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Based on the daily δ 18O data in June–September 2003 at Lijiang and the daily mean NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data, synoptic-scale variation of δ 18O in summer monsoon rainfall was investigated. The ‘precipitation amount effect’ is obvious for the daily δ 18O variation, whereas the ‘temperature effect’ is insignificant. Alternate occurrences of active phase and break phase of the southwest monsoon probably influence the synoptic-scale δ 18O variation prominently. Moreover, the isotopic composition in precipitation during the late monsoon months is presumably influenced significantly by recycling of monsoon precipitation. Both the above factors disturb the ‘amount effect’ of isotopic variation in the monsoon region. This study also indicates that the synoptic-scale rainfall δ 18O variation at Lijiang in summer is dominated by the Indian monsoon depression (low pressure) system at large scale. These results are important for further studying the ‘amount effect’ and reconstructing paleoclimate in the monsoon region.

Based on the data of δ18O in surface snow, snow pits, meltwater and the glacier-fed river water at Baishui Glacier No.1, Mt. Yulong, the isotopic fractionation behaviors in the typical monsoonal temperate glacier system in winter and summer were compared. The results indicate that the isotopic fractionation degree in summer is greater than that in winter, suggesting that the snow/ice melting is more intense in summer. Moreover, whenever it is in winter or summer, from surface snow to meltwater, and to glacier-fed river water, the gradient of δ18O with altitude gradually increases. This shows that the degree of isotopic fractionation gradually strengthens when surface snow is being converted into meltwater and finally into glacial river water, which suggests that the influence of post-depositional processes on δ18O gradient in the monsoonal temperate glacier region differs spatially.

In order to improve understanding of spatial and temporal variations of stable isotopes in atmospheric precipitation, snow cover and glacier meltwater in different regions of China, samples were collected for isotopic analysis in four areas: Yulong mountain, Yunnan Himalaya (temperate-glacier area); Samdain Kangsang mountain, Nyainqêntanglha Shan (subpolar-glacier area); the headwater area of the Ürümqi river, Tien Shan (subpolar-glacier area); and Muztag mountain, Pamirs (polar-glacier area). Sampling was undertaken in both summer and winter between 2000 and 2003. The δ18O values show a ‘temperature–altitude effect’ in new winter snow on Yulong mountain, reflecting the condensation and fractionation processes associated with the winter monsoon, but a different, more complex pattern in residual snow deposited during the summer monsoon; this old snow is influenced by the ‘precipitation amount effect’, solar radiation and evaporation, and the water content of the snowpack. The summer precipitation at Samdain Kangsang mountain is associated with the summer monsoon. There is a marked precipitation amount effect during the long passage of the southwest/India monsoon from the distant moisture source to Samdain Kangsang mountain, and the summer precipitation is strongly depleted of the heavy isotope. Above 6000 m, the high radiation flux causes much evaporation from the snow surface. The associated 1 8O enrichment of the snow is reflected in a ‘reverse altitude effect’. The δ18O values in the summer snowpack of the Tien Shan and Muztag mountain decrease with increasing altitude and decreasing air temperature, indicating a temperature–altitude effect. Post-depositional processes cause isotopic changes during the transformation of snow/firn/ice to meltwater; the effects are much stronger at temperate than at polar glaciers. Moreover, changes in the isotopic signal at both temperate and polar glaciers can result from evaporation, sublimation, ablation and drifting.

A simple and fast method was developed to determine non-UV active compounds directly without derivatization. The usefulness of the method was demonstrated by detecting the major components in aminoglycoside antibiotic mixtures using capillary zone electrophoresis with potential gradient detection. Under optimized separation conditions (0.2 mM cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), 1 mM ammonium citrate, pH 3.5), gentamicin was separated into three major peaks (C1, C1a, and C2+C2a) within 15 min. This method showed better sensitivity than other capillary electrophoresis (CE) methods for determining underivatized gentamicin. The linear range was from 10 to 500 ppm. Because of its good repeatability and simplicity, this new method could be a good alternative for the current assays given by US Pharmacopoeia and European Pharmacopoeia.

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) shows a significant negative correlation with the extent of Eurasian snow cover in spring. The anomalies in the land-sea temperature contrast, which are induced by the anomalies of Eurasian snow cover in spring, reverse the patterns of convection activ- ity anomalies over the western and eastern tropical Indian Ocean in summer. Moreover, for heavier and lighter than normal Eurasian snow cover in spring, anomalies in the vertical zonal circulation over the tropical Indian Ocean (Walker circulation) and in the vertical meridional circulation between the Indian Ocean and the Eurasian continent (Hadley circulation) occur in summer. The Walker and Hadley circulation anomalies probably play an important role in the occurrence and duration of IOD events. Eurasian snow cover in spring is presumably one of the factors that trigger IOD events. These results provide a basis for further investigation of the mechanisms linking snow cover, the Indian monsoon, atmospheric circulation, and sea surface temperature.

High-performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE) has been applied to the identification, separation, and quantitation of intact bacteria. We demonstrate that a pathogen (Edwardsiella tarda) which causes systemic infection in commercially important fish species can be rapidly identified and determined (10 min) after direct injection into fish fluid by CE blue light-emitting diode (LED)-induced fluorescence. SYTO 13 (488 nm/509 nm), a cell-permeable green nucleic acid stain, was used to stain the cells. Remarkably high efficiency (1,200,000 theoretical plates/m) was achieved with this rapid and efficient CE method. It was found that proper sample vortexing (90 s) would be beneficial to disperse aggregated cells and facilitate the focusing of intact cells during electrophoresis. Ionization of the surface constituents of Edwardsiella tarda cells provided efficient surface charges for the intact cells to be separated from the EOF and damaged or lysed cells when the separation was performed in running buffer (3.94 mM Tris, 0.56 mM borate, 0.013 mM EDTA) at pH 10.5. The limit of detection (LOD) and recovery were found to be 4.2 x 10(4) cells/mL and 70.0%, respectively. This proposed CE method could become an effective tool for diagnosis and tracking of certain diseases caused by bacteria in fish species as well as in human beings.

In Chinese medicines, herbs are usually prepared before use by patients. Since the preparation procedures convert the original component into one or more products, study of the procedures is usually complex and involves several compounds. On-line coupling of capillary electrophoresis (CE) to mass spectrometry (MS) allows both the efficient separation of CE and the specific and sensitive detection of MS to be achieved. In this study, CE-MS was applied to the determination of alkaloids in Maqianzi (the seed of Strychnos pierrian) and Wutou (aconite root, Radix aconiti praeparata) during the preparation procedure. With optimal CE-MS conditions, alkaloids in both prepared and unprepared Maqianzi were determined successfully in the total ion current (TIC) mode. However, single ion monitoring (SIM) had to be applied for the separation of aconitum alkaloids and their hydrolysis products. Quantification data indicated that MS detection under SIM mode is more sensitive than UV detection. Based on the CE-MS method developed, the hydrolysis of aconitum alkaloids in water and methanol was also studied.

The immobilization of pre-dispersed TiO2 colloids onto the external surface of the clay mineral montmorillonite (Mt) was accomplished and regulated via a self-assembly method employing the cationic surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). The role of CTAB in the synthesis process was investigated by preparing a series of TiO2-CTAB-Mt composites (TCM) with various CTAB doses. The results indicated that a uniform and continuous TiO2 film was deposited on the external surface of montmorillonite in the composite synthesized with 0.1 wt.% of CTAB, and the TCM nano-composites showed much higher values for specific surface area, average pore size and pore volume than the raw montmorillonite clay. Then, the formed TCM materials were applied in photocatalytic degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) in aqueous solution. The degradation efficiency reached as high as 94.7%. Based on the degradation intermediates benezoquinone, fumaric acid and oxalic acid identified by LC-MS analysis, a mechanism for the photocatalytic oxidation of 2,4-DCP on TiO2/Mt nano-composites is proposed.

Quality Protein Maize (QPM) is a hard kernel variant of the high-lysine mutant opaque2. Using γ-irradiation, we created opaque QPM variants to identify opaque2 modifier genes and to investigate deletion mutagenesis combined with Illumina sequencing as a maize (Zea mays) functional genomics tool. A K0326Y QPM deletion mutant was null for the 27- and 50-kD γ-zeins and abolished vitreous endosperm formation. Illumina exon and RNA sequencing revealed a 1.2-megabase pair deletion encompassing the 27- and 50-kD γ-zein genes on chromosome 7 and a deletion of at least 232 kb on chromosome 9. Protein body number was reduced by over 90%, while protein body size is similar to the wild type. Kernels hemizygous for the γ-zein deletion had intermediate 27- and 50-kD γ-zein levels and were semivitreous, indicating haploinsufficiency of these gene products in opaque2 endosperm modification. The γ-zein deletion further increased lysine in QPM in its homozygous and hemizygous states. This work identifies 27-kD γ-zein as an opaque2 modifier gene within the largest QPM quantitative trait locus and may suggest the 50-kD γ-zein also contributes to this quantitative trait locus. It further demonstrates that genome-wide deletions in nonreference maize lines can be identified through a combination of assembly of Illumina reads against the B73 genome and integration of RNA sequencing data.

Behavioral Operations Management is a cutting-edge science with a broad development prospect. But in the field of elevator dispatching, there's little consideration of passengers' behavior habits. In order to satisfy the demand of passengers and achieve the maximum effectiveness of elevators, this paper takes full consideration of the realities' factors selected by passengers, and analyzes the characteristics of rush hour to study the more than one elevators scheduling problem. Firstly, take the passengers behavior habits as the starting point, and establish a mathematic model; Secondly, use the two phase approach algorithm, namely, composite dispatching rules and particle swarm optimization algorithm to optimization elevator partition scheduling schemes. Then, take the numerical simulation of an actual case, and use MATLAB to program the solution process intelligently. Finally, compare the results, the analyze verifies the necessity and effectiveness of the consideration of passengers' behavior.

Sustainable food production for the earth's fast-growing population is a major challenge for breeding new high-yielding crops, but enhancing the nutritional quality of staple crops can potentially offset limitations associated with yield increases. Sorghum has immense value as a staple food item for humans in Africa, but it is poorly digested. Although a mutant exhibiting high-protein digestibility and lysine content has market potential, the molecular nature of the mutation is previously unknown. Here, building on knowledge from maize mutants, we take a direct approach and find that the high-digestible sorghum phenotype is tightly linked to a single-point mutation, rendering the signal peptide of a seed storage protein kafirin resistant to processing, indirectly reducing lysine-poor kafirins and thereby increasing lysine-rich proteins in the seeds. These findings indicate that a molecular marker can be used to accelerate introduction of this high nutrition and digestibility trait into different sorghum varieties.

Zeins, the maize (Zea mays) prolamin storage proteins, accumulate at very high levels in developing endosperm in endoplasmic reticulum membrane-bound protein bodies. Products of the multigene α-zein families and the single-gene γ-zein family are arranged in the central hydrophobic core and the cross-linked protein body periphery, respectively, but little is known of the specific roles of family members in protein body formation. Here, we used RNA interference suppression of different zein subclasses to abolish vitreous endosperm formation through a variety of effects on protein body density, size, and morphology. We showed that the 27-kilodalton (kD) γ-zein controls protein body initiation but is not involved in protein body filling. Conversely, other γ-zein family members function more in protein body expansion and not in protein body initiation. Reduction in both 19- and 22-kD α-zein subfamilies severely restricted protein body expansion but did not induce morphological abnormalities, which result from reduction of only the 22-kD α-zein class. Concomitant reduction of all zein classes resulted in severe reduction in protein body number but normal protein body size and morphology.

Hospitals manage their human resources more effectively and optimize nurses' use in order to simplify the work of nurse scheduling and satisfy the human requirement of creating the nurses' working schedule. With the goal of creating a more effective method of scheduling nurses' working schedules, we first establish the multi-objective mathematical model on the basis of the constraints of nurses' working schedules and the results of previous studies. Next, this paper designs two heuristic scheduling algorithms using the genetic algorithm and simulated annealing algorithm to solve this problem. Then, MATLAB is used to program the optimization scheduling intelligently. Finally, through a numerical simulation of an actual case, the results verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the genetic algorithm.

Purpose During the course of a pandemic, it is necessary to understand its transmissibility, which is often summarized by the effective reproduction number. Accurate estimation of the effective reproduction number (R) is of vital significance in real-time decision making for coping with pandemic influenza. Methods We used daily case notification data in Guangdong Province, China, in conjunction with Bayesian inference of two different stochastic susceptible, infectious, recovered (SIR) models to estimate the effective reproduction number. The duration of infectiousness was taken from published literature, and the proportion of imported cases was obtained from individual-level data. Results At the initial epidemic phase, 40% of the first 261 cases were not locally acquired. Explicitly accounting for imported cases and different infectious periods, the possible range of basic reproduction number was preliminarily estimated to be between 1.05 and 1.46. We showed how the daily case reports provided valuable information to estimate the effective reproduction number. We also found the potential delay in reporting had a relatively minor impact on estimating R. Conclusions Our proposed models and findings provide a relevant contribution towards establishing a basis for monitoring the evolution of emerging infectious diseases in real time and understanding the characteristics of pandemic influenza A H1N1 in Guangdong Province.

Here we present an efficient real-time system for Bayer image restoration. The system uses the dual processing pipeline architectures (DM642 and FPGA) to improve the speed and quality. FPGA collects and pre-processes a raw Bayer image from the CMOS image sensor. DM642 executes core algorithm processing and runs bilinear interpolation algorithm to form the RGB format image. The system could process a Bayer image of 752×480 pixels within 17.4 ms, and could transmit the final image to the host computer with 10Mb/s band-width through the Ethernet port.

This study investigates the effects of osmopriming on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum M.) hybrid seed vigor under aging and salinity stress. Tomato seeds of the ZZ1 hybrid variety, stored for four years under natural (aged) or -20°C (unaged) conditions were primed in 10% (w/v) polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution for 2 d at 20±1°C in the dark. The seed vigor was evaluated at 25±1°C for 7 d under normal (water) and 100 mM NaCl conditions, respectively. Results show that the germination percentage (GP), germination index (GI) and mean germination rate (MGR) of primed, aged seeds were significantly enhanced with a substantial increase in the radicle length (RL), shoot length (SL) and total fresh weight (FW) compared with unprimed aged seeds. Similarly, the GI, MGR and FW significantly increased in primed seeds compared with unprimed seeds under salinity stress, while GP, RL and SL did not show significant differences. Furthermore, a decline in the relative electrolyte leakage (REL) and in malondialdehyde (MDA) was detected in primed seeds during the imbibition stage compared with unprimed seeds under aging and salinity stress. The negative correlations between seed vigor and REL and MDA were observed which suggests that seed priming improves seed vigor under stress conditions associated with a decrease in seed lipid peroxidation.Key words: Tomato, seed priming, osmopriming, seed vigor, seed aging, salt tolerance.

Summary Background The novel influenza A H1N1 (2009) virus, identified in mid-2009, spread rapidly in Guangdong Province. The accurate estimation of epidemiological parameters is of vital significance in decision-making for coping with pandemic influenza. Methods We used influenza A H1N1 epidemic data from local cases in Guangdong Province, China, in conjunction with a complex SEIR model (susceptible, exposed, infectious, recovered) to estimate the basic reproduction number. The transmission rate was obtained by fitting the model to the cumulative number of local daily infected cases using the nonlinear ordinary least squares method. The latent period and duration of infectiousness were obtained from the published literature, and the proportion of symptomatic infected cases was obtained from the serological survey conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Guangdong Province. We determined the variance of model parameters via a simulation study. Results The model was in keeping with the observed epidemic data (coefficient of determination=0.982). The basic reproduction number was estimated preliminarily to be R 0 =1.525 (95% confidence interval 1.448–1.602), with the possible range of true R 0 being 1.30–1.85. We estimated the transmission rate β to be between 0.390 and 0.432. Conclusions With the help of the serological survey, useful estimates of key epidemiological parameters for the influenza A H1N1 outbreak in Guangdong Province were obtained. The sensitivity analysis suggests that different latent periods and infectious periods, which specify different mean durations of generation time, have a significant impact on R 0 . Our proposed model and findings provide a relevant contribution towards understanding the characteristics of influenza A H1N1 in Guangdong Province.

Quality Protein Maize (QPM) is a hard-endosperm version of the high-lysine opaque2 (o2) maize (Zea mays) mutant, but the genes involved in modification of the soft o2 endosperm are largely unknown. Pyrophosphate-dependent fructose-6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase (PFP) catalyzes the ATP-independent conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate in glycolysis. We found a large increase in transcript and protein levels of the α-regulatory subunit of PFP (PFPα) in QPM endosperm. In vitro enzyme assays showed a significant increase in forward PFP activity in developing endosperm extracts of QPM relative to the wild type and o2. An expressed retrogene version of PFPα of unknown function that was not up-regulated in QPM was also identified. The elevated expression levels of a number of ATP-requiring heat shock proteins (Hsps) in o2 endosperm are ameliorated in QPM. PFPα is also coinduced with Hsps in maize roots in response to heat, cold, and the unfolded protein response stresses. We propose that reduced ATP availability resulting from the generalized Hsp response in addition to the reduction of pyruvate, orthophosphate dikinase activity in o2 endosperm is compensated in part by increased PFP activity in QPM.

Short message texts have taken an important role in modern society in China. Because of the problems on word segmentation and term extraction in Chinese text classification along with the characters of short message text themselves, it is necessary to explore some new approach to classify short message. In this article, a new methodology named DBS is proposed to classify short message texts based on the ward's method. Experiments show that it's an effective algorithm in Chinese short message texts classification.

BM string matching algorithm is the most famous and efficient in the model matching. Based on it, this article made use of the continuous series of characters which are not in the model string need not be compared to change the model string comparing order. The results indicated that the improvement algorithm for BM string matching which proposed by this article can efficiently decrease the time of string matching and comparing, improve the efficiency string matching algorithm.

The endosymbiont-derived Sec-dependent protein sorting pathway is essential for protein import into the thylakoid lumen and is important for the proper functioning of the chloroplast. Two loss-of-function mutants of cpSecA, the ATPase subunit of the chloroplast Sec translocation machinery, were analysed in Arabidopsis. The homozygous mutants were albino and seedling lethal under autotrophic conditions and remained dwarf and infertile with an exogenous carbon supply. They were subject to oxidative stress and accumulated superoxide under normal lighting conditions. Electron microscopy revealed that the chloroplast of the mutants had underdeveloped thylakoid structures. Histochemical GUS assay of the AtcpSecA::GUS transgenic plants confirmed that AtcpSecA was expressed in green organs in a light-inducible way. Real-time RT-PCR and microarray analysis revealed repressed transcription of nucleus- and chloroplast- encoded subunits of photosynthetic complexes, and induced transcription of chloroplast protein translocation machinery and mitochondrion-encoded respiratory complexes in the mutants. It is inferred that AtcpSecA plays an essential role in chloroplast biogenesis, the absence of which triggered a retrograde signal, eventually leading to a reprogramming of chloroplast and mitochondrial gene expression.

Full-Waveform Lidar systems have already been proved to have large potentialities in forest related applications. Entire backscatter signals of each emitted pulse, which give end users more controls in raw data management and interpretation process compared to traditional discrete return lidar data, are digitized and recorded by the system. Especially in the forest area, more detail information is provided using waveform data and new opportunities are inspired for point cloud classification from waveform characteristics. In this study, full-waveform data were collected by Riegl LMS Q560 system with a point density of 1.4 points/m2 in Dayekou Watershed (DYK), Gansu province, China. These small footprint airborne full-waveform lidar data were used to extract statistic information (i.e. echo half-width, amplitude and intensity) of different targets such as grass, shrub, forest and bared area, and try to classify the typical targets in test field. Non-linear least square method was adopted to fit a series Gaussian pulse to decompose the raw waveform data. Then the attributes including peak location, half-width, amplitude, intensity of each pulse were calculated. Generally, different objects response to the emitted pulse diversely, which is incarnated in the three attributes described above. The decomposed waveform data were transformed to 3D points with several related attributes. And the field survey information and the same period of the high-resolution multispectral images were used to determine the specific location and extent of different features areas (forest, bare land, grassland, construction), then get the statistic value of three attributes for the corresponding regions in the decomposed waveform data. The results showed that three statistical characteristics of different targets are different in some extent, which demonstrated their potential in point cloud classification.

Embedded systems are used to implement a large number of network devices. We research the networked embedded system architecture, and propose a layered structure and a function mapping method of the Data Link Layer. The function mapping method can be used to design the low-cost and flexible embedded systems. We introduce how to design the buffer and interface layers to enhance the performance and portability of embedded systems. As an application, we design and implement a Cable Modem based on DOCSIS.

As broadband network services are becoming more and more abounding, the QoS(quality of service) of broadband networks has caught the attention of many professional people. Sometimes, the resource-constrain of embedded systems affects the quality of the multimedia services seriously. To solve this problem, this paper proposes an effective scheme for buffer management, which is named QoSBuf., This scheme takes the feature of data in the networks into account and uses the buffer space rationally. It also can support multi-service flow operations and realize the data zero-copy technology. Through some simulation tests on our independent R&D bidirectional platform for HDTV, we find that this scheme can promote the data transport ability of the CM (Cable Modem).

The access networks are always the bottleneck of the data transmission in the end-to-end networks. So many professional people use the data compression technology to improve the throughput of access networks. This paper does a further research on this problem based on DOCSIS networks. It proposes a dynamic compression strategy to make the data compression technology more efficient. Then this paper gives an experiment result to prove that the strategy does enhance the throughput. At last, this paper brings forward the research direction of compression technology in the access networks in the future.

Based on the data obtained from face-to-face interview and the measurements using global positioning system (GPS) and geographical information system (GIS) technology, the village pattern evolution of the WL village in the middle of the Huang-Huai-Hai plain was studied. The main results are shown as follows. Firstly, the WL village goes through a series of evolution pattern including the absolute tardiness development before the establishment of People's Republic of China in 1949, the relative tardiness development before the implementation of the economic reform in 1978, the rapid expansion in the 1980s, the steady scale in the 1990s and the recessionary development in the early 21st century. In the meantime, the roads and ponds in the village have also been changed correspondingly. The village scale changed little before the implementation of reform and opening- up in 1978, the dilation of it was prominent from 1978 to the 1990s, and the empty and abandoned houses have increased largely since about 2000. Secondly, main factors influencing the village pattern evolution include the economic improvement, the change of society structure, urbanization and the effect of national policy, while population variation is still the decisive factor. Thirdly, the previous village expansion attributed to four aspects as follows: No family planning after the national liberation in 1949 resulted in population increasing enormously; the economic development enabled people to improve their habitations; the status of nuclear families (namely a family consisting of few people which only include husband, wife and their children in general.) was enhanced step by step; farmers were not conscious of the importance of protecting plantations. Finally, the urbanization and market economy develop further, the profit of planting grains is too small and the fast increase of population has been successfully controlled by the policy of family planning since the 1980s. All these drive the abandoned houses increasing and the village hollowing at present.

A simple method based on capillary electrophoresis with potential gradient detection was developed to separate and detect neomycin components within 4 min without a derivatization step. Satisfactory separation and good repeatability were obtained using a separation buffer composed of 1 mM ammonium citrate (pH 3.5). The linearity of the method ranged from 10 to 1000 ppm with a limit of detection for neomycin B of about 7 ppm. After a simple dilution and filtering pretreatment step, neomycin components in three real samples were successfully analyzed without any major interference. Due to its simplicity and reliability, this method could provide an excellent alternative to the assays currently listed in U.S. and European Pharmacopoeia. The experiments were performed on a portable capillary electrophoresis system and, hence, the method can be readily applied to field analysis and point-of-care testing. Figure Photo of portable CE-P2-PGD system.

A modified field amplification sample injection method was proposed and evaluated by using positively mono charged cyclodextrin (CD) as carrier and 1-adamantanecarboxylate as displacer for on-capillary preconcentration of neutral compounds and improvement of the concentration limit of detection in micellar electrokinetic chromatography. In modified sample injection mode a displacer plug was introduced before sample injection to reduce the length of the concentrated sample zone and increase the peak height by slowing down the forward movement of the neutral sample associated with β-CD-NH2 and the backward movement of the neutral sample partitioned in the micelles of sodium dodecyl sulfate. Stability of the inclusion complexes formed between the carrier and the solute was found to be an important factor affecting stacking efficiency in both the conventional field amplification sample injection mode and the modified one. However, further enhancement of the stacking efficiency in the modified mode rested on the relative stability of the displacer–carrier complex to that of the solute–carrier complex. Practical limits to the stacking efficiencies in both modes were discussed as well.