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Ecosystem-based management and marine spatial planning (MSP) represent novel approaches intended to transform marine governance and improve ecosystems. The transformation can be supported by sustainability initiatives such as decision-support tools, which inform changes in management strategies and practices. This study illustrates the potential and challenges of such sustainability initiatives to promote deliberative transformative change in marine governance systems. Specifically, it focuses on the amplification processes of the Symphony tool for ecosystem-based MSP in Sweden. Our findings suggest that the amplification of sustainability initiatives is driven by informal networks, coalition forming, resource mobilization skills, a shared vision, trust, experimentation, and social learning. Our results also highlight that in the face of institutional challenges such as sparse financial resources, uncertain institutional support, and divided ownership, a strategic way forward is to simultaneously work on parallel amplification processes, as they may enable each other. Further, we find that a key challenge in amplification across governance scales is the need for significant adjustments of the original innovation, to meet differing needs and competences. This highlights the broader challenge of achieving transformative change across scales in heterogenous and fragmented multilevel governance systems. Co-production of knowledge and early stakeholder interaction to ensure accessibility and availability can improve the chances of successful amplification. To move beyond a mechanistic understanding of steps and processes, future research on sustainability initiatives should consider the interplay between strategic agency, social learning, and institutional context in driving amplification processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a comprehensive methodology for the management of submerged cultural heritage sites despite their worldwide location. The methodology is applied to four colonial shipwrecks located in Cartagena de Indias Bay (Colombia), two of them in the Inner Bay and two in the Bocachica sector. Five criteria are used and scored from 1 (indicating a low risk for the wreck) to 5 (high risk). The sum of the scores obtained at each criterion ranges from 5 to 25, and when the value obtained is higher than 15, management action is required. Five criteria were analyzed; (i) The historical criterion is based on the antiquity of the wreck. The ones investigated in this paper are associated with the Battle of Cartagena de Indias (A.D. 1741), having been submerged for ~280 years (all wrecks obtained a score of 3); (ii) The geographical criterion concerns the depth at which the wreck is located, which determines its accessibility. In Cartagena Bay, wrecks are situated at a water depth between 15.6 and 29.7 m (all wrecks were scored 4); (iii) The shipwreck condition criterion indicates the level of preservation, including organic and inorganic material, distinguishing among wooden hulls, ballast stones, and cannons. Obtained scores were 4 and 3 for the wrecks, respectively, located in the Inner Bay and in the Bocachica sector. (iv) The oceanographic criterion, linked to chemical and biological conditions of the water column, influences wreck conservation. All wrecks investigated scored 5. (v) The socioeconomic criterion indicates the multiple maritime and cultural activities presently taking place that might affect the wreck. In Cartagena Bay, all wrecks were scored 4. According to the total score obtained (20—Inner Bay and 19—Bocachica sector), guidelines for shipwreck conservation of cultural heritage in Cartagena Bay are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) has been involved in the construction of artificial reefs (ARs) since the 1950s. Then in 1985, the California Artificial Reef Program (CARP) was created by legislative statute to address declines in various southern California marine species. The CARP is managed by CDFW but no longer receives funding to manage this program. Before CDFW can support further creation of ARs we need to identify gaps in the program and know how ARs affect marine species and the marine ecosystems. This will ultimately inform a scientifically based statewide AR management plan, which CDFW needs to support in the program. The first step into making informed management decisions of the ARs is to complete a literature review of published material and to survey the type, number, and placement of ARs. The results of this survey need to be standardized and transparent in order for the CDFW to review, compare, and make informed management decisions. Some critical data to include in the surveys will be reef attributes (the quality and specific features of the reef), fish density, biomass, and the assemblage of the AR structure. Identification of gaps in the CARP and the organization and standardization of timely and regular AR assessments will then allow resource managers and stakeholders to use the best available science to make the most informed management decisions possible.  With the ocean continuing to warm and acidify and the world population continuing to increase, fish populations and marine ecosystems are at risk and face unforeseen dangers, including the reduction of fish stocks and the degradation of marine habitat. Rebuilding depleted stocks typically involves conventional fisheries management approaches, such as seasons, quotas, size limits, gear restrictions, MPAs, or even fishery closures. The concept of stock enhancement has been debated as another potential tool in the fisheries management toolbox, and may be possible with the successful implementation of CA’s ARs. CDFW has been involved with the AR program for decades but currently has no statewide management plan to guide placement, development, and testing of AR effectiveness and functionality.

In order to accelerate the implementation of marine spatial planning on a global scale, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO and the European Commission launched the Global Marine Spatial Planning 2030 (MSPglobal 2030) plan in February 2019. This paper introduced the implementation of MSPglobal 2030 from three aspects: compilation of International Guidelines for Marine Spatial Planning, implementation of pilot projects, and communication and dissemination of results, and analyzed the challenges faced in the implementation process. It combined the background of China′s Territorial Spatial Planning reform and the implementation of the United Nations "Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development", and discussed the relevant ideas and references regarding the implementation of marine spatial planning from 4 aspects, the capacity building of planners, the impacts of climate change, the development of blue economy, and the strengthening of science and technology support.

Bob Dylan once sang that he contained multitudes. So too does integration. More integrated planning of coasts and oceans has long been hailed as a goal and is seen as a pathway towards a more legitimate, cost-effective, equitable and sustainable planning of marine space. However, a reading of the literature indicates that many integration efforts have seemingly failed to reach their potential, and there is no clear understanding of what integration means or how we should best go about achieving it. The paper claims that this uncertainty partially stems from a unnuanced and static treatment of the concept, and a lack of recognition of the multitudes of integration. The paper argues firstly that fragmentation should not uncritically be seen as the antithesis to integration and as a negative property to be avoided. Secondly, there needs to be greater recognition of both the varying degrees of integration and the contextually dependent necessity of different degrees of integration. Lastly, it is more fruitful to see the multitude of nodes in the expanding ‘network of planning’ not as fragmentation, but as differentiation. Such an approach allows us to see integration as a mean towards more sustainable planning of coastal and marine areas, not end in and of itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore renewable energies have been identified as important clean sources of energy in line with sustainable development goals. However, their use can generate conflicts with other maritime activities, as well as the protection of biodiversity and the marine environment. This article analyses the influence of regulatory frameworks and ocean governance in the implementation of such devices, from a legal–political point of view. In this sense, it studies how the law of the sea addresses potential international conflicts between ocean energy installations and other activities (e.g., navigation) developed by other states. It also studies the importance of preventive legal tools—marine spatial planning, strategic environmental assessment, and environmental impact assessment—to anticipate and reduce clashes with other sea users as well as environmental damages that may be caused by these structures. Likewise, this research analyses different national consent procedures and legal–economic supporting schemes, to identify those that boost the implementation of such projects more quickly. Finally, the relevance of enhancing the involvement of affected coastal communities and local stakeholders in the decision‐making processes, as well as in the socio‐economic benefits of offshore renewable energy projects to increase their social acceptance, is also emphasized. This article is categorized under:Policy and Economics > Governance and RegulationPolicy and Economics > Energy TransitionsPolicy and Economics > Regional and International Strategies [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Decision‐making products that support effective marine spatial planning are essential for guiding efforts that enable conservation of biodiversity facing increasing pressures. Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are a product recently agreed upon by an international network of organizations for identifying globally important areas. Utilizing the KBA framework, and by developing a conservative protocol to identify sites, we identify globally importants places for breeding seabirds throughout the coastal seas of a national territory. We inform marine spatial planning by evaluating potential activities that may impact species and how a proposed network of Marine Management Areas (MMAs) overlap with important sites. Location: Southwest Atlantic Ocean. Methods: We collated a national inventory of all breeding locations for seabirds, including abundance records where available, and complementary estimates of at‐sea distribution. We delineated areas of importance in coastal seas following approaches tailored to the ecology of species and assessed areas against global KBA criteria. To determine opportunities for species conservation and management, we reviewed which human activities have been documented to impact the target species globally via IUCN Red List accounts, and also assessed the overlap of important sites with a proposed MMA network. Results: We identified global KBAs for nine seabird species (Anatidae, Diomedeidae, Laridae, Procellariidae, Spheniscidae, Stercorariidae) throughout national coastal seas. Globally important areas where multiple species overlapped were only partially accounted for in key zones of the proposed MMA network. Main Conclusions: Development of a conservative protocol to identify marine sites for assessment against KBA criteria, revealed opportunities for enhancing a network of proposed Marine Management Areas in coastal seas. The framework we apply in this study has broad relevance for other systems where the design or review of management plans for the marine environment is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The efficient management of conflicts between uses and activities in the marine-coastal environment is fundamental for the success of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP). Our aim was to conduct a geo-analysis of uses and activities present in the jurisdiction of the harbor master of Tumaco and Guapi in Colombia to identify potential conflicts. We used geographic information on uses and activities of the marine-coastal environment available in national geo-portals, 23 interinstitutional experts were consulted to carry out the weighting of the conflict matrices, an analysis of the interactions between the uses and activities supported by spatial analysis was carried out, the main conflicts were identified according to specific criteria and the cartography for the location of the conflicts was carried out. A database with 39 geographic layers was generated, the highest density of uses and activities was found in inland waters, marine fauna obtained 11.81 % of the total interactions, 73 potential conflicts were identified, where 23.29 % corresponded to a high Conflict Index and 57.53 % of the conflicts occurred between user-environment. With these results, we contribute to the management of Colombian marine-coastal within the context of the MSP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Maritime Spatial Planning Directive (2014/89/EU) required European Union member states to finalise Marine Spatial Plans by 2021. These efforts have created new forums for considering synergies and conflicts around blue growth objectives at both national and local scales, but in many cases have consolidated management action at European or national levels. These nationalised MSP actions can conflict with the path dependence (legacy effects) of traditional industries. The preparation and publication of Ireland's National Marine Planning Framework (NMPF) provides rich examples of how the legacy effects of traditional rights of access and withdrawal can both inform and complicate planning goals. This research describes these interactions in the context of Ireland's seaweed sector. Efforts to equitably expand and manage Ireland's seaweed resource are hampered by controversy in the licensing of seaweed harvesting. Interviews with seaweed harvesting stakeholders were analysed using modified grounded theory, supplemented with critical analyses of the NMPF. Interviews made clear a longstanding and successful path dependence of community management of the Ireland's seaweed resource. However, national blue growth targets may conflict with local management traditions, alienating goal dependence between institutions and actors. These conflicts are exacerbated by national and exclusionary definitions of seaweed ownership. This work reveals conflicts between top-down management and local traditions of seaweed harvesting and provides recommendations as to how Irish legislation could prevent actor alienation from the management process by considering path dependence in management decisions and cultivating interdependent relationships to ensure seaweed harvester rights are respected in management plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial conservation planning to reduce the impact of fishing on ecosystems necessitates understanding of the spatial distribution of bycatch in fishing grounds. Management measures in Indian waters cannot be spatially explicit without this information. Thus, a preliminary study was conducted on the northwest coast of India to identify the most persistent bycatch areas from mid-water trawlers targeting largehead hairtails (Trichiurus lepturus). Semi-variogram modelling and kriging interpolation showed that bycatch abundance varied by species and associated habitat or depth preference. A significant positive correlation between species in bycatch abundance revealed that few share the same habitat in the region. Bycatch species were concentrated in the inshore area (<70 m depth) during the post-monsoon and summer seasons, but their densities reduced in the winter. The bycatch distribution map aid in the future implementation of spatial management measures, such as the designation of the no-fishing zone and conservation networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines different integrated management frameworks and area-based measures in Canada's integrated ocean management regime, including their definitions, features and practices. It explicitly analyzes ma-rine spatial planning (MSP) and its practice in Canada's Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic coasts. Case studies, including the Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Management (ESSIM) initiative, Pacific North Coast Integrated Manage-ment Area (PNCIMA) initiative, and Marine Plan Partnership (MaPP), show that MSP has brought additional value to comprehensive ocean planning and facilitated integrated shipping governance. Arctic marine traffic gov-ernance requires an integrated and holistic framework to address the inti-mate relationship and complex interaction between humans and the envi-ronment. The potential application of MSP in developing and governing the Northern Low Impact Shipping Corridors initiative is examined. MSP is con-sidered as a framework or an approach to inform better decision-making for the Corridors initiative from five perspectives: 1) improving interdepart-mental and cross-jurisdictional collaboration; 2) enhancing Inuit engage-ment; 3) encouraging knowledge co-production; 4) supporting data collec-tion and spatial analysis; and 5) facilitating implementation and adaptation of the Corridor initiative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Site selection is the foundation of sustainable finfish culture, and in the tropics, there are vast offshore areas where this is needed. This study is the first to identify areas for marine finfish culture along the North Borneo West Coast using outputs from hydrodynamic modeling coupled with GIS and Multiple-Criteria Decision Making Analysis. Site selection criteria included: water depth, current speed, significant wave height, sensitive habitats, reported fishing grounds, government-based exclusion zones, oil & gas consents, and navigation routes. Of an initial 2.55 million ha, 1.05 million ha was eliminated from consideration based on physical characteristics alone. Of the 1.50 million ha identified to satisfy physical and hydrodynamic criteria for surface-oriented farms, a further 0.06 million ha was eliminated due to sensitive habitat and government exclusion zones. The remaining 1.44 million ha was found suitable for surface pen farming and 0.61 million ha for submerged pen farming. Much of this potential area is shared with capture fishery grounds, oil & gas consents, and navigation routes that will require further assessments (e.g. EIAs) to determine specific impacts to those industries. Those areas not in multi-user conflict makes up 0.57 million ha and 0.28 million ha for surface and submerged farms respectively. Coastal and offshore finfish culture is globally underdeveloped and lacking robust site selection MCDM with numerical modeling is a promising aquaculture site selection tool Our MCDM conducted in discrete phases; did not require criteria ranking Our approach helps to streamline site selection in areas with limited resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of the threats posed to the oceans by a changing climate, the need for marine conservation programs grows rapidly. Scaling with this need demands sufficient funding to support ambitious conservation projects. This funding must be obtained from increasingly varied and innovative sources since private grants and government allocated funds has proved insufficient. Debt-for-nature swaps are a financial mechanism seeking to improve debt burden while setting up environmental programs. This method of debt restructuring has existed for decades, but is seeing a resurgence of use and interest in recent years. Here we present an exploratory case study of a Seychelles debt-for-nature swap which examines this financial mechanism’s ability to fund impactful conservation projects, particularly in marine Economic Exclusion Zones (EEZ) of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The Seychelles finalized a conversion of their sovereign debt with Paris Club creditors and The Nature Conservancy as a broker in 2015 with the goal of creating a robust marine spatial plan (MSP). They received notable recognition for multiple novel aspects of this deal as well as the sheer scale of the marine space protected (400,000 sq. km), and thus serves as a robust case study to analyze if debt-for-nature swaps have evolved since its theoretical conception in 1984. Our research favors qualitative data by employing a case study approach which draws on semi-structured interviews with key informants, content analysis of online resources, and a literature review. This research suggests that while the model has yet to be cemented, the Seychelles case study is representative of a coming evolution in debt-for-nature swap practices. By examining the critical governance factors that were employed in the Seychelles, this research reveals key takeaways for future implementation and establishing national candidacy. The findings highlight debt status relative to the economy, political willpower, funding streams utilized, and the use of co-production practices. We show how the Seychelles case study demonstrates marked progress from the historical standard regarding sovereignty concerns and governance, but not concerning timescales and low converted sum. However, we note that this innovative debt-for-nature swap suggests that a new standard is possible and provides a new framework and set of best practices. In doing so, the Seychelles MSP can potentially lead the way for additional marine debt-for-nature swaps.

IntroductionCoastal and continental shelf ecosystems are among the most productive, yet exploited, ecosystems. The Grande Vasière (GV) covers most part of the French Northern part of the Bay of Biscay, a crucial fishing ground for metropolitan France. It is the place of numerous uses, especially fishing, and will soon shelter sand extraction activities and offshore windfarms. All these activities may compete for space and resources and put pressure on habitats, biodiversity and subsequent ecosystem services (ES). Current management strategies integrate these activities and biodiversity conservation schemes but no ES.MethodsTo fill that gap, we quantified and mapped nine indicators of ecosystem processes (EP), used as proxies of four ES (i.e. sea food provisioning, biological control, regulation of environmental conditions and life cycle maintenance). Due to the complexity of ES, we investigated several EP by ES. Then we identified hotspots and coldspots of supply and spatial overlap among EP and other uses (conservation, fishing, offshore windfarms and sand extraction).ResultsEP mapping suggests a higher capacity of supply of the chosen ES in the Northern part of the GV. We found a strong spatial heterogeneity among the EP related to the same ES, underlining a point of vigilance when designing management measures to sustain ES supply. Northern EP hotspots overlap with high amounts of bottom trawl fishing effort. Higher levels of commercial species diversity and sole spawning grounds in the South overlap with higher amounts of gillnet fishing effort. Areas of sand extraction prospection and offshore windfarms under construction should not overlap with hotspots of EP, at the exception of the sole spawning ground and the commercial species diversity hotspots. Finally, we highlight an overlap of more than 20% of four EP hotspots with Natura 2000 areas, while the Marine Natural Park in the South covers more EP coldspots (i.e. hake nursery, encounter rate, trophic links diversity) than hotspots.DiscussionIncorporating such a multifunctional spatial approach with hotspots and coldspots opens new perspective for marine spatial planning, pointing out the potential strengths and weaknesses of areas currently defined or prioritized for future uses like conservation, sand extraction or emerging activities like offshore windfarms.

IntroductionMarine Spatial Planning (MSP) aims at ecosystem-based management of ocean resources that brings different stakeholders and the public together to discuss their conflicts of interest and forge a sustainable path forward. Public participation is a crucial element of MSP to make it democratically legitimate and sustainable in the long-term. MSP was formally introduced by law in Iceland in 2018 and two projects were initiated in the Westfjords and Eastfjords in 2019, with one further planned in Skjálfandi Bay.MethodsTo assess the scope and depth of public participation in those MSP projects, data was collected through semi-structured interviews (n=80), conversations, observations and document analysis during the data gathering and proposal stages of the planning processes.ResultsThe results show that a limited group of people including institutional actors and formal stakeholders had been engaged in the information gathering stages of the process, but in the later phases of decision-making, local community members were notably absent.Discussion/ConclusionThis lack of public participation highlights the need for more in-depth communication about the MSP process and marine issues in the adjacent communities as well as an urgent need for inclusion of the public into marine decision-making and MSP.

The patchy nature and overall scarcity of available scientific data poses a challenge to holistic ecosystem-based management that considers the whole range of ecological, social, and economic aspects that affect ecosystem health and productivity in the deep sea. In particular, the evaluation of, for instance, the impact of human activities/climate change, the adequacy and representativity of MPA networks, and the valuation of ecosystem goods and services is hampered by the lack of detailed seafloor habitat maps and a univocal classification system. To maximize the use of current evidence-based management decision tools, this paper investigates the potential application of a supervised machine learning methodology to expand a well-established habitat classification system throughout an entire ocean basin. A multi-class Random Forest habitat classification model was built using the predicted distributions of 6 deep-sea fish and 6 cold-water corals as predictor variables (proxies). This model, found to correctly classify the area covered by an existing European seabed habitat classification system with ~90% accuracy, was used to provide a univocal deep-sea habitat classification for the North Atlantic. Until such time as global seabed mapping projects are complete, supervised machine learning approaches, as described here, can provide the full coverage classified maps and preliminary habitat inventories needed to underpin marine management decision making.

The distributions of migratory species in the ocean span local, national and international jurisdictions. Across these ecologically interconnected regions, migratory marine species interact with anthropogenic stressors throughout their lives. Migratory connectivity, the geographical linking of individuals and populations throughout their migratory cycles, influences how spatial and temporal dynamics of stressors affect migratory animals and scale up to influence population abundance, distribution and species persistence. Population declines of many migratory marine species have led to calls for connectivity knowledge, especially insights from animal tracking studies, to be more systematically and synthetically incorporated into decision-making. Inclusion of migratory connectivity in the design of conservation and management measures is critical to ensure they are appropriate for the level of risk associated with various degrees of connectivity. Three mechanisms exist to incorporate migratory connectivity into international marine policy which guides conservation implementation: site-selection criteria, network design criteria and policy recommendations. Here, we review the concept of migratory connectivity and its use in international policy, and describe the Migratory Connectivity in the Ocean system, a migratory connectivity evidence-base for the ocean. We propose that without such collaboration focused on migratory connectivity, efforts to effectively conserve these critical species across jurisdictions will have limited effect.

The distributions of migratory species in the ocean span local, national and international jurisdictions. Across these ecologically interconnected regions, migratory marine species interact with anthropogenic stressors throughout their lives. Migratory connectivity, the geographical linking of individuals and populations throughout their migratory cycles, influences how spatial and temporal dynamics of stressors affect migratory animals and scale up to influence population abundance, distribution and species persistence. Population declines of many migratory marine species have led to calls for connectivity knowledge, especially insights from animal tracking studies, to be more systematically and synthetically incorporated into decision-making. Inclusion of migratory connectivity in the design of conservation and management measures is critical to ensure they are appropriate for the level of risk associated with various degrees of connectivity. Three mechanisms exist to incorporate migratory connectivity into international marine policy which guides conservation implementation: site-selection criteria, network design criteria and policy recommendations. Here, we review the concept of migratory connectivity and its use in international policy, and describe the Migratory Connectivity in the Ocean system, a migratory connectivity evidence-base for the ocean. We propose that without such collaboration focused on migratory connectivity, efforts to effectively conserve these critical species across jurisdictions will have limited effect.

Since the maritime power strategy was put forward in the report of the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the ocean has gradually become the focus of attention, and the contradiction between the use of the sea and marine ecological problems were also emerging. Ocean, being an available space as important as land, has great space utilization value. With the development of science and technology and the continuous updating of research theory, the exploration of this space will be continuously upgraded, and the state of marine ecological space will be the key factor to determine whether the sustainable utilization of the ocean can be realized. Ecological civilization construction and land space use control have been upgraded to the national strategic level, and how to balance the relationship between sea use and marine protection needs to be paid more attention. This paper sorted out the related concepts of marine ecological space use control, the practical level of marine space planning, the policy and legal basis of marine ecological space use control from both domestic and foreign aspects, and put forward the problems existing in China′s marine ecological space use control, Finally, aiming at the problems, this paper put forward some research suggestions, such as determining the connotation of marine ecological space use control, accelerating the formulation of marine basic law, improving the marine legal system, improving the public participation mechanism, establishing the conflict coordination mechanism of administrative functions, strengthening supervision and so on.

Purpose – The focus of this paper is to further improve the implementation safeguard measures of the National Plan for Main Functional Zones of Ocean (NPMFZO) based on the implementation status of the national marine main functional area plan after the promulgation of the existing marine planning implementation safeguard measures, aiming at the problems existing in the implementation of the plan, to help the implementation of the plan more effective. Design/methodology/approach – This paper reviews the historical process of the preparation and implementation of NPMFZO, analyzes the problems existing in the implementation of this plan, and puts forward some measures and suggestions under the background of the new national territory planning system. Findings – In the new period, the authors should focus on building the evaluation system of planning implementation, strengthening the coordination with other plans, improving the supporting policies of planning and ensuring the effective implementation of the main functional zoning of oceans under the territorial spatial planning system. Originality/value – This paper reviews some problems existing in the implementation of the NPMFZO and puts forward policy suggestions to ensure the implementation of the plan in the new period.

Place-based approaches to marine conservation identify areas that are crucial to the success of populations, species, communities, or ecosystems, and that may be candidates for special management actions. In the United States, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration defined Biologically Important Areas (BIAs) for cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) as areas and periods that individual populations or species are known to preferentially use for certain activities or where small resident populations occur. The activities considered to be biologically important are feeding, migrating, and activities associated with reproduction. We present an approach using spatial optimization to refine the BIA delineation process to be more objective and reproducible for conservation planners and decision makers who wish to use various spatial criteria to address conservation or management objectives. We present a case study concerning feeding bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) and bowhead whale calves in the western Beaufort Sea to illustrate the mechanics and benefits of our optimization model. In the case study, we incorporate spatial information about whales’ relative density and optimally delineate BIAs under different thresholds for minimum patch (cluster) size and total area encompassed within the BIA network. Results from our case study showed three consistent patterns related to minimum cluster size (contiguity) and maximum area threshold for both BIA types and all months: (1) cells with the highest whale density were selected when contiguity or maximum area thresholds were small; (2) for a given area threshold, the number of whales inside BIAs was inversely proportional to cluster size; and (3) the number of whales inside BIAs initially increased rapidly as the area threshold increased, but eventually approached an asymptote. Additionally, information on temporal variability in a BIA may influence the development of conservation, management, monitoring, or mitigation methods. To provide additional insight into the ecological characteristics of the BIAs selected during the optimization step, we quantified inter-annual variability in whale occurrence and density within individual BIAs using statistical techniques. The bowhead whale BIAs and associated information that we present can be incorporated with other relevant information (e.g., objectives, stressors, costs, acceptable risk, legal constraints) into conservation and management decision-making processes.

IntroductionThe Uruguayan Exclusive Economic Zone (U-EEZ) is still lacking a technically sound and institutionally agreed system for classifying marine benthic ecosystems. This fact, added to the growing anthropic pressure marine ecosystems face in the U-EEZ, increases the vulnerability of these ecosystems and their associated biodiversity. Despite this, there is valuable and abundant disaggregated environmental and biological information for benthic systems.MethodsIn this work, we used ca. 4000 records of all major Phyla of benthic invertebrates to determine discrete benthic regions for the U-EEZ. We looked at the structuring forces of bathymetry, salinity, and water masses. First, we categorized the multivariate structure according to statistical significance to test a priori categories for univariate descriptors. Then, we mapped unique combinations of categories of structuring variables, which largely determine the structure and composition of benthic communities. Operationally, the variables to be analyzed were classified, and subsequently, group (cluster) and SIMPROF analyzes were performed.ResultsThe results suggest seven bathymetric categories, two of water masses and two of salinity, significantly structuring the benthic communities. The combination of these categories suggests nine discrete benthic marine regions for the U-EEZ, with heterogeneous structural characteristics. Our results provide an initial model of distinct benthic ecological complexes in U-EEZ.DiscussionHowever, caution should be exerted when using this model during decision-making. For example, implementing use restrictions of benthic areas should rely on further groundtruthing, including direct seafloor observations and collections. The latter is relevant since our system is based on the analysis of accumulated historical data that may or may not represent the current condition of habitats of interest.

Truly sustainable development in a human-altered, fragmented marine environment subject to unprecedented climate change, demands informed planning strategies in order to be successful. Beyond a simple understanding of the distribution of marine species, data describing how variations in spatio-temporal dynamics impact ecosystem functioning and the evolution of species are required. Marine Functional Connectivity (MFC) characterizes the flows of matter, genes and energy produced by organism movements and migrations across the seascape. As such, MFC determines the ecological and evolutionary interdependency of populations, and ultimately the fate of species and ecosystems. Gathering effective MFC knowledge can therefore improve predictions of the impacts of environmental change and help to refine management and conservation strategies for the seas and oceans. Gathering these data are challenging however, as access to, and survey of marine ecosystems still presents significant challenge. Over 50 European institutions currently investigate aspects of MFC using complementary methods across multiple research fields, to understand the ecology and evolution of marine species. The aim of SEA-UNICORN, a COST Action supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology), is to bring together this research effort, unite the multiple approaches to MFC, and to integrate these under a common conceptual and analytical framework. The consortium brings together a diverse group of scientists to collate existing MFC data, to identify knowledge gaps, to enhance complementarity among disciplines, and to devise common approaches to MFC. SEA-UNICORN will promote co-working between connectivity practitioners and ecosystem modelers to facilitate the incorporation of MFC data into the predictive models used to identify marine conservation priorities. Ultimately, SEA-UNICORN will forge strong forward-working links between scientists, policy-makers and stakeholders to facilitate the integration of MFC knowledge into decision support tools for marine management and environmental policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the application of knowledge in land-use planning as epistemic governance and explored how actors wield institutional power while legitimising the use of knowledge. By applying a neo-institutionalist analytical framework of epistemic governance to discourse analysis, we investigated how actors invoke institutions of science and law while constructing a legitimate rationality. Specifically, we asked how new knowledge of underwater marine areas was invited into a marine spatial planning pilot in Finland. We determined that, while legitimising the use of new marine-life knowledge, the actors invoked law and science by granting the new knowledge various and intermingled meanings that disambiguated and depoliticised nature values into tangible measures. Moreover, uncertainties about the new knowledge spurred doubts which facilitated a stronger political approach that applied precautions. We suggest that in the regulative context of planning there is an institutional demand for techno-legal rationality in which the institutional appropriateness of knowledge is crucial. The lack of legitimate ontological authority allows for a political yet institutionally fit-for-purpose interpretation of reality. Thus, our study contributes to the literature on planning as governance and provides insights of the politics of knowledge use in planning as something not necessarily strategic and conscious, but also routine and institutional. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, seaports have faced increasing pressure to transition towards a low-carbon and more sustainable energy model. In this context, the exploitation of the local wave energy resource may appear as a promising alternative. Therefore, the objective of this work is to present a methodology to select the best WEC-site combination to supply the energy demands of ports. To illustrate this methodology, the Port of Leixões (Portugal) is used as a case study. For the selection of wave energy sites in port areas, the methodology proposes a detailed spatial characterisation of both the wave resource and marine uses. For the area of study, having considered the main marine uses (sediment disposal, biodiversity, aquaculture, recreational and navigation), two exploitable wave energy sites (Areas I and II) with average annual energy resources of 24 and 17 kWm − 1 , respectively, were found. Next, the methodology proposes a techno-economic optimisation of WECs, based on the local wave conditions of Areas I and II, to minimise their associated Levelised Cost of Energy (LCoE). The results obtained confirm the effectiveness of the methodology, with the novel oCECO device, appearing as the most feasible option (with an LCoE of EUR 387.6/MWh) to exploit the wave potential in the surrounding areas of the port. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective management of depleted natural resources can be achieved only through changes in human actions. Opportunity costs represent the forgone benefits that would have flowed in the absence of conservation interventions. To the extent that opportunity costs reflect lost opportunities for extractive uses (e.g., fishing or logging), and to the extent that those extractive uses present threats to nature, opportunity costs therefore reflect the positive differences for natural values that can be made through conservation management. Thus, logic dictates that, if conservationists make choices to minimize opportunity costs, they are also necessarily limiting their impact. Unfortunately, empirical evidence from many conservation contexts implies that conservationists indeed make choices consistent with an aim to minimize opportunitycosts, and hence impact. A better understanding of the relationship between opportunity costs and conservation impact will make the language used to communicate conservation progress, targets, and planning more honest and accountable and more explicitly focused on the differences our actions make. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is a modern scientific approach to balancing human activities both in space and time for achieving socio-economic and environmental targets through a public process. The adoption and application of the MSP approach have been proceeding in many developing countries like Indonesia to support the sustainable use of marine and coastal areas and to reduce conflicts for multiple uses of marine resources and areas. MSP also aims to reduce environmental impacts such as pollution, overfishing and illegal fishing, watershed-based pollution and coastal development impacts. Whilst the transition process from planning to implementation is an onerous mission, this paper aims to explain and learn from the process of Indonesian MSP development and propose a policy roadmap as an action plan for the national and provincial governments of Indonesia. Input for this paper was derived from a collaborative national symposium that involved 80 participants with international experts from U.S., Canada, and Australia, together with the Indonesian government, non-government sectors, and university representatives. The themes that emerged were: overcoming implementation challenges, engaging indigenous groups, zoning considerations, communicating with stakeholders, licensing and permits, collaborative enforcement, monitoring and evaluation, and land-sea cross-sectoral mechanisms. These themes were analyzed and discussed as the key instruments for a strategic approach in the operational base of MSP for Indonesia. Hindering factors to MSP implementation included data gaps, conflict of interest among stakeholders, and the complexity of the legalization process. It was agreed that committed leadership, stakeholder involvement and buy-in are essential to support effective implementation and a truly adaptive management approach for MSP in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multi-criteria decision analyses (MCDAs) have been developed to support and evaluate decision-making on multi-layered problems. The benefit lies in creating transparency, among other benefits, especially in tackling divergent stakeholder interests. Within the energy transition, area shortage can lead to sustainability trade-offs, calling for the reconciliation of planning processes and satisfactory compromises. While ex ante MCDAs complement planning, the ex post consideration of processes has been less widely studied. Using a case study of offshore wind energy (OWP) within German marine spatial planning, we investigated the shifting weights of sustainability criteria and stakeholder interests. A multi-criteria approach (Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment of Evaluations (PROMETHEE)) addressed how decision-making can be iteratively traced, and the winners and losers indicated in sustainability dilemmas, such as between climate and biodiversity implications. Findings illustrate that stakeholders are divided in the green-on-green dilemma. The 'winners' embrace the branches of energy and climate protection. It remains a question though for 'losers' how weighting decisions of sustainability goals can be detrimental, such as 'good environmental status', and what kind of balancing occurs. How compromises are found, such as through transparency and solid justification, is crucial in satisfactorily solving trade-offs for public interests. PROMETHEE makes revealing stakeholder constellations within policy dynamics feasible, though assuming there is the will to work multidisciplinarily within future planning decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation are activities developed internationally in the advance of the energy industry. Conflicts generated by incompatibility with others or with social actors, make the approach from Marine Spatial Planning necessary. In Argentina, although it is a process that has been developing since the middle of the 20th century, it was not until 2014 when the National Government promoted the activity. The North Argentine Basin (NAB) constitutes a hydrocarbon exploration area that was delimited in 2018 by Resolution 65/2018. This activity in the NAB has given rise to conflicts between intervening social actors, which was manifested in the Public Hearing (AP1/21) held in July 2021. That is why the objective of this work was to analyze the results of the AP1/21 and contrast them with the opinion of Mar del Plata’s residents. For this, 682 semi-open surveys were carried out, where they were asked about the activity and the AP1/21. As a result, it was obtained that 373 people were expressed in favor (4%) and against (96%) of the project. Topics such as climate change, energy planning, and disagreement with the steps of the participatory process and the environmental impact study were presented. In the case of the surveys, opinions similar to those expressed in the audience were found, corroborating results and conclusions between both processes. In summary, the work allowed us to know not only the opinion of Mar del Plata’s population but also the type of information available on the economic activity analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine predators are an important component of marine trophic webs, and their decline has important consequences on whole ecosystem dynamics. Understanding their movements and habits is vital for conservation, yet extremely challenging. Tracking technologies, coupled with a robust, reproducible, and quantitative analytical framework, are being used to successfully identify Important Conservation Areas (ICAs) for seabirds, which are wide-ranging and declining marine predators. However, the identification of such areas is skewed towards large-bodied seabird species, and there are few marine ICAs for small-bodied birds like storm petrels. We GPS-tracked Mediterranean Storm Petrels Hydrobates pelagicus melitensis breeding in northwestern Sardinia over three consecutive breeding seasons (2019–2021), and we applied a recently proposed analytical framework for the assessment of ICAs using GPS data. We identified an area of 40638 km2 in the central Mediterranean Sea that spans three different national marine jurisdictions and partially falls within the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals. In these ICAs, a range of human activities take place (e.g., fishing activities, maritime traffic, tanker maritime routes), particularly in the neritic zones. Despite the relatively low human presence in the area, the human impact on the Mediterranean Sea is predicted to increase in future years, with important consequences for conservation. International cooperation to identify ICAs at the basin scale is needed, given the trans-national nature of storm petrel movements. Here, we describe the polygon of the identified ICAs for the Italian population of Mediterranean Storm Petrel we studied (available for download) to help inform marine spatial planning and target the conservation and protection of the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangrove plants are an alternative source of food for coastal communities besides rice, corn, and sago. This research aims to determine the impact of damage to mangrove ecosystems that affect food availability in coastal areas. Besides this research also aims to determine the accessibility of the community to mangrove forests, because the community is very dependent on mangrove forests. The methods used to achieve these objectives are the Partial Least Square (PLS) method, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP). The results of this study showed that damage of the mangrove ecosystems had a significant effect on food supply in coastal areas, so that access to household food for coastal communities and consumption of household food is very limited. For this reason, the formulation of public policy related to food planning must be an important element in developing national guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explains the extent to which the importance of Marine Cadastre (MC) and Marine Spatial Data Infrastructure (MSDI) is recognized in the context of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP), Blue Economy (BE) and Blue Growth (BG), in the scientific community. A bibliometric assessment was performed using bibliometrics methodology. The research shows that MC and MSDI are underrepresented in the scientific literature. To the authors' knowledge, theoretical, educational and capacity-building foundations are not developed enough in this domain. There are many practical issues in the marine and maritime domain that needed to be solved by the technical and engineering professions. They can be solved based on theoretical, scientific research and practical experience in different countries. The analysis of scientific papers was performed, together with different countries' contributions, in the scientific database ISI Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC). Another issue analysed is countries' collaboration. The results show that there is almost no collaboration in the MC domain and some, but insufficient, in the MSDI domain. Based on analysing the recognition of the MC domain, as a basic layer of MSDI, the results are more satisfying than in other parts of the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Spatial Planning is a process of planning and management for the sustainable development and utilization of marine resources. Based on the core collection of WOS and CNKI databases, the visualization tool CiteSpace was used to systematically summarize and analyze the domestic and foreign research topics and the evolution paths of their high lights in the field of Marine Spatial Planning from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that the number of relevant studies both in China and abroad was generally on the rise, with the United States, Australia and England accounting for more than 50%, with a high level in inter-institutional cooperation and transnational exchanges. Internationally, habitats, marine conservation areas, fishery development and biodiversity were the key research directions, while domestic studies payed more attention to the land-sea coordination and sustainable development. In the past two decades, the international research focus has experienced the periods of "the construction of spatial planning system -the expanded distribution of spatial planning pattern-experience summary and environmental protection", while the domestic planning has followed the steps of "the comprehensive management period of spatial planning policy-the specific functional zone division period-the sustainable development period". On this basis, some key areas for further exploration and some suggestions were put forward.

Based on CiteSpace, this paper analyzed the changes of the number of papers published, the number of authors, the influence of institutions, the influence of journals, and the cooperation network, and revealed the trends of research hotspots. The results showed that: Economically developed regions and countries such as Europe, America and Australia had high influence and close cooperation between countries and institutions. The research on marine spatial planning had always been centered on ecosystem and environmental protection, with policy research and ecological environment research as the main contents. The focus of research had shifted from ecological function to integrated functional planning with human activities as the main focus. Blue economy and blue development are the main keywords in recent years. Under the background of the increasing ocean development strength and scope, frequent changes of global climate environment, strengthening the observation and data collection research, exploring the marine ecosystem impact on the environment and human activity response mechanism, enhancing the use of ecological models in marine, refining marine spatial planning management measures, adjusting the planning scheme by considering the sea, implementing ecological protection and economic development going hand in hand, will be the future direction of China's marine spatial planning research.

Achieving a blue economy will require reconciling the value of emerging ocean uses with their impacts on the seascape and sectors with historical access to marine resources and areas. To meet this challenge, we developed an analytical framework for conducting marine spatial planning through tradeoff analysis, and applied it to prospective offshore wind energy development in the ∼974 km2 Morro Bay, California, USA Wind Energy Area (WEA). We generated spatial data layers estimating MW power production and impacts on fisheries value and marine wildlife conservation (seabird and cetacean populations) from wind farm development. We then quantified each sector's response to plans of development across the WEA and inside three leases recently acquired by the energy industry for prospective development. Finally, we integrated the sector response data into an analytical framework for mitigating sector tradeoffs with novel spatial planning solutions (maps of wind farm size, location, and configuration) that optimally maximize value to the emergent energy sector (MW power) while minimizing impacts to historical (fisheries and wildlife) sectors. We found that western sites in the WEA had the highest potential power production concurrent with the lowest impact on the historical sectors, revealing the eastern lease to be less efficient at optimally balancing the sector's objectives relative to the development of the central or western leases or the optimal spatial plans identified in the tradeoff analysis. Within a lease, tradeoff analysis found spatial planning able to generate out-sized savings in fisheries value with only modest losses in MW power – for example, by avoiding development in just 5% of the eastern lease to preserve nearly half its fisheries value and still generate 95% its total power potential. Small-scale development opportunities (e.g., a pilot project) with significant power potential and no fisheries impact were also identified, in this case by placing turbines in an area in the western lease with no fisheries value and high power production potential. These plans would also have a relatively low impact on the wildlife conservation sectors, due to decreases in vulnerability levels of both seabird and cetacean populations to turbines going from east to west across the WEA. Our results can inform site evaluation and permitting processes for wind energy development in the Morro Bay WEA. We also expect the tradeoff analysis framework we developed to provide a simple and actionable analytical tool for supporting marine spatial planning of offshore wind energy and other emerging blue economy activities from a balanced perspective that values emerging uses of marine resources alongside existing socio-economic and conservation interests. • A spatial planning tool was developed and applied to offshore wind energy development. • Energy, fisheries, and marine wildlife conservation sector conflicts are minimized. • High- and low-conflict hotpot areas to avoid and develop are identified. • A 15% loss in fisheries value can be avoided with only a 5% reduction in MW power. • A 20% gain in initial energy value can be achieved with no fisheries impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Once considered a scientific, technocratic activity, marine governance has shifted from a top down, state directed process toward participatory and deliberative approaches. In parallel, there has been increasing acknowledgment of the need to consider the human dimensions of marine and coastal issues, and the role of citizens in delivering the sustainable management and protection of the marine environment. By doing so, a more complete understanding of the complex relationship between society and the sea may be achieved. Research has shown that marine practitioners recognise that higher levels of civic involvement and citizenship in the management of the marine environment would be beneficial. Despite this, questions are raised as to whether existing governing institutions, legal structures, and planning instruments enable this to readily happen in practice. This paper explores the extent to which existing marine governance instruments are positioned to engender a society of marine citizens to meaningfully engage with marine stewardship behaviours in the UK and Ireland. A multi-phased research approach critically analyses existing relevant legislation, legal and policy frameworks, focusing on themes associated with the human dimensions of marine governance, including marine stewardship. This evaluation highlights a limited inclusion of terms relating to marine stewardship nationally, but recognises the foundations are there a more strategic and cognisant recognition of human-ocean relationships within marine governance across a range of scales and contexts. • Marine governance has shifted from a top-down to a more participatory process. • Practitioners recognise a need for higher civic involvement and citizenship. • Research critically analyses existing instruments for human dimensions. • Recommendations call for explicit inclusion of people in marine governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, similarities and differences in growth patterns, measured as changes in soft tissue weight and shell length, among three bivalve species in Sweden (blue mussels, Pacific oysters and European flat oysters) were studied with the aim to achieve information on spatial and temporal variability among these commercially important species. The study showed that there are significant differences in spatial growth pattern between blue mussels and both of the oyster species, where oysters grew faster in more protected locations compared to mussels, which had a generally faster growth in the exposed localities. The weight: length ratio also differed among species, where mussels had a lower ratio compared to oysters. Potential causes of the observed patterns and consequences for bivalve farming as well as implications for ecological functions are discussed. The results are valuable in site-selection processes at both local (individual farmers) and regional/national scales (planning processes etc), and indicates that spatial planning of bivalve aquaculture need inclusion of species specific growth parameters. • There are significant differences in the spatial growth pattern between blue mussels and oyster species. • The two investigated oyster species displayed similar patterns in growth. • The oysters grew faster in more protected sites while blue mussels grew faster in more exposed sites. • All three species grew faster in soft tissue than in shell length. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cross-sectoral Blue Economy (BE) approach that optimises the use of marine and aquatic resources in an environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive manner, is seen as a means of overcoming the challenges Africa faces including poverty, unemployment and infrastructure development. However, limited information about the state of the BE and associated implementation in Africa exists, despite several BE national and regional strategies or action plans having been developed. Understanding the state of the BE is necessary for better comprehension of the barriers to BE policy development and subsequent implementation. An assessment of the BE at various resolutions is provided; as well as the status of the application of the tools needed to develop the BE in accordance with the African Union's Blue Governance Framework for the African Blue Economy Strategy. The findings show that BE development is lagging, with the exception of Seychelles and Mauritius, which have capitalised on various BE tools available. In most instances, the development of the BE still ensues in a siloed manner, often lacking cross-sectoral coordination and resulting in fragmented management systems that do not harmonise the potential synergies that an integrated approach would offer. From the synthesis of progress, it becomes apparent that the regional scale is also appropriate for developing future BE regulatory frameworks, as habitats are not necessarily confined to socio-political borders. The influence of regional organisations in developing the BE can support accountability with which to motivate member states in their BE progress. Most of the BE progress in Africa was initiated (financially or otherwise) by external organisations or financing organisations. This casts questions on the sense of autonomy Africa has in determining its future prospects for its BE. Nonetheless, the development of BE offers Africa the chance to achieve national sustainability objectives, improve regional integration through diplomacy, and exert global influence. These findings can help decision-makers, practitioners and financiers to support African countries in generating the right enabling environment for a sustainable BE approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]