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Peu d'etudes abordent l'influence des troubles de l'habitat sur la faune de Ceylan, y compris le loris grele rouge endemique, Loris tardigradus tardigradus. La reserve forestiere proposee de Masmullah abrite l'une des quelques populations de loris grele rouge, et est consideree comme un « point chaud » de la biodiversite. En utilisant la methode dite du « plotless sampling » nous avons recense 387 arbres afin d'etablir la densite et de noter les traits physiques caracteristiques associes a la presence de loris greles. L'espece d'arbre la plus commune etait Humboldtia laurifolia, presente a raison de 676 arbres/hectare, sur une densite d'arbres egale au total a 1 077 arbres/ha. 27 familles appartenant a 40 especes ont ete recensees. Parmi elles 45 % etaient endemiques, 40 % indigenes et 7,5 % furent introduites. Humboldtia laurifolia montre une relation mutuelle avec les fourmis, fournissant ainsi une abondante nourriture aux loris greles. Les supports disponibles a une hauteur de 3,5 m (hauteur preferee des loris), etaient petits (moins de 5 cm 2 ), la taille preferee des loris. Les vignes et les branches fournissaient un passage continu tandis que les arbres contenaient plusieurs sites de repos potentiels. Les caracteristiques de la foret sont ideales pour les loris, mais l'abondance de cet habitat, mesure en tant que superficie de base, est petite, ce qui est caracteristique d'une degradation severe et resultant de troubles chroniques causes par les humains. Une deforestation illegale et continue aura un impact severe sur les populations deja fragmentees de loris greles.

Work on the interspecific and intraspecific variation of trabecular bone in the proximal femur of primates demonstrates important architectural variation between animals with different locomotor behaviors. This variation is thought to be related to the processes of bone adaptation whereby bone structure is optimized to the mechanical environment. Micromechanical finite element models were created for the proximal femur of the leaping Galago senegalensis and the climbing and quadrupedal Loris tardigradus by converting bone voxels from high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans of the femoral head to eight-noded brick elements. The resulting models had approximately 1.8 million elements each. Loading conditions representing takeoff phase of a leap and more generalized load orientations were applied to the models, and the models were solved using the iterative row-by-row matrix-vector multiplication algorithm. The principal strain and Von Mises stress results for the leaping model were similar for both species at each load orientation. Similar hip joint reaction forces in the range of 4.9 × to 12 × body weight were calculated for both species under each loading condition, but the hip reaction values estimated for Loris were higher than predicted based on locomotor behavior. These results suggest that functional adaptation to hip joint loading may not fully explain the differences in femoral head trabecular bone structure in Galago and Loris. The finite element method represents a unique and useful tool for analyzing the functional adaptation of trabecular bone in a diversity of animals and for reconstructing locomotor behavior in extinct taxa. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Loris Malaguzzi, founder and guide for 50 years to the schools of young children in Reggio Emilia, Italy, passed away in January 1994. In this interview, conducted in 1990, Malaguzzi speaks directly to early childhood educators in the United States. He blends theory and practice as he clarifies the theoretical base of the Reggio schools and discusses pedagogical implications for early childhood practitioners who want to work from a deep understanding of children's thinking and questions.

Only two vertebrate trackways are known from the Paleocene of western Canada and are among the few Paleocene vertebrate trackways known worldwide. A natural cast trackway consisting of five prints (three pes, two manus) on a fallen block was found along the Red Deer River, near the town of Red Deer, Alberta, in 1927. The discoverers, Ralph Rutherford and Loris Russell, identified the strata the track block had fallen from as belonging to the Paskapoo Formation (upper Paleocene: middle Tiffanian). The trackway was attributed to a mammalian track-maker in two subsequent publications. However, the prints are more characteristic of a reptilian (crocodylian) track-maker. A natural cast track-bearing block was discovered on Signal Hill in the city of Calgary during the preparation of a new residential subdivision in 1990. The large track-bearing block was found in a rock pile but is suspected to have originated from strata belonging to the Porcupine Hills Formation (Upper Paleocene: late Torrejonian), which was...

In 2001 and 2002, surveys of slender lorises were carried out in Sri Lanka, providing the first recent information on four taxa ( Loris lydekkerianus nordicus , L. l. grandis , L. tardigradus tardigradus , and L. t. nycticeboides ) endemic to the island. Thirty-one sites across five ecological zones were surveyed. Approximately 766 km were covered in 17 areas where no lorises were found; 192 km were walked or motored in 14 sites yielding 185 sightings of Loris : L. l. nordicus ( n =111), L. t. tardigradus ( n =69), L. l. grandis ( n =4), and L. t. nycticeboides ( n =1). Density estimates, based on sightings of animals/km, were: L. t. tardigradus (0.86–13 animals/km) and L. l. nordicus (0.33–50 animals/km). Significantly fewer sightings occurred within protected areas than were made outside of them. Animal densities varied across habitat type with the highest density of lorises occurring in the dry zone in monsoon forests. Presence of Loris is positively associated with insect presence, and negatively associated with primary forest with little undergrowth; taxa differ in their ability to thrive on the edge of human habitations. Human-induced threats include habitat loss, electrocution on live wires, road accidents, the pet trade, and use in traditional medicine. Further behavioural and ecological studies are needed to estimate the habitat requirements for the different taxa of slender loris.

Computer Music Journal Kelly Fitz,* Lippold Haken, Susanne Lefvert,†† Corbin Champion,§ and Mike O’Donnell *Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Washington State University kŽ tz@eecs.wsu.edu †CERL Sound Group University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign lippold@cerlsoundgroup.org ††Lulea University of Technology and Department of Computer Science, University of Chicago slefvert@hotmail.com §Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Washington State University corbinchampion@hotmail.com ¶Department of Computer Science University of Chicago odonnell@cs.uchicago.edu Cell-Utes and Flutter-Tongued Cats: Sound Morphing Using Loris and the Reassigned BandwidthEnhanced Model

The study had three purposes: (1) to obtain information about mother-infant interactions in a rarely studied nocturnal prosimian, the pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus); (2) to compare pygmy lorises with a closely related and better-studied nocturnal prosimian, the Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis); and (3) to determine how the presence of a second offspring affected mother-infant interactions in pygmy lorises. Three Bengal slow loris mothers and 3 pygmy loris mothers served as subjects, along with their 10 offspring (4 Bengal slow loris singletons, 2 pygmy loris singletons and 2 sets of pygmy loris twins). Observations were carried out in a zoo research facility for the first 24 weeks of the infants’ lives. Although the two species differ in size and reproductive patterns, mother-infant interactions were similar. The primary modes of infant and adult contact were ventral and passive contact, respectively. Mothers parked their infants from the first week, and infants followed from the second week. Mothers displayed little protection or rejection, and there was little aggression. Infants solicited play and social grooming from their mothers. Pygmy loris mothers engaged in social grooming and play with their infants more frequently and for longer periods if the infant was a singleton rather than a twin.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate behavioral and physiological parameters of reproduction in a breeding colony of pygmy lorises. To this end, nine male and eight female adult pygmy lorises were kept under natural lighting conditions and monitored through five consecutive breeding seasons. Behavioral data were collected continuously throughout the year on all loris pairs. Behaviors associated with estrogen peaks in females included approaches, leaves, and lunges by females. Whistles were more frequent during estrus, but there was high inter-individual variability. Males responded to estrous females by persistent following. There was a higher percentage of births in pairs that were together for more than 30 days before onset of estrus, compared with pairs that were put together when females came into estrus. However, these results may have been influenced by factors such as previous familiarity and social compatibility. Fecal testosterone levels were measured using radioimmunoassays and correlated with estrogen peaks and labial swelling of the females. The data showed an annual rhythm in testosterone that was consistent with a July–August mating season. Captive births were significantly higher during January–April than they were during any other months of the year. The earliest testosterone peak in a juvenile male was detected at 58 weeks, while the youngest male to sire offspring was 73 weeks of age at the time of the conception. Zoo Biol 22:15–32, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

We studied the feeding ecology of the Mysore slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus) for 10.5 mo in a dry scrub forest at Ayyalur Interface Forestry Division, Tamil Nadu, South India. We recorded and analyzed 1240 feeding incidents, which indicate that the lorises were almost exclusively faunivorous, with 96% of all feeding events representing animal prey. Of prey items that could be identified (nD 605), 62.9% were ants and termites. Lorises fed on‚9 orders and 17 families of insects, plus spiders, molluscs, and small vertebrates. Lorises infrequently fed on gums and a legume pod. They usually grabbed prey with one hand, while other appendages firmly held the substrate. Many of the identifiable prey items belong to insect taxa likely to contain toxic chemicals. Consumption of insects inferred to be toxic was accompanied by an elaborate behavioral repertoire of sneezing, slobbering and urine-washing. A high proportion of insects eaten by slender lorises (71%) occurred in patches or aggregations. The utilization of aggregated social insects may have implications for understanding the unusually high degree of gregarious behavior exhibited by the lorises.

The social behaviour of the nocturnal prosimian Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus in its natural habitat was studied for 21 months in a scrub jungle in Dindigul, southern India. A total of 22,834 scans were collected during 2,656 hours of observation on identified and unidentified lorises. Social interactions were observed between individuals of all age-sex classes, both during the night and at dawn, when the animals met to sleep together. The majority of aggressive encounters between individuals occurred in territorial and mating contexts. Individuals also communicated with each other through chemical and vocal signals. Adults and sub-adults of both sexes were observed to immigrate into the study area, leading to social interactions with resident individuals.

This article responds to the dangers arising from baseline assessment in reception classes. It contrasts predictive testing which claims to ascertain each child's ability and potential with the processes of observation, documentation and discussion developed in Reggio Emilia. It explores the two very different understandings of children which they reflect.

Asia's slow and slender lorises (Nycticebus and Loris) are among nature's most extreme primates. Until recently, it was not understood why lorises have such huge forward-facing eyes, strange steady climbing locomotion, tiny dependent babies, and a bite that potentially can kill a human! Indeed, early studies described them as slow, solitary, and boring. Twenty years of field research now indicate that lorises are among the most intriguing mammal species.

All documented orang-utan–loris interactions have been from Sumatra, where lorises were opportunistically preyed upon by orang-utans. In this paper, we describe two accounts of the Bornean orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) interacting with the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis). The interactions were by two adolescent female orang-utans. No attempts to catch the loris were observed on either occasion. Neither interaction was hostile. During the second observation, which was more detailed, we considered the behaviour to be play rather than aggression or attempted predation. Based upon the lack of interest from the adult females during these rare encounters, we propose that the behaviour represents play or non-aggressive exploration rather than predation.

[Editorial - First page preview] In recent years early childhood education and care (ECEC) has moved far up in the policy agenda internationally. In the European context, this is attested by a growing number of policy initiatives promoted by the European Commission and aimed to encourage the investment in high quality and accessible ECEC provision across member states. From a European perspective, investing in accessible and high quality ECEC is seen as crucial to realise wide-ranging goals that are laid out in the Europe 2020 strategy (European Commission 2010). This states that the current economic and social crises can be overcome by elaborating and implementing policies that promote smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. In this regard, it is acknowledged that improving the quality and effectiveness of the education systems across Europe is essential to all three of these dimensions and that ECEC has an important role to play in laying the foundations for the successful lifelong learning of EU citizens as well as in fostering social cohesion (European Commission 2011). These claims are supported by a growing body of scholarly research showing that high-quality ECEC has a positive and long-lasting impact on children’s cognitive and social development and therefore can contribute significantly to improve children’s educational success as well as to reduce the achievement gap between less advantaged children and their more affluent peers (Burger 2010; Leseman 2009). The evidence produced by such a growing body of literature is acting as an important policy driver catalysing the attention of policymakers toward the importance of investing in a field – such as ECEC – that has been neglected for a long time. However, it needs to be noted that the increasing dominance of social investment paradigms – within which much outcome-focused and evidence-based research is framed – is currently generating contradictory tensions, especially in those contexts where ECEC systems were conceived within a children’s rights rationale since its inception. In such contexts, explicitly defined long-term benefits of ECEC attendance are rarely mentioned in national policy documents. This might indicate that the rationales for investing in high quality ECEC services in many EU member states are still more likely to be driven by concerns for children’s rights and social justice rather than by concerns for socioeconomic advantages. Along this line, ECEC research approaches developed in such contexts tend to focus predominantly on the analysis of educational processes from a participatory perspective rather than on the measurement of predetermined outcomes.

Published cladistic reconstructions of galagonid phylogeny based on morphological, behavioral, and genetic data have had few elements in common. A recent molecular study indicated that 2 of the 3 generic groupings derived from morphological data were not consistent with tree topologies constructed from the analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences. In this study, we compiled and analyzed a data set based on craniodental morphology in 13 galagonid and 8 outgroup taxa, comprising 3 dwarf-lemur and 5 loris species, and subjected it to cladistic analysis. Our aim was not only to generate a new phylogenetic hypothesis based on these data, but also to investigate the conditions under which congruence could be achieved between these results and those obtained previously. The data set was found to be highly sensitive to the choice of outgroup, with the lorises showing high interspecific variability in cranial structure. Congruence between the craniodental and molecular trees could be achieved only if Arctocebus was used as the outgroup and two characters were preferentially weighted. Further progress in the reconstruction of galagonid phylogeny will require seeking consensus in a variety of other data sets, including postcranial morphology, behavior, and additional gene sequences. The effect of different outgroups on molecular analysis needs attention.

Nonhuman primates include a wide range of diverse species, which fall within one of two main divisions, Prosimii and Anthropoidea. The suborder of Anthropoidea (man-like forms) is further divided into Catarrhini (Old World monkeys, apes, and man) from Africa and Asia, and Platyrrhini (New World monkeys) from South and Central America. Representative Old World species include the largely terrestrial rhesus, cynomolgus and other macaques, baboons, and vervets, whereas representative New World species, which are usually arboreal, include squirrel monkeys and marmosets. The suborder Prosimii (“premonkeys”) includes the lemur, loris, and galago, which are small species from Africa, India, and southeast Asia, rarely used in medical research. Many of the physical features that distinguish these two suborders suggest adaptations to diurnal (Anthropoidea) or nocturnal (Prosimii) lifestyles. Besides their different geographical distributions, New and Old World monkeys also have distinct reproductive physiology characteristics. Old World monkeys are unique among large animal models used in bone research in having menstrual cycles, similar to human primates (see Hendrickx and Dukelow and references therein). Menarche occurs in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), and baboons (Papio species) between 2 and 4 years of age, but sexual maturity, as defined by first conception, may not occur until 4–5 years of age. Both macaques have 28 day cycles, and baboons have 33 day cycles, all with estrogen and progesterone levels and patterns similar to those of women. The hormonal profiles during pregnancy in these species also parallel those in women, with elevated levels of estrogen during gestation and abrupt decreases in estrogen and progesterone immediately postpartum. Declining ovarian function and irregular menstrual cycles similar to those reported in periand postmenopausal women, studied most extensively in the rhesus monkey, occurs during the third decade in macaques, and in baboons .15 years old. New World monkeys, like most mammals, have estrus cycles, and many have complex interactions between social environment and reproductive physiology that complicate their use as estrogen-deficiency models.

Employing comparative analysis of the cDNA-coding sequences of the unique preprorelaxin of the Afro-lorisiform Galago crassicaudatus and the Malagasy lemur Varecia variegata and the relaxin-like factor (RLF) of G. crassicaudatus, we demonstrated distinct differences in the dynamics of molecular remodeling of both hormones during primate evolution. The lorisiform and lemuriform preprorelaxin sequences encoded identical hormones, providing the first endocrinological evidence for the monophyletic origin of all Strepsirrhini. Structural analysis revealed the lemuriform members of the relaxin family to be potentially bioactive single-gene products. In contrast to the "two-prong" relaxin receptor-binding motif (RELVR) present within the B-domains of other primate relaxins, strepsirrhine relaxin contained a unique "three-prong" motif (RRLIR) with highest sequence homology to the receptor-binding motif of the evolutionarily much older skate relaxin. In contrast to relaxin, the RLF molecule was highly conserved during primate evolution and contained within its B-domain the putative relaxin receptor-binding motif and a pentameric sequence implicated in binding to specific RLF receptors. Mutually exclusive expression of strepsirrhine preprorelaxin and RLF were observed in the fetal villous trophoblast cells of the strepsirrhine placenta and postpubertal testicular Leydig cells, respectively, reflecting distinct functional roles for both hormones within the reproductive tract of Strepsirrhini.

Both predator defense and feeding ecology models have been proposed to explain the relatively slow climbing locomotion of the Lorisinae. During a study of the socioecology of the Mysore slender loris (Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus) in Tamil Nadu, India, six categories of behavior and eleven different postures were recorded to estimate a general activity budget for the slender loris, and are examined here particularly in relation to slow climbing locomotor strategies. Reactions to potential predators are also described. The main study population was composed of 15 animals. Activity budgets were compiled in three ways: all instantaneous point samples collected over 1,173 h pooled (n = 13,717), the means of individual lorises (n = 15) and behavior at the moment of first contact (n = 357). No significant difference was found between these three data sets. Approximately 45% of the activity budget was spent in inactive behaviors including sitting vigilant, resting and sleeping. Foraging and traveling comprised nearly half the activity budget, with the rest of the time spent grooming. The most common postures assumed by lorises were sitting and quadrupedal walking. Individual lorises were relatively gregarious and spent up to half their activity budget with other animals. Unlike pottos and angwantibos, lorises did not freeze, head butt or drop from branches in reaction to potential predators, but either ignored them, fled or made loud calls. Cryptic and slow climbing locomotion were used before traveling on open ground between discontinuous substrates, thereby supporting hypotheses relating to predator pressure, and also before capturing fast moving insect prey, supporting hypotheses relating to diet. It is proposed that a divergence in foraging strategies between bushbabies and lorisines may be the best adaptive explanation for their behavioral and morphological differences, including predator defense mechanisms.

Slender lorises live in forests of southern India and Sri Lanka. Little is known about their distribution patterns and relative densities. We report the results of a survey conducted in 6 forest divisions in the southern parts of the state of Andhra Pradesh, South India. Relatively high densities of lorises occurred in mixed deciduous forests and in adjoining farm lands interspersed with trees. Three distinct populations inhabit the study area. We recommend conservation measures for Loris tardigradus.

Margaret Donaldson and Loris Malaguzzi came from very different cultures and backgrounds, but had a similar passion for ensuring that the natural abilities of children were at the heart of early years practice.

Generally the practical information required for husbandry of wild species in captivity is not readily available in a single comprehensive source. This paper describes the sort of information which would be most useful for species management, using the Slender loris Loris tardigradus nordicus as an example, and provides a practical model of the possible form and content of a husbandry manual. A single, easily available source of husbandry data would be a valuable tool for all institutions and individuals which are willing to participate in coordinated breeding programmes, helping to maintain genetic diversity and increase the size of captive populations. It would be of particular interest to small institutions, such as zoos with limited staff, breeding colonies in scientific institutions, veterinarians and private breeders. Husbandry manuals which are updated at intervals using, for example, a subscription-based amendment service or a database of husbandry information which can be accessed using a computer are both reasonable possibilities. Some existing sources of information for the management of Asian loris species and details about on-line World Wide Web services, for accessing conservation information and species-management data, which are in the development stages are described. This paper also presents some general information on minimum necessary requirements for successful husbandry of Slender lorises which, in captivity, are cautious but curious animals that become extremely familiar with their environment and react with excitement to novel stimuli. They are prone to both environmental and social stress, and stress-related symptoms observed in the species, such as slow movements, freezing to motionless or apparent loss of fear in stressful situations, may be based on earlier learning and are sometimes difficult to gauge unless keepers are familiar with the habits of each individual. Enclosure design, lighting and temperature are all significant to the well-being of the species. Slender lorises prefer to use the upper part of the enclosure, although they will use the lower area to avoid aggressive confrontations with conspecifics, and a system of branches and wiremesh which allows continuous locomotion with no ‘dead ends’ and furnishings that encourage locomotor activity should be provided. Because the species has a tendency towards adiposity and diabetes diet is a serious consideration. A comprehensive husbandry manual for Asian prosimians has been developed (Fitch-Snyder et al., in press).

It seems probable that there are more species (in the sense of sharply diagnosable entities) than hitherto recognized among small Asian primates, and contrasting to some degree with larger-sized taxa. This presumably relates to their lesser vagility and consequent reduced potential for gene-flow. Even where some gene-flow can be demonstrated, as betweenNycticebus coucang andN. bengalensis, this appears to be very limited and does not affect the essential homogeneity and diagnosability of the two taxa. The biogeographic implications of the taxonomic findings of this study are noteworthy. They confirm the distinctness of Sulawesi in contrast to a Sundaland/southern Philippines link (Tarsius); the separation of the Indochinese and Sundaic faunal subregions (Nycticebus); and the uniqueness of the Sri Lankan “wet zone” (Loris). Much more work needs to be done on all three genera, but their great taxonomic interest, indicating much greater complexity than previously assumed, is apparent.

Estrone-conjugates (E1C) were measured in the feces of six female pygmy lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus) during estrus (n = 12), pregnancy (n = 4) and the postpartum period (n = 3). Noninvasive feces collection permitted frequent sampling throughout estrus and pregnancy, without disturbance of animals. The estrous period was defined as an increase in fecal E1C levels above an average of 70 ng/g feces with peaks above 100 ng/g feces obtained in consecutive fecal samples collected over a 6- to 11-day period between the end of July and the first third of October. Comparison of the periovulatory profile of E1C and the stage of labial opening of the vagina revealed a high agreement (P < 0.001). In all pregnant females, an E1C rise was found approximately 47 days postestrus, the source of which may be the growing fetal placental unit. Estimated gestation lengths ranged between 187 and 198 days (n = 4). Am. J. Primatol. 41:103–115, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Hypothesized relationships between milk composition and life history traits were examined by analyzing mid-lactation milks of seven lemurs (Eulemur fulvus, E. macaco, E. rubriventer, E. mongoz, Varecia variegata, Hapalemur griseus, Lemur catta), three bushbabies (Otolemur crassicaudatus, O. garnettii, Galago moholi), and two lorises (Nycticebus coucang, Loris tardigradus); partial data were also obtained for the lemuroid Cheirogaleus medius. There were no significant differences in milk composition among species within either Eulemur or Otolemur, but the four genera for which multiple samples were available (Eulemur, Varecia, Otolemur, and Nycticebus) exhibited large composition differences. Eulemur milk was, on average, very dilute (9.9% dry matter) and low in energy (0.49 kcal/g). These milks contained 0.9% fat, 1.2% protein, and 8.4% carbohydrate on a fresh weight basis. Protein energy comprised only about 15% of total milk energy. Varecia had significantly higher dry matter (13.5%), fat (3.2%), protein (4.2%), gross energy (0.80 kcal/g), and protein energy:total energy ratio (28%) than Eulemur. Milks of the lorisoid genera Otolemur and Nycticebus were very similar, and both had significantly higher dry matter (18.3, 16.3%), fat (7.6, 7.0%), and gross energy concentration (1.27, 1.13 kcal/g) than either lemuroid genus. Otolemur milk was higher in protein than Nycticebus milk. We conclude that lorises, bushbabies, and perhaps cheirogaleids produce relatively rich, energy-dense milks in comparison with anthropoid primates. However, dilute milks appear to be uniformly found among species of Eulemur and perhaps in Lemur catta. The milk of Varecia (and perhaps Hapalemur) is intermediate in composition. Differences in milk composition among prosimians may be related to differences in maternal care: prosimians that carry their young during lactation produce more dilute milks than do species which leave their young unattended for prolonged periods. When looking at primates as a whole, however, the picture somewhat less clear, since the milks of some "parkers" like Varecia do closely resemble those of large anthropoid primates who carry their young.

Two species of slender lorises are currently recognized in Sri Lanka. They are Sri Lanka red slenderloris (Loris tardigradusj and Grey slender loris (L. lydekkerianus i, with four currently recognizedsub-species; viz. Western red slender loris (L. t. tardigradus), Montane slender loris (L. t.nycticeboidesi, Northern grey slender loris (L. 1.nordicusi, and Highland slender loris (L. 1.grandis).The objective of this survey was to map the distribution and estimate the abundance of lorises in SriLanka. The study was initiated in 2002 and continues to date. Thus far forty-five sites across all ofthe ecological zones have been surveyed covering approximately 400 krn-. In six of these sites, loriseswere not recorded. Of the other 39 sites, 223 sightings of slender loris (L. t. tardigradus (n = 86), L.t. nycticeboides (n = 3), L. 1. nordicus (n = 122), and L. l. grandis (n = 12). Abundance estimates, 'base on sightings of animals krn', were: L. t. tardigradus (0.5-8), L. t. nycticeboides (0.03), L. I.nordicus (0.7-13). and L. 1. grandis (0.3-4) were recorded. The abundance of lorises varied indifferent habitat types with the highest abundance oflorises occurring in the dry zone monsoon forests.The least abundance of lorises was recorded in the cloud forest.

Only seven types of mammals are known to be venomous, including slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.). Despite the evolutionary significance of this unique adaptation amongst Nycticebus, the structure and function of slow loris venom is only just beginning to be understood. Here we review what is known about the chemical structure of slow loris venom. Research on a handful of captive samples from three of eight slow loris species reveals that the protein within slow loris venom resembles the disulphide-bridged heterodimeric structure of Fel-d1, more commonly known as cat allergen. In a comparison of N. pygmaeus and N. coucang, 212 and 68 compounds were found, respectively. Venom is activated by combining the oil from the brachial arm gland with saliva, and can cause death in small mammals and anaphylactic shock and death in humans. We examine four hypotheses for the function of slow loris venom. The least evidence is found for the hypothesis that loris venom evolved to kill prey. Although the venom's primary function in nature seems to be as a defense against parasites and conspecifics, it may also serve to thwart olfactory-orientated predators. Combined with numerous other serpentine features of slow lorises, including extra vertebra in the spine leading to snake-like movement, serpentine aggressive vocalisations, a long dark dorsal stripe and the venom itself, we propose that venom may have evolved to mimic cobras (Naja sp.). During the Miocene when both slow lorises and cobras migrated throughout Southeast Asia, the evolution of venom may have been an adaptive strategy against predators used by slow lorises as a form of Müllerian mimicry with spectacled cobras.

Protein-protein interactions are of central importance for virtually every process in a living cell. Information about the interaction sites in proteins improves our understanding of disease mechanisms and can provide the basis for new therapeutic approaches. Since a multitude of unique residue-residue contacts facilitate the interactions, protein-protein interaction sites prediction has become one of the most important and challenging problems of computational biology. Although much progress in this field has been reported, this problem is yet to be satisfactorily solved. Here, a novel method (LORIS: L1-regularized LOgistic Regression based protein-protein Interaction Sites predictor) is proposed, that identifies interaction residues, using sequence features and is implemented via the L1-logreg classifier. Results show that LORIS is not only quite effective, but also, performs better than existing state-of-the art methods. LORIS, available as standalone package, can be useful for facilitating drug-design and targeted mutation related studies, which require a deeper knowledge of protein interactions sites.

BackgroundThe internet is gaining importance in global wildlife trade and changing perceptions of threatened species. There is little data available to examine the impact that popular Web 2.0 sites play on public perceptions of threatened species. YouTube videos portraying wildlife allow us to quantify these perceptions.Methodology/principal findingsFocussing on a group of threatened and globally protected primates, slow lorises, we quantify public attitudes towards wildlife conservation by analysing 12,411 comments and associated data posted on a viral YouTube video 'tickling slow loris' over a 33-months period. In the initial months a quarter of commentators indicated wanting a loris as a pet, but as facts about their conservation and ecology became more prevalent this dropped significantly. Endorsements, where people were directed to the site by celebrities, resulted mostly in numerous neutral responses with few links to conservation or awareness. Two conservation-related events, linked to Wikipedia and the airing of a television documentary, led to an increase in awareness, and ultimately to the removal of the analysed video.Conclusions/significanceSlow loris videos that have gone viral have introduced these primates to a large cross-section of society that would not normally come into contact with them. Analyses of webometric data posted on the internet allow us quickly to gauge societal sentiments. We showed a clear temporal change in some views expressed but without an apparent increase in knowledge about the conservation plight of the species, or the illegal nature of slow loris trade. Celebrity endorsement of videos showing protected wildlife increases visits to such sites, but does not educate about conservation issues. The strong desire of commentators to express their want for one as a pet demonstrates the need for Web 2.0 sites to provide a mechanism via which illegal animal material can be identified and policed.

7. Red Slender Loris Loris tardigradus French: Loris gréle / German: Roter Schlanklori / Spanish: Loris esbelto rojo Other common names: Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides) Taxonomy. Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka). The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here. Subspecies and Distribution. L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel. L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942 — Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level. Descriptive notes. Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradus is the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris ” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Loris is very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficult to confuse with other slender lorises. Habitat. Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradus is found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches. Food and Feeding. In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtia laurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris. Breeding. Dominant males may form partnerships with smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris. Activity patterns. The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigradus can move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradus utters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites. Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradus particularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradus in only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradus occurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama. Bibliography. Bernede (2009), Bernede et al. (2008), Gamage et al. (2010), Goonan (1993), Goonan et al. (1995), Groves (2001), Hill (1942b), Molur et al. (2003), Montagna & Ellis (1960), Muller et al. (1985), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Perera (2007), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Stevens (2007), Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005), Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007), Petter & Hladik (1970), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schmitt & Lemelin (2004), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Sellers (1996), Still (1905), Subramoniam (1957)., Published as part of Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands & Don E. Wilson, 2013, Lorisidae, pp. 210-220 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 217-218, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6632647

6. Gray Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus French: Loris de Lydekker / German: Grauer Schlanklori / Spanish: Loris esbelto gris Other common names: Dry Zone/Northern/Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus), Highland Slender Loris (grandis), Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus), Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus) Taxonomy. Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908, India, Madras. C. P. Groves in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied L.. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research. Subspecies and Distribution. L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats. L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m. L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m. L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933 — NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka. Descriptive notes. Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant. Habitat. The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields. Food and Feeding. Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassia roxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects. Breeding. Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed. Activity patterns. The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line. Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele. Bibliography. Christie (1992), Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981), Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001), Goonan (1993), Groves (2001), Hill (1933, 1953d), Ilse (1955), Izard & Rassmussen (1985), Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980), Kar Gupta (2007), Kumara et al. (2006), Meier (1989), Nanda Kumar et al. (2004), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Schulze (2004), Nekaris et al. (2006), Rao (1994), Rhadakrishna (2001), Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Singh, Kumar et al. (2000), Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999), Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)., Published as part of Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands & Don E. Wilson, 2013, Lorisidae, pp. 210-220 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 216-217, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6632647

Managers of conservation programmes require reliable information about the status of their system in order to make sensible management decisions, or learn about the impact of previous decisions. Without such information, inappropriate decisions may be made leading to undesirable conservation outcomes (Nichols and Williams, 2006; MacKenzie, 2009). However, many conservation programmes have limited resources and may be operating in areas where field crews have little technical training. It is therefore necessary that this reliable information can be collected in a practical, robust, and cost-efficient manner. The example we will use to illustrate the utility of these techniques is the recently established Slender Loris Conservation Programme in Sri Lanka. The red slender loris (Loris tardigradus tardigradus and the montane subspecies Loris tardigradus nycticeboides) are currently maintained as Endangered according to the IUCN Red List (Endangered C2a(i); Nekaris et al., 2008). This rareness is borne out by the inclusion of L. t. nycticeboides in the list of the 25 most endangered primates in the world for 2006–2008 (Mittermeier et al., 2007), in which the account for L. t. nycticeboides suggests the range of the species to be less than 40 000 ha (Nekaris, 2003). Continued forest fragmentation due to agricultural and urban development, dieback of forest due to presumed climatic events in montane habitats (Werner, 1984), and more insidiously, the degradation of forest due to fuelwood collection, may put the area of suitable habitat at a worryingly lower figure

This chapter reviews the systematics and distinguishing features, as well as the behavior and ecology, of prosimian primates - the strepsirrhines of Africa, Asia, and Madagascar and the tarsiers of Asia. There are two major groups of living strepsirrhines. The lorisoids consist of the galagos of Africa and the lorises of Africa and Asia. The most diverse group of strepsirrhines is the radiation of lemurs on the island of Madagascar, which includes five families. Lemurids, indriids, and cheirogaleids are diverse radiations of numerous genera. Lepilemurids and the daubentoniids each contain a single genus. In addition to these living lemurs there are numerous recently extinct genera of lemuriforms, all larger than the living species. Phylogenetic relationships among the families of Malagasy primates are largely unresolved. This diverse radiation of strepsirrhines include many diurnal, nocturnal, and cathemeral species . Likewise strepsirrhines include faunivores, frugivores and folivores, including species with very specific diets such as bamboo or insect secretions. Their locomotor habits include arboreal and terrestrial quadrupedalism, leaping and some hindlimb suspension. The extinct species were even more diverse. Nocturnal taxa are generally solitary foragers, but show many types of social interactions. Diurnal taxa live in groups of various size and organization. The Asian tarsiers are commonly divided into three allopatric genera . Tarsiers have enormous eyes, large hands, and long legs and ankles. All are small, nocturnal, insectivorous leapers. Tarsiers are more closely related to monkeys, apes and humans than to strepsirrhines and are placed in the semiorder Haplorhini.

The animal gastrointestinal tract contains a complex community of microbes, whose composition ultimately reflects the co-evolution of microorganisms with their animal host. An analysis of 78,619 pyrosequencing reads generated from pygmy loris fecal DNA extracts was performed to help better understand the microbial diversity and functional capacity of the pygmy loris gut microbiome. The taxonomic analysis of the metagenomic reads indicated that pygmy loris fecal microbiomes were dominated by Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria phyla. The hierarchical clustering of several gastrointestinal metagenomes demonstrated the similarities of the microbial community structures of pygmy loris and mouse gut systems despite their differences in functional capacity. The comparative analysis of function classification revealed that the metagenome of the pygmy loris was characterized by an overrepresentation of those sequences involved in aromatic compound metabolism compared with humans and other animals. The key enzymes related to the benzoate degradation pathway were identified based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway assignment. These results would contribute to the limited body of primate metagenome studies and provide a framework for comparative metagenomic analysis between human and non-human primates, as well as a comparative understanding of the evolution of humans and their microbiome. However, future studies on the metagenome sequencing of pygmy loris and other prosimians regarding the effects of age, genetics, and environment on the composition and activity of the metagenomes are required.

The aims of this study were to examine potential causes of variation in fundamental life-history traits and to illuminate their consequences for social behavior in the most primitive living primates. Specifically, I reexamined the claim that life histories of strepsirhine primates (lemurs and lorises) are metabolically constrained and tested the hypothesis that female social dominance, a behavioral idiosyncrasy of Malagasy strepsirhines, is the result of unusually high energetic maternal investment in reproduction. I collected data on body mass, brain mass, metabolic rate, and fetal and postnatal litter growth rates for 21 lemur and 13 loris species to examine the relationship between maternal investment and the other variables after controlling for allometric and phylogenetic effects. I found that evolutionary changes in fetal growth rates, relative litter mass, and postnatal growth rates were associated with evolutionary changes in maternal mass but that neither brain size nor metabolic rate were independently correlated with variables reflecting maternal investment. Evolutionary changes in all three variables reflecting maternal investment were positively correlated with one another, however, indicating that they are coadapted, only broadly constrained by body size, and unconstrained by brain size and metabolic rate. Lemurs and lorises were found to have similar postnatal litter growth rates, which reflect the bulk of maternal reproductive investment, indicating that the energetic costs of reproduction did not figure prominently in the evolution of female dominance. The suggested unusual energetic stress of reproducing lemur females is further refuted by qualitative compari- son with higher primates and other mammals. Thus, strepsirhine life histories are not narrowly constrained by nonadaptive forces and have no direct consequences for social relations between adult males and females. Principal life-history traits determine the size of an organism at birth; how fast and how long it will grow; at what age and size it will mature; the number, size, and sex of its offspring; and its reproductive and total life span (Stearns 1992). These traits are connected by numerous trade-offs, involving differential alloca- tion of energy to growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Because interactions among life-history traits result in phenotypic adaptations that determine individ- ual fitness through their direct effect on survival and reproduction, life histories are the key to understanding the action of natural selection (Gadgil and Bossert 1970; Stearns 1976, 1992). Two types of explanations have been proposed to account for the diversity of mammalian life histories. One is based on the observation that, across species, life histories tend to be highly correlated with body size, brain size, and metabolic

Unlike all other primates, members of the subfamily Lorisinae are never seen to leap. To investigate the anatomical specializations that are behind the absence of leaping in their locomotor repertoire, a predictive mechanical model of leaping was developed using the lesser bushbaby, Galago moholi, as a size-matched leaping prosimian comparison. This enabled the required limb movements for a leaping slender loris to be calculated, and hence the torque and power requirements at each of the hindlimb joints. From this information, the maximum feasible leap was calculated for the slender loris morphotype, and it was found that this alone would prevent the animal from leaping a greater distance than it could walk over, so that the reduction in fitness due to an apparent loss of leaping from the behavioural repertoire can be considered to be very small.

Three wild-caught Sri Lankan and two captive-bred slender lorises (Loris tardigradus) in Adelaide Zoo, South Australia, were karyotyped from leucocyte cultures. The founder male and one of the founder females were of the grey subspecies L. tardigradus grandis, of which L. tardigradus nordicus is probably a synonym. The other founder female was a small red-brown L. tardigradus tardigradus. All three wild-caught individuals were karyotypically distinct from each other and their offspring showed the expected heterozygosity. The L. tardigradus tardigradus karyotype was no more distinct from the grey subspecies karyotypes than they were from each other. On present evidence, Indian and Sri Lankan lorises appear to be chromosomally distinct.

A total of 32 slender lorises (Loris tardigradus) kept in captivity were investigated postmortem. In five adult lorises (4 females, 1 male), the gallbladder contained either one gallstone or multiple gallstones. Except for one 5-yr-old female, the affected individuals were between 11 and 13 yr of age. All of the gallstones consisted of 100% cholesterol. Besides other predisposing factors such as species, sex, increasing age, and diabetes mellitus, nutrition may play a major role in the occurrence of these gallstones.

Primates moving through the trees must cope with a three-dimensional network of branches that differ in angular orientation. On oblique supports, an animal must not only avoid toppling or sliding off of a branch, it may also need to adjust its visual field orientation along the path of movement. Previous studies have found that primate quadrupeds walking on top of horizontal supports direct the orbital plane more inferiorly, whereas suspensory primates moving beneath branches direct the orbital plane more superiorly. If primates adjust the visual path to reflect substrate position, they should incline the orbital plane more on inclines than on declines. Alternatively, eye mobility within the orbits may permit collection of sufficient visual information without reorienting angular posture of the head. Lorisids are adept arboreal quadrupeds that routinely negotiate inclines and declines. We collected 150 strides of kinematic data on head postures for two adult slender lorises (Loris tardigradus) during locomotion on horizontal and oblique supports. In general, lorises adjusted head posture as predicted, directing orbits more superiorly on inclines and more inferiorly on declines. However, we observed higher angles on declines than predicted by substrate angle alone, suggesting that other locomotor and vestibular issues also influence head orientation.

During a radio-tracking study of L. t. tardigradus in Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka, we recorded the animals’ vocalizations and associated behaviors. The 1,720 calls we heard in the field fell into five call types: whistle (97.7%), chitter (2.0%), monosyllabic chitter (0.2%), “krik” and “zic” calls (0.1%). We provide a preliminary account of the contextual use of these vocalizations, with an emphasis on qualitative variation in the loud “whistle” call, by far the most common call type. Whistles vary greatly in their contextual use, structure, and usage frequency. Synchronous calls are uttered by mothers and infants in the context of infant parking and pick up. The average number of calls per hour was highest between 19:00 and 20:00 (1.9 calls/h) and lowest between 6:00 and 7:00 (

The red slender loris (Loris tardigradus tardigradus) is endemic to Sri Lanka’s southern rainforests, where less than 2% of their habitat remains in small, fragmented patches. Because of continued encroachment on these small areas, the species is considered endangered. We present data on red slender loris abundance in nine of the last remaining forest patches in Sri Lanka’s Wet Zone and examine the relationship between habitat characteristics and abundance. Slender lorises were present at 7 out of 9 patches, and 44 animals were encountered. Density estimates ranged from 3.4 to 28 lorises/km2 with linear encounter rates of 0.1–1.1 lorises/km. Patch size heavily influenced encounter rate, with the largest patches containing more lorises. Removing the effect of patch size, we explored whether support size, undergrowth continuity, number of lianes/vines, and canopy continuity influenced loris density. We found slight evidence that increased numbers of lianes and vines were associated with decreased numbers of lorises. Although lorises rely on continuous substrates for movement, increased numbers of lianes and vines are also associated with the smallest and most disturbed habitats. In order to persist, red slender lorises require continuous forest. Unless forest encroachment can be halted and reforestation programmes started, their future in all but the largest of Sri Lanka’s remaining forest patches is bleak.

We investigated habitat preferences and, specifically, variable use of habitat by members of a population of Loris tardigradus tardigradus to assess their ecological plasticity, i.e., ability to respond to environmental changes. We assessed habitat structure (tree heights, connectivity, floristic composition, and liana abundance) and radio-tracked 14 adult lorises in Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve (MPFR) in Sri Lanka. The loris population of MPFR has not adapted to exploiting the agricultural environment surrounding and fragmenting the forest, staying within the remaining narrow, isolated forest tracts. However, the animals do show some accommodation to habitat changes, making use of regenerating plantations and forest edges, possibly because of their higher arthropod abundance.

The effect of moonlight and temperature on activity of slow lorises was previously little known and this knowledge might be useful for understanding many aspects of their behavioural ecology, and developing strategies to monitor and protect populations. In this study we aimed to determine if the activity of the pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) is affected by ambient temperature and/or moonlight in a mixed deciduous forest. We radio-collared five females and five males in the Seima Protection Forest, Cambodia, in February to May, 2008 and January to March, 2009 and recorded their behaviour at 5 minutes intervals, totalling 2736 observations. We classified each observation as either inactive (sleeping or alert) or active behaviour (travel, feeding, grooming, or others). Moon luminosity (bright/dark) and ambient temperature were recorded for each observation. The response variable, activity, was binary (active or inactive), and a logit link function was used. Ambient temperature alone did not significantly affect mean activity. Although mean activity was significantly affected by moonlight, the interaction between moonlight and temperature was also significant: on bright nights, studied animals were increasingly more active with higher temperature; and on dark nights they were consistently active regardless of temperature. The most plausible explanation is that on bright cold nights the combined risk of being seen and attacked by predators and heat loss outweigh the benefit of active behaviours.

Muscle fiber composition in cross-sections of the venter of the anterior tibial muscle was characteristic for each species of 13 individuals of 7 species of 5 genuses of 2 families of prosimians. In the fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius) and Miller's mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) of lemurinae, all three types of muscle fibers were thick, and the proportion of white muscle fibers showing fast contraction was high. In slender loris (Loris tradigradus) and slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) of lorisinae, red muscle fibers were large in diameter and white muscle fibers were small in diameter, different from other species, and the proportion of red muscle fibers showing slow contraction was high, showing a pattern of dominance of red muscle fibers. In the lesser galago (Galago senegalensis), grand galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus) and Garnett's galago (Otolemur garnettii) of galaginae, muscle fibers were thin and the proportion of red muscle fibers was extremely low, while the proportion of intermediate muscle fibers, or white muscle fibers was the highest. The results suggest that it is closely correlated with the specific locomotion systems in various species of prosimians.

Three fundamental ontogenetic pathways lead to the development of size differences between males and females. Males and females may grow at the same rate for different durations (bimaturism), grow for the same duration at different rates, or grow at a mix of rate and duration differences. While patterns of growth and the development of adult body size are well established for many haplorhines, the extent to which rate and duration differences affect strepsirrhine growth trajectories remains unclear. Here, we present iterative piecewise regression models that describe the ontogeny of adult body mass for males and females of five lorisoid species (i.e., lorises and galagos) from the Duke Lemur Center. We test the hypotheses that, like most haplorhines, sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is a result of bimaturism, and males and females of monomorphic species grow at the same rate for a similar duration. We confirm that the galagos in this sample (Galago moholi and Otolemur garnettii) show significant SSD that is achieved through bimaturism. Unlike monomorphic lemurids, the lorises in this sample show a diversity of ontogenetic patterns. Loris tardigradus does follow a lemur-like trajectory to monomorphism but Nycticebuscoucang and Nycticebus pygmaeus achieve larger adult female body sizes through a mixture of rate and duration differences. We show that contrary to previous assumptions, there are patterns of both similarity and difference in growth trajectories of comparably sized lorises and galagos. Furthermore, when ontogenetic profiles of lorisoid and lemurid growth are compared, it is evident that lorisoids grow faster for a shorter period of time.

Craniomandibular variation characterizes the five species of Asian slow loris (Nycticebus), but until now, few ecological studies have been available to understand the factors that underpin it. Here, we review feeding ecology of Asian lorises and African pottos, with emphasis on the importance of exudate feeding, including several new studies. We then present novel data on this behavior based on a 10-week study of N. coucang at Pusat Penyelamatan Satwa, Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lorises and pottos range in body size from 100 g (Loris tardigradus) to more than 2 kg (N. bengalensis). Three of the smallest species (Arctocebus calabarensis, A. aureus, L. tardigradus) rely mainly on insects and small invertebrates as dietary staples. Although Perodicticus is known to eat gum only from already open wounds, active gouging of bark to extract exudates or consumption of plant sap has now been observed in all other lorises. Five species (P. potto, N. coucang, N. bengalensis, N. javanicus, N. pygmaeus) rely on exudates as a key food source. Although at all field sites, exudates are eaten all year round, at some, they become a key resource in times of food scarcity. Exudates have been extracted from 14 different plant families; Fabaceae is possibly the most important, currently consumed by all exudativorous species. Despite the lack of keeled nails, gouging behavior of lorises closely resembles that of marmosets and fork-marked lemurs, and involves active breaking of the plant surface; the audible nature of this behavior, as well as the characteristic marks left behind, makes it useful for determining the presence of Nycticebus in a forest. The captive lorises in our study also gouged regularly, recorded 2.9 times per hour for both adults and juveniles. Urine and facial marking accompanied the majority of gouges, a behavior recorded before only for marmosets. The functions of this behavior as a resource sharing strategy are explored. The importance of providing opportunity for gouging for captive lorises is also discussed, as a way to mitigate the periodontal diseases, which plague Nycticebus in captivity. We conclude by discussing the importance of a better understanding of this relatively unique behavior to improve our knowledge of morphological correlates to loris taxonomy and ecology, and captive management via dietary changes and enrichment.