotube composite microstructures to demonstrate how efficiently and precisely the harmonics coefficients will characterize the microstructure. This microstructure representation methodology will dramatically improve the computational efficiencies for future works in microstructure reconstruction and property prediction.

High operating temperatures of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) require that the sealant must function at a high temperature between 600°C and 900°C and in the oxidizing and reducing environments of fuel and air. This paper describes tests to investigate the temporal evolution of the volume fraction of ceramic phases, the evolution of micro-damage, and the self-healing behavior of the glass–ceramic sealant used in SOFCs. It was found that after the initial sintering process, further crystallization of the glass–ceramic sealant does not stop, but slows down and reduces the residual glass content while boosting the ceramic crystalline content. Under a long-term operating environment, distinct fibrous and needle-like crystals in the amorphous phase disappeared, and smeared/diffused phase boundaries between the glass phase and ceramic phase were observed. Meanwhile, the micro-damage was induced by the cooling down process from the operating temperature to room temperature, which can potentially degrade the mechanical properties of the glass/ceramic sealant. The glass/ceramic sealant exhibited self-healing upon reheating to the SOFC operating temperature, which can restore the mechanical performance of the glass/ceramic sealant.

In this paper, we examine the key factors influencing ductile failure of various grades of dual phase (DP) steels using the microstructure-based modeling approach. Various microstructure-based finite element models are generated based on the actual microstructures of DP steels with different martensite volume fractions. These models are, then, used to investigate the influence of ductility of the constituent ferrite phase and also the influence of voids introduced in the ferrite phase on the overall ductility of DP steels. It is found that with volume fraction of martensite in the microstructure less than 15%, the overall ductility of the DP steels strongly depends on the ductility of the ferrite matrix, hence pre-existing micro-voids in the microstructure significantly reduce the overall ductility of the steel. When the volume fraction of martensite is above 15%, the pre-existing voids in the ferrite matrix does not significantly reduce the overall ductility of the DP steels, and the overall ductility is more influenced by the mechanical property disparity between the two phases. The applicability of the phase inhomogeneity driven ductile failure of DP steels is then discussed based on the obtained computational results for various grades of DP steels, and the experimentally obtained scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures of the corresponding grades of DP steels near fracture surface are used as evidence for result validations.

The creep behavior of glass or glass–ceramic sealant materials used in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) becomes relevant under SOFC operating temperatures. In this paper, the creep of glass–ceramic sealants was experimentally examined, and a standard linear solid model was applied to capture the creep behavior of glass–ceramic sealant materials developed for planar SOFCs at high temperatures. The parameters of this model were determined based on the creep test results. Furthermore, the creep model was incorporated into finite-element software programs SOFC-MP and Mentat-FC developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for multiphysics simulation of SOFCs. The effect of creep of glass–ceramic sealant materials on the long-term performance of SOFC stacks was investigated by studying the stability of the flow channels and the stress redistribution in the glass seal and on the various interfaces of the glass seal with other layers. Finite-element analyses were performed to quantify the stresses in various parts. The stresses in glass seals were released because of creep behavior during operations.

Ductile failure of metals is often treated as the result of void nucleation, growth and coalescence. Various criteria have been proposed to capture this failure mechanism for various materials. In this study, ductile failure of dual phase steels is predicted in the form of plastic strain localization resulting from the incompatible deformation between the harder martensite phase and the softer ferrite matrix. Microstructure-level inhomogeneity serves as the initial imperfection triggering the instability in the form of plastic strain localization during the deformation process. Failure modes and ultimate ductility of two dual phase steels are analyzed using finite element analyses based on the actual steel microstructures. The plastic work hardening properties for the constituent phases are determined by the in-situ synchrotron-based high-energy X-ray diffraction technique. Under different loading conditions, different failure modes and ultimate ductility are predicted in the form of plastic strain localization. It is found that the local failure mode and ultimate ductility of dual phase steels are closely related to the stress state in the material. Under plane stress condition with free lateral boundary, one dominant shear band develops and leads to final failure of the material. However, if the lateral boundary is constrained, splitting failure perpendicular to the loading direction is predicted with much reduced ductility. On the other hand, under plane strain loading condition, commonly observed necking phenomenon is predicted which leads to the final failure of the material. These predictions are in reasonably good agreement with experimental observations.

This paper discusses experimental determination of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) glass–ceramic seal material properties and seal/interconnect interfacial properties to support development and optimization of SOFC designs through modeling. Material property experiments such as dynamic resonance, dilatometry, flexure, creep, tensile, and shear tests were performed on PNNL's glass–ceramic sealant material, designated as G18, to obtain property data essential to constitutive and numerical model development. Characterization methods for the physical, mechanical, and interfacial properties of the sealing material, results, and their application to the constitutive implementation in SOFC stack modeling are described.

Due to mismatch of the coefficients of thermal expansion of various layers in the positive/electrolyte/negative (PEN) structures of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), thermal stresses and warpage on the PEN are unavoidable due to the temperature changes from the stress-free sintering temperature to room temperature during the PEN manufacturing process. In the meantime, additional mechanical stresses will also be created by mechanical flattening during the stack assembly process. In order to ensure the structural integrity of the cell and stack of SOFC, it is necessary to develop failure criteria for SOFC PEN structures based on the initial flaws occurred during cell sintering and stack assembly. In this paper, the global relationship between the critical energy release rate and critical curvature and maximum displacement of the warped cells caused by the temperature changes as well as mechanical flattening process is established so that possible failure of SOFC PEN structures may be predicted deterministically by the measurement of the curvature and displacement of the warped cells.

In this study, the effective elastic properties and coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) of a glass-ceramic were predicted using homogenization techniques. Using G18, a glass-ceramic solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) sealant as an initial reference material, the effectiveness of different homogenization models was investigated for a two-phase glass-ceramic. The elastic properties and CTEs of the G18 amorphous phase are currently unknown. Thus, estimated values were used as an input to the models. The predictive model offers accurate macroscopic values on both the elastic modulus and the CTE of glass-ceramic materials, providing the estimated amorphous values are reasonable. This model can be used in designing glass-ceramic SOFC seal materials for its specific operation conditions.

We study the ultimate ductility and failure modes of a commercial transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) 800 steel under different loading conditions with an advanced microstructure-based finite-element analysis. The representative volume element (RVE) for the TRIP 800 under examination is developed based on an actual microstructure obtained from scanning electron microscopy. The ductile failure of the TRIP 800 under different loading conditions is predicted in the form of plastic strain localization without any prescribed failure criteria for the individual phases. This indicates that the microstructure-level inhomogeneity of the various constituent phases can be the key factor influencing the final ductility of the TRIP 800 steel under different loading conditions. Comparisons of the computational results with experimental measurements suggest that the microstructure-based modeling approach accurately captures the overall macroscopic behavior of the TRIP 800 steel under different loading and boundary conditions.

In this paper, various micromechanics models based on actual microstructures of DP steels are examined in order to determine the reasonable range of martensite volume fraction where the methodology described in this study can be applied. For this purpose, various micromechanics-based finite element models are first created based on the actual microstructures of DP steels with different martensite volume fractions. These models are, then, used to investigate the influence of ductility of the constituent ferrite and martensite phases and also the influence of voids in the ferrite phase on the overall ductility of DP steels. The computational results indicate that there is a range of martensite volume fraction where the phase inhomogeneity between the ferrite and martensite phases has dominant effect on the overall ductility of DP steels, defeating the influence of the ductility of each phase and the voids in the ferrite phase, and that this phase inhomogeneity dominant region includes the range of marteniste volume fraction between 15% and 40%. Therefore, the methodology, adopted in this study, may be applied to DP steels within the phase inhomogeneity dominant region in tailoring the DP steel design for its intended purpose and desired properties.

In this paper, we present an integrated experimental and modeling methodology in predicting the life of coated and uncoated metallic interconnect (IC) for solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) applications. The ultimate goal is to provide cell designer and manufacture with a predictive methodology such that the life of the IC system can be managed and optimized through different coating thickness to meet the overall cell designed life. Crofer 22 APU is used as the example IC material system. The life of coated and uncoated Crofer 22 APU under isothermal cooling was predicted by comparing the predicted interfacial strength and the interfacial stresses induced by the cooling process from the operating temperature to room temperature, together with the measured oxide scale growth kinetics. It was found that the interfacial strength between the oxide scale and the Crofer 22 APU substrate decreases with the growth of the oxide scale, and that the interfacial strength for the oxide scale/spinel coating interface is much higher than that of the oxide scale/Crofer 22 APU substrate interface. As expected, the predicted life of the coated Crofer 22 APU is significantly longer than that of the uncoated Crofer 22 APU.

The effects of the mechanical properties of the martensite phase on the failure mode and ductility of dual-phase (DP) steels are investigated using a micromechanics-based finite element method. Actual microstructures of DP steels obtained from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are used as representative volume elements (RVEs) in the finite element calculations. Ductile failure of the RVE is predicted as plastic strain localization during the deformation process. Systematic computations are conducted on the RVE to quantitatively evaluate the influence of the martensite mechanical properties and volume fraction on the macroscopic mechanical properties of DP steels. These properties include the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), ultimate ductility, and failure modes. The computational results show that, as the strength and volume fraction of the martensite phase increase, the UTS of DP steels increases, but the UTS strain and failure strain decrease. In addition, shear-dominant failure modes usually develop for DP steels with lower martensite strengths, whereas split failure modes typically develop for DP steels with higher martensite strengths. The methodology and data presented in this article can be used to tailor DP steel design for its intended purposes and desired properties.

An extension of the classical phenomenological dislocation theory U.F. Kocks and H. Mecking, Prog. Mater. Sci. 48 (2003) p. 171, Y. Estrin, J. Mater. Processing Technol. 80–81 (1998) p. 33 is proposed to develop a viscoplastic constitutive equation for steels undergoing (α′) martensitic phase transformation. Such a class of metallic material exhibits an additional inelastic strain resulting from the phase transformation itself and from the plastic accommodation in parent (austenite) and product (martensite) phases due to different sources of internal stresses. This inelastic strain, known as the transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) strain, enhances ductility at an appropriate strength level due to the typical properties of martensite. The principal features of martensitic transformation at different scales are discussed and a macroscopic model derived from microscopic considerations. The material is considered as a combination of two viscoplastic phases, where the martensitic one is considered as a st...

Compared to other advanced high-strength steels, transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels exhibit better ductility at a given strength level and can be used to produce complicated automotive parts. This enhanced formability comes from the transformation of retained austenite to martensite during plastic deformation. In this study, as a first step in predicting optimum processing parameters in TRIP steel productions, a micromechanical finite element model is developed based on the actual microstructure of a TRIP 800 steel. The method uses a microstructure-based representative volume element (RVE) to capture the complex deformation behavior of TRIP steels. The mechanical properties of the constituent phases of the TRIP 800 steel and the fitting parameters describing the martensite transformation kinetics are determined using the synchrotron-based in-situ high-energy X-ray diffraction (HEXRD) experiments performed under a uniaxial tensile deformation. The experimental results suggest that the HEXRD technique provides a powerful tool for characterizing the phase transformation behavior and the microstress developed due to the phase-to-phase interaction of TRIP steels during deformation. The computational results suggest that the response of the RVE well represents the overall macroscopic behavior of the TRIP 800 steel under deformation. The methodology described in this study may be extended for studying the effects of the various processing parameters on the macroscopic behaviors of TRIP steels.

Multiple-step ultrasonic spray pyrolysis was developed to produce a gradient porous lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM) cathode on yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte for use in intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs). The effect of solvent and precursor type on the morphology and compositional homogeneity of the LSM film was first identified. The LSM film prepared from organo-metallic precursor and organic solvent showed a homogeneous crack-free microstructure before and after heat treatment as opposed to aqueous solution. With respect to the effect of processing parameters, increasing the temperature and solution flow rate in the specific range of 520–580 °C leads to change the microstructure from a dense to a highly porous structure. Using a dilute organic solution a nanocrystalline thin layer was first deposited at 520 °C and solution flow rate of 0.73 ml/min on YSZ surface; then, three gradient porous layers were sprayed from concentrated solution at higher temperatures (540–580 °C) and solution flow rates (1.13–1.58 ml/min) to form a gradient porous LSM cathode film with ∼30 μm thickness. The microstructure, phase crystallinity and compositional homogeneity of the fabricated films were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive analysis of X-ray (EDX). Results showed that the spray pyrolized gradient film fabricated in the temperature range of 520–580 °C is composed of highly crystalline LSM phase which can remove the need for subsequent heat treatment.

This paper examines the effects of fusion zone size on failure modes, static strength and energy absorption of resistance spot welds (RSW) of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) under lap shear loading condition. DP800 and TRIP800 spot welds are considered. The main failure modes for spot welds are nugget pullout and interfacial fracture. Partial interfacial fracture is also observed. Static weld strength tests using lap shear samples were performed on the joint populations with various fusion zone sizes. The resulted peak load and energy absorption levels associated with each failure mode were studied for all the weld populations using statistical data analysis tools. The results in this study show that AHSS spot welds with conventionally required fusion zone size of 4 t cannot produce nugget pullout mode for both the DP800 and TRIP800 welds under lap shear loading. Moreover, failure mode has strong influence on weld peak load and energy absorption for all the DP800 welds and the TRIP800 small welds: welds failed in pullout mode have statistically higher strength and energy absorption than those failed in interfacial fracture mode. For TRIP800 welds above the critical fusion zone level, the influence of weld failure modes on peak load and energy absorption diminishes. Scatter plots of peak load and energy absorption versus weld fusion zone size were then constructed, and the results indicate that fusion zone size is the most critical factor in weld quality in terms of peak load and energy absorption for both DP800 and TRIP800 spot welds.

The mechanical properties and response of two polypropylene (PP)-based composites have been determined for small strains and for a range of strain rates in the quasi-static domain. These two materials are talc-filled and unfilled high-impact PP. Uniaxial tensile tests were performed at different strain rates in order to characterize the mechanical response and the strain rate effect. The experimental results showed that both unfilled and talc-filled high-impact PP were sensitive to strain rate and exhibited nonlinear behavior even at relatively low strains. SEM analysis was conducted to obtain a better comprehension of deformation mechanisms involved during loading by observations of the microstructure evolution. For each of these two materials, two existing modeling approaches are proposed. The first one is a three-parameter nonlinear constitutive model based on the experimental results. The second is a micromechanically based approach for the elastic-viscoplastic behavior of the composite materials. The stress-strain curves predicted by these models are in fairly good agreement with our experimental results.

This paper describes the fabrication process for the thin cast-in-place laminate glazing systems to be used in cars of the future to achieve the weight reduction goals of FreedomCAR. The primary objective of the project is to reduce vehicle weight, improve fuel economy, and reduce vehicle emissions through the use of structurally reliable, high acoustic performance, and lightweight glazing systems with low manufacturing costs. Energy savings come from reducing weight by using thinner glazing: prior studies at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) have demonstrated a potential of 30% weight reductions compared with standard glazing system. Energy savings will also come from reducing interior heat loads; that, in turn, will reduce the demand for air conditioning. The evaluation of alternative glazing concepts seeks to improve acoustical performance such that reduced interior noise levels can be achieved while maintaining glazing at minimal thickness and weight levels. The most important factor in utilizing laminated glazing systems as vehicle side glass is its advantage in cost savings for material and manufacturing processes.

The interfacial adhesion strength between the oxide scale and the substrate is crucial to the reliability and durability of metallic interconnects in solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) operating environments. It is necessary, therefore, to establish a methodology to quantify the interfacial adhesion strength between the oxide scale and the metallic interconnect substrate, and furthermore to design and optimize the interconnect material as well as the coating materials to meet the design life of an SOFC system. In this paper, we present an integrated experimental/analytical methodology for quantifying the interfacial adhesion strength between the oxide scale and a ferritic stainless steel interconnect. Stair-stepping indentation tests are used in conjunction with subsequent finite element analyses to predict the interfacial strength between the oxide scale and Crofer 22 APU substrate.

This paper summarizes the dynamic joint strength evaluation procedures and the measured dynamic strength data for 13 joint populations of self-piercing rivets (SPR) and resistance spot welds (RSWs) joining similar and dissimilar metals. A state-of-the-art review of the current practice for conducting dynamic tensile/compressive strength tests in different strain rate regimes is first presented, and the generic issues associated with dynamic strength test are addressed. Then, the joint strength testing procedures and fixture designs used in the current study are described, and the typical load versus displacement curves under different loading configurations are presented. Uniqueness of the current data compared with data in the open literature is discussed. The majority of experimental results indicate that joint strength increases with increasing loading rate. However, the strength increase from 4.47 m/s (10 mph) to 8.94 m/s (20 mph) is not as significant as the strength increase from static to 4.47 m/s. It is also found that with increasing loading velocity, displacement to failure decreases for all the joint samples. Therefore, ‘brittleness’ of the joint sample increases with impact velocity. Detailed static and dynamic strength data and the associated energy absorption levels for all the samples in the 13 joint populations are also included.

Interconnects in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) provide the electrical connection between the individual cells, as well as separate the anode air from the cathode fuel for each cell. The recently developed anode-supported planar SOFCs design allows the cell working temperature to be 800oC and lower, which led to the proposed use of ferritic stainless steel as interconnects and current collectors in the SOFC systems. Many experimental studies have shown that metal based interconnects will go through surface oxidation under the typical operating temperature and environment of an SOFC system. Since the oxide scale is formed at the outer surface of interconnect, its microstructure (morphology, texture), properties (electrical, thermal and mechanical properties), and structural integrity/stability will have a significant impact on the performance of interconnect. In this paper, we study the oxide growth kinetics and stresses generated during scale growth the thermal cycling for Cr-Fe based alloy, e.g. Crofer 22 APU. The goal is to predict the interconnect life under typical operating conditions and thermal cycles. First, a mathematical model is developed based on the growth of scale and coupling relation between diffusion and stress field. The following phenomena are considered: 1) The predominant cationic diffusion and cation distribution withinmore » the oxide scale in transient state and steady state; 2) Chemical reaction within the scale as well as the growth kinetics of the oxide scale; 3) Stresses distribution during the oxidation, especially for mid- and long-term treatment; 4) Coupling relationship or interaction between oxidation induced stresses and mass diffusion within the scale. Next, thermal stresses generated due to temperature changes in thermal cycling are predicted using finite element analyses for different substrate and scale thickness. In general, very high compressive in-plane stresses are predicted for the oxide layer. Also, high shear stress is also predicted on the oxide/substrate interface. The predicted shear stress on the interface is used to compare with the experimentally determined bond strength to predict delamination. Finally, scale spallation and IC life prediction are predicted by comparing the compressive stress in the scale with the critical buckling load for the delaminated scale.« less

Numerical simulations were performed to determine the effect that varying the percent on-cell steam-methane reformation would have on the thermal, electrical, and mechanical performance of generic, planar solid oxide fuel cell stacks. The study was performed using three-dimensional model geometries for cross-, co-, and counter-flow configuration stacks of 10x10- and 20x20-cm cell sizes. The analysis predicted the stress and temperature difference would be minimized for the 10x10-cm counter- and cross-flow stacks when 40 to 50% of the reformation reaction occurred on the anode. Gross electrical power density was virtually unaffected by the reforming. The co-flow stack benefited most from the on-cell reforming and had the lowest anode stresses of the 20x20-cm stacks. The analyses also suggest that airflows associated with 15% air utilization may be required for cooling the larger (20x20-cm) stacks.

This paper summarizes the fatigue test results of self-piercing rivet (SPR) joints between similar and dissimilar sheet metals. The influences of material grades, material thickness, piercing direction and the use of structural adhesive on the rivet samples’ fatigue behaviors were investigated. Fatigue test results indicate that SPR joints have superior fatigue strength than resistance spot weld (RSW) joints for the same material combinations. The application of structural adhesive also significantly enhances the fatigue strength of the joint samples; this is particularly true for the lap-shear loading configuration. In addition, different piercing directions for SPR joints have a noticeable effect on the static and fatigue strength of the joints. The joint fatigue results presented in this paper offer design engineers the durability data for SPR joints with various material combinations under different loading conditions. Moreover, it provides manufacturing engineers with some insights on the effects of different manufacturing parameters on the strength and durability of these joints.

Statistical continuum approach is used to predict effective conductivity of anisotropic random porous heterogeneous media using two-point correlation functions. Probability functions play a critical role in describing the statistical distribution of different constituents in a heterogeneous media. In this study a three-dimensional two-point correlation function is utilized to characterize the anisotropic media without making any assumption on the microstructure. Examples in this study demonstrated how the model captured the anisotropy in effective conductivity of the random heterogeneous media. Predicted results showed the influence of microstructure on the effective conductivity tensor.

In this research, a Simulink model of a standalone vehicular solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) auxiliary power unit (APU) is developed. The SOFC APU model consists of three major components: a controller model; a power electronics system model; and an SOFC plant model, including an SOFC stack module, two heat exchanger modules, and a combustor module. This paper discusses the development of the nonlinear dynamic models for the SOFC stacks, the heat exchangers and the combustors. When coupling with a controller model and a power electronic circuit model, the developed SOFC plant model is able to model the thermal dynamics and the electrochemical dynamics inside the SOFC APU components, as well as the transient responses to the electric loading changes. It has been shown that having such a model for the SOFC APU will help design engineers to adjust design parameters to optimize the performance. The modeling results of the SOFC APU heat-up stage and the output voltage response to a sudden load change are presented in this paper. The fuel flow regulation based on fuel utilization is also briefly discussed.

This paper addresses the damage and fracture issues of glass and ceramic materials used in solid oxide fuel cells. Analyses of an internal crack and of an interface crack between dissimilar materials were conducted using a modified boundary layer modeling approach. In this approach, fracture is allowed to occur in a small process window situated at an initial crack tip. Elastic displacement crack-tip fields are prescribed as remote boundary conditions. Crack propagation was first modeled discretely. Next, a continuum damage mechanics (CDM) model for brittle materials was developed to capture damage and crack growth in the process window. In particular, the damage model was applied to a glass-ceramic material that had been developed in-house for sealing purposes. Discrete and continuum damage solutions were then compared. Finally, the CDM model was used to determine the crack propagation direction as a function of a mode mixity measure.

In this paper, we report predicted results for texture evolution in FCC metals under uniaxial compression test. These results are computed using a newly developed nonlinear rigid viscoplastic crystal plasticity model based on an intermediate interaction law. This interaction law is formulated by the minimization of a normalized error function which combines the local fields’ deviations, from the macroscopic ones, obtained by the classical upper bound (Taylor) and lower bound (Sachs) models. This interaction law leads to results lying between the upper and lower bound approaches by simply varying a scalar weight function ϕ (0 < ϕ < 1). A simple interaction law based on the linear mixture of the fields from the Taylor and Sachs models is also used. The results from these both the linear and nonlinear intermediate approaches are shown in terms of texture evolution under uniaxial compression. These results are discussed in comparison with the well known experimental textures in compressed FCC metals. Finally, we show that the linear intermediate approach yields fairly acceptable texture predictions under compression and that the fully non-linear approach predicts much better results. Nicht-lineare visko-plastische Modellierung der Texturveranderungen in Metallen mit kubischflachenzentriertem Kristallsystem : Druckversuch In diesem Artikel berichten wir uber Berechnungen der Veranderungen in der Textur von Metallen mit kubischflachenzentriertem Kristallsystem unter Druckspannung. Die Ergebnisse wurden mit einem neu-entwickelten nicht-linearen, starren visko-plastischen Modell berechnet, das auf einem mittleren Interaktionsgesetz beruht. Mit Hilfe eines optimierten Gewichtungsfaktors ϕ ergibt dieses Gesetz Werte, die sich zwischen denen der klassischen unteren (Sachs) und oberen (Taylor) Modelle befinden. Ein einfacheres Interaktionsgesetz, das auf der direkten Linearkombination der Ergebnisse der Modelle von Taylor und von Sachs beruht, wurde auch untersucht. Die Ergebnisse dieser beiden mittleren Modelle werden im Rahmen von einachsigen Druckspannungen prasentiert. Die berechneten Werte werden mit Messungen verglichen. Es wird gezeigt, dass das lineare Modell zu annehmbaren Voraussagen fuhrt, das nicht-lineare Modell jedoch wesentlich bessere Ergebnisse ergibt.

This paper summarises the authors' work on strength and failure mode estimation of self-piercing rivets (SPRs) for automotive applications. First, the static cross tension strength of an SPR joint is estimated using a lower bound limit load based strength estimator. Failure mode associated with the predicted failure strength can also be identified. It is shown that the cross tension strength of an SPR joint depends on the material and gage combinations, rivet design, die design and riveting direction. The analytical rivet strength estimator is then validated by experimental rivet strength measurements and failure mode observations from nine SPR joint populations with various material and gage combinations. Next, the estimator is used to optimise rivet strength. Two illustrative examples are presented in which rivet strength is improved by changing rivet length and riveting direction from the original manufacturing parameters.

A constitutive model based on continuum damage mechanics is used to study the stone-impact resistance of automotive windshields. An axisymmetric finite element model is created to simulate the transient dynamic response and impact-induced damage tensors for laminated glass layers subject to stone-impact loading. The windshield glass consists of two glass outer layers laminated by a thin poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB) layer. The constitutive behaviour of the glass layers is simulated using the continuum damage mechanics model with linear damage evolution. The PVB layer is modelled with a linear viscoelastic solid. The model is used to predict and examine damage patterns on different glass surfaces for different windshield designs including variations in ply thickness and curvatures.

The stone-impact resistance of a monolithic glass ply is studied using a combined experimental and computational approach. Instrumented stone-impact tests are first carried out in a controlled environment. Explicit finite element analyses are then used to simulate the interactions of the indentor and the glass layer during the impact event, and a continuum damage mechanics (CDM) model is used to describe the constitutive behavior of glass. The experimentally measured strain histories for low-velocity impact serves as validation of the modeling procedures. Next, stair-stepping impact experiments are performed with two indenter sizes on two glass ply thicknesses, and the test results are used to calibrate the critical stress parameters used in the CDM constitutive model. The purpose of this study is to establish the modeling procedures and the CDM critical stress parameters under impact loading conditions. The modeling procedures and the CDM model will be used in our future studies to predict through-thickness damage evolution patterns for different laminated windshield designs in automotive applications.

A micro–macro mechanistic approach to damage in short-fiber composites is developed in this paper. At the microscale, a reference aligned fiber composite is considered for the analysis of the damage mechanisms such as matrix cracking and fiber–matrix debonding using the modified Mori–Tanaka model. The associated damage variables are defined, and the stiffness reduction law dependent on these variables is established. The stiffness of a random fiber composite containing random matrix microcracks and imperfect interfaces is then obtained from that of the reference composite, which is averaged over all possible orientations and weighted by an orientation distribution function. The macroscopic response is determined using a continuum damage mechanics approach and finite element analysis. Final failure resulting from saturation of matrix microcracks, fiber pull-out and breakage is modeled by a vanishing element technique. The model is validated using the experimental results found in literature as well as the results obtained for a random chopped fiber glass–vinyl ester system. Acoustic emission techniques were used to quantify the amount and type of damage during quasi-static testing.

This paper presents the authors’ work on strength optimization and failure mode prediction of self-piercing rivets (SPRs) for automotive applications. The limit load based strength estimator is used to estimate the static strength of an SPR under a cross-tension loading configuration. Failure modes associated with the estimated failure strength are also predicted. Experimental strength and failure mode observations are used to validate the model. It is shown that the strength of an SPR joint depends on the material and gage combinations, rivet design, die design, and riveting direction. The rivet strength estimator is then used to optimize the rivet strength by comparing the measured rivet strength and failure mode with the predicted ones. Two illustrative examples are used in which rivet strength is optimized by changing rivet design and riveting direction from the original manufacturing parameters.

The response of soda-lime glass subjected to the stress field induced by the static indentation of a spherical indenter is studied using continuum damage mechanics (CDM). An anisotropic damage tensor with linear damage evolution law is chosen to model the cracking damage. An axisymmetric finite element model is generated to simulate the static indentation process. The damage pattern and zone size are predicted for both the loading cycle and the unloading cycle, and the comparison between the predictions and the experimental results reported in the open literature serves as a validation of the CDM model and the modeling procedure.

A numerical control algorithm is described that predicts the axial end-feed and internal pressure loads to give maximum formability of circular tubes during hydroforming. The controller tracks the stresses, strains and mechanical response of the incremental finite element solution to estimate the proper axial feed (end-feed) and internal pressure increments to apply in the next increment as the tube deforms. The algorithm uses the material stress–strain curve and the deformation theory of plasticity with Hill's criterion to relate the current stress and strain increments (from the finite element model) to the next applied load increments. A controlled increment in plastic strain is prescribed for the next solution increment, and the pressure and end-feed increments are calculated to give a constant ratio of incremental axial and hoop strains. Hydroforming simulations using this method were conducted to predict the load histories for controlled expansion of 6061-T4 aluminum tubes within a conical die shape and under free hydroforming conditions. The predicted loading paths were applied in hydroforming experiments to form the conical and free-formed tube shapes. The model predictions and experimental results are compared in this paper for deformed shape, strains and the extent of forming at rupture.

A 3D simulation tool for modeling solid oxide fuel cells is described. The tool combines the versatility and efficiency of a commercial finite element analysis code, MARC®, with an in-house developed robust and flexible electrochemical (EC) module. Based upon characteristic parameters obtained experimentally and assigned by the user, the EC module calculates the current density distribution, heat generation, and fuel and oxidant species concentration, taking the temperature profile provided by MARC® and operating conditions such as the fuel and oxidant flow rate and the total stack output voltage or current as the input. MARC® performs flow and thermal analyses based on the initial and boundary thermal and flow conditions and the heat generation calculated by the EC module. The main coupling between MARC® and EC is for MARC® to supply the temperature field to EC and for EC to give the heat generation profile to MARC®. The loosely coupled, iterative scheme is advantageous in terms of memory requirement, numerical stability and computational efficiency. The coupling is iterated to self-consistency for a steady-state solution. Sample results for steady states as well as the startup process for stacks with different flow designs are presented to illustrate the modeling capability and numerical performance characteristic of the simulation tool.

A micro-macro mechanistic approach to matrix cracking in randomly oriented short-fiber composites is developed in this paper. At the micro-scale, the virgin and reduced elastic properties of the reference aligned fiber composite are determined using micromechanical models [Proc. Roy Soc. Lond. A241 (1957) 376; Acta Metall. 21 (1973) 571; Mech. Mater. 2 (1983) 123], and are then distributed over all possible orientations in order to compute the stiffness of the random fiber composite containing random matrix microcracks. After that the macroscopic response is obtained by means of a continuum damage mechanics formulation, which extends the thermodynamics based approach in [Comp. Sci. Technol. 46 (1993) 29] to randomly oriented short-fiber composites. Damage accumulations leading to initiation and propagation of a macroscopic crack are modeled using a vanishing element technique. The model is validated against the published experimental data and results [Comp. Sci. Technol 55 (1995) 171]. Finally, its practical application is illustrated through the damage analysis of a random glass/epoxy composite plate containing a central hole and under tensile loading.

A unified phenomenological model is developed to study the dislocation glide through weak obstacles during the first stage of plastic deformation in metals. This model takes into account both the dynamical responses of dislocations during the flight process and thermal activations while dislocations are bound by obstacle arrays. The average thermal activation rate is estimated using an analytical model based on the generalized Friedel relations. Then, the average flight velocity after an activation event is obtained numerically by discrete dislocation dynamics (DD). To simulate the dynamical dislocation behavior, the inertia term is implemented into the equation of dislocation motion within the DD code. The results from the DD simulations, coupled with the analytical model, determine the total dislocation velocity as a function of the stress and temperatures. By choosing parameters typical of the face centered cubic metals, the model reproduces both obstacle control and drag control motion in low and high velocity regimes, respectively. As expected by other string models, dislocation overshoots of obstacles caused by the dislocation inertia at the collisions are enhanced as temperature goes down.

We have developed a method for measurement of internal stress in glass articles. The method uses Rayleigh-scattered light from a properly polarized laser beam propagating through glass at an oblique angle. This light is imaged with an electronic focal plane array camera. The method is similar to earlier published methods except for the inclusion of an externally controlled phase retarder. The phase retarder allows for the success of the method. The method is suitable for use on flat or curved glass and is applicable over a broad range of residual stresses. Experimental results are provided showing the in-plane stress throughout the thickness of a television glass sample.

The gas transport in the porous electrode is treated by a phenomenological approach such that the gas concentration at the three-phase boundary (TPB) region is the additive superposition of that transported from the source, i.e. the gas channels. With plausible approximations and elemental algebra, analytical expressions are obtained to estimate the effects of ribs on the concentration polarization of planar fuel cell operations. It is shown that the model can closely reproduce the experimental concentration polarization curve for small and medium current density (up to about 2 A/cm 2 ), providing a simple and effective method for engineering application. The concentration polarization caused by the presence of a rib is discussed and the concentration profiles with varying rib widths are illustrated. In connection with the electrical resistance, the determination of the optimal rib width for minimizing the overall polarization is also shown.

This paper presents a computational tool for the analysis of freely hydroformed tubes by means of an inverse approach. The formulation of the inverse method developed by Guo et al. [1] is adopted and extended to the tube hydroforming problems in which the initial geometry is a round tube submitted to hydraulic pressure and axial feed at the tube ends (end-feed). A simple criterion based on a forming limit diagram is used to predict the necking regions in the deformed workpiece. Although the developed computational tool is a stand-alone code, it has been linked to the Marc finite element code for meshing and visualization of results. The application of the inverse approach to tube hydroforming is illustrated through the analyses of the aluminum alloy AA6061-T4 seamless tubes under free hydroforming conditions. The results obtained are in good agreement with those issued from a direct incremental approach. However, the computational time in the inverse procedure is much less than that in the incremental method.