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Mycophagy has been documented in a number of species of marmosets and lion tamarins (Callitrichinae) but its effect on ranging behavior is not known. We present the results of 10 years of research on five groups of Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii) at a field site in northwestern Bolivia. We studied the diet and ranging behavior of two of the groups. On average, groups contained 4.5 individuals (range 2.0–9.0), but they gradually decreased in size until only the breeding female remained in the home range. The annual diet was composed of fungi (31.1–34.9%), fruits (34.0–40.6%), prey (17.4–30.1%), and exudates (1.0–10.9%). They had large home ranges (114–150 ha) and over time individuals tended to shift their core areas of use. They used secondary and bamboo forest and forest with dense understories more than expected based on availability. We suggest that the large home ranges and shifting core areas used by C. goeldii are components of a foraging strategy to track patchy, low density, and ephemeral fungal fruiting bodies. Our results, along with data published on other callitrichines, indicate that groups of Leontopithecus, Callithrix, and Callimico that eat fungi have larger home ranges than those that do not. Mycophagy is one of the several factors that evidently affect home range size in callitrichines. Fungi are clearly an important food source for a number of populations, but additional studies are needed to determine why some eat fungi frequently while others do not. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

GB virus B (GBV-B) causes acute hepatitis in experimentally infected tamarins. We compared evolutionary features in acute resolving and persistent GBV-B infection. We detected no evidence of evolution in four animals with clearance during weeks 9-12, whereas three animals with clearance during weeks 13-26 had several substitutions in their polyprotein sequence. A single tamarin had long-term GBV-B viraemia; analysis of virus recovered at weeks 2, 5, 12, 20, 26, 52 and 104 demonstrated that mutations accumulated over time. Overall, the amino acid substitution rate was 3.5x10(-3) and 1.1x10(-3) substitutions per site year(-1) during weeks 1-52 and 53-104, respectively. Thus, there was a significant decrease in evolution over time, as found for hepatitis C virus. The rate of non-synonymous substitution per non-synonymous site compared with that of synonymous substitution per synonymous site decreased over time, suggesting reduction of positive selective pressure. These data demonstrate that prolonged GBV-B infection is associated with viral evolution.

Environmental education has evolved over the years to respond to the varied complexities found in the different localities where it is practiced. In many parts of the world where biodiversity is rich, social conditions are poor, so educators have included sustainable development alternatives to better the environment and the livelihoods of local communities. Primate conservation education programs, which are often based in areas that face such challenges, have been a vanguard in creating means to integrate people with their natural environment and thus conquer supporters for the protection of natural habitats. In the search for effectiveness they have adopted evaluation methods to help assess what was offered. An example from Brazil is described in this commentary. Am. J. Primatol. 72:450–453, 2010. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

GBV-B induces hepatitis in tamarins and marmosets and is a surrogate model for HCV infections. Here, we cloned and characterized the antiviral activity of tamarin and marmoset interferon (IFN)alpha and IFN gamma. Potent antiviral activity was observed for tamarin and marmoset IFN alpha in primary hepatocyte cultures infected with GBV-B. The antiviral activity was greater in cultures exposed to IFN alpha prior to GBV-B infection, suggesting that either GBV-B was capable of inhibition of the antiviral activity of exogenous IFN alpha or that the preexisting endogenous IFN response to the virus reduced efficacy to exogenous IFN alpha. IFN gamma also exhibited antiviral activity in GBV-B infected hepatocytes. The transcriptional response to IFN alpha in marmoset hepatocytes was characterized using human genome microarrays. Since the GBV-B hepatocyte culture model possesses a functional innate immune response, it will provide opportunities to explore the nature of the antiviral response to a virus closely related to HCV.

Four international recovery and management committees act as official technical advisors to the Brazilian federal environmental agency-the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis-with respect to the conservation and management of both the in situ and ex situ populations of the endangered lion tamarins (Leontopithecus). The committees promote lion tamarins as 'flagship" species, the ultimate intent being the preservation of the unique Atlantic rain forest (Mata Atlantica) ecosystem and its many endemic plants and animals. We summarize the history, organization, structure, andfunctioning of these oversight management committees and their current role in guiding, motivating, and focusing conser- vation efforts for the Mata Atlaintica of Brazil and the four endangered Leontopithecus species therein. We dis- cuss the role of science in conservation planning for the species, funding mechanisms, the decision-making process, conflicts and their resolution, and criteria used for evaluating success. The benefits of this particular species recovery process include the establishment of collaborative partnerships between the Brazilian govern- ment and a multitude of individuals and organizations and the use of multidisciplinary, semi-autonomous teams to implement conservation activities. The major limitation of the management committees is their lack of a formal budget and permanent staff.

The parasite prevalence and infection intensity in primate wild populations can be affected by many variables linked to host and/or parasite ecology or either to interparasite competition/mutualism. In this study, we tested how host sex, age, and place of origin, as well parasitic concomitant infections affect the structure of golden lion and golden-headed lion tamarins parasite community, considering Trypanosoma cruzi and intestinal helminths infection in these primates. A total of 206 tamarins from two Atlantic Coastal rain forest areas in Brazil were tested during 4 years for prevalence of T. cruzi infection and helminth prevalence. Three intestinal helminth groups showed high prevalences in both tamarin species: Prosthenorchis sp., Spiruridae, and Trichostrongylidae. An association between presence of T. cruzi infection and higher intestinal helminth prevalence was found in both tamarin species. Two explanations for this association seem to be plausible: (1) lower helminth-linked mortality rates in T. cruzi-infected tamarins and (2) lower elimination rates of helminths in such tamarins. A higher frequency of T. cruzi-positive blood cultures was significantly correlated to female tamarins and to the presence of Trichostrongylidae infection. The possibility of an increase in the transmissibility of T. cruzi and the three analyzed helminths in lion tamarins with concomitant infections is discussed.

Helminth identification and egg counts were performed in 316 fecal samples during 4 years in 199 golden lion tamarins (GLTs), Leontopithecus rosalia, from two Brazilian conservation units. Tamarin sex and age, area of occurrence and helminth co-infection were tested as potential factors that could affect helminth prevalence and egg shedding in host individuals. Three nematodes species were found at low prevalences but not in both conservation units: Ancylostomatidae (12%), Ascarididae (1%) and Tripanoxyuris minutus, an Oxyuridae (4%). Three other species had high prevalences and were found in both conservation units: one acanthocephalan, Oncicola sp. (30%), and two nematodes, Spiruridae (24%), and Trichostrongylidae (31%). These three latter helminths had distinct prevalences between the conservation units, probably due to differences in availability of helminth infective stages in each area. Prevalences were greater in females for all helminth species; this was especially the case for Oncicola sp. Sex and age differences in helminth prevalence may be associated with changes in sexual steroid levels that accompany age and reproductive status. Frequency of simultaneous infections by the two helminths considered most pathogenic (Oncicola and Trichostrongylidae) were statistically lower than expected; this may be related to: (i) higher tamarin death rate caused by the association; (ii) differences in exposure to helminth infective stages in the various areas of occurrence; (iii) and competition between these helminth species. All helminth species followed a negative binomial distribution, with stronger clumping occurring in Trichostrongylidae and in female GLTs. Distinct transmission strategies of Oncicola sp. and Spiruridae, in contrast with Trichostrongylidae, may partially explain the different clumping levels of these helminths in GLTs. Mean fecal egg counts of all helminths were not different between GLT sexes, ages or areas of occurrence. The three most common helminth species may be a threat to isolated or dense GLT populations.

Here, we present a review of the dataset resulting from the 11-years follow-up of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in free-ranging populations of Leontopithecus rosalia (golden lion tamarin) and Leontopithecus chrysomelas (golden-headed lion tamarin) from distinct forest fragments in Atlantic Coastal Rainforest. Additionally, we present new data regarding T. cruzi infection of small mammals (rodents and marsupials) that live in the same areas as golden lion tamarins and characterisation at discrete typing unit (DTU) level of 77 of these isolates. DTU TcII was found to exclusively infect primates, while TcI infected Didelphis aurita and lion tamarins. The majority of T. cruzi isolates derived from L. rosalia were shown to be TcII (33 out 42) Nine T. cruzi isolates displayed a TcI profile. Golden-headed lion tamarins demonstrated to be excellent reservoirs of TcII, as 24 of 26 T. cruzi isolates exhibited the TcII profile. We concluded the following: (i) the transmission cycle of T. cruzi in a same host species and forest fragment is modified over time, (ii) the infectivity competence of the golden lion tamarin population fluctuates in waves that peak every other year and (iii) both golden and golden-headed lion tamarins are able to maintain long-lasting infections by TcII and TcI.

Medical records of three male and three female callitrichids of four species ( Leontopithecus chrysopygus , Leontopithecus rosalia, Callithrix argentata argentata, Callithrix kuhlii) diagnosed with cholelithiasis were reviewed. Ages of affected animals at the time of diagnosis ranged from 2-14 yr. Definitive antemortem diagnosis of cholelithiasis was made in four of the six cases. Chronic weight loss, lethargy, and weakness were seen in all cases. Chronic intermittent diarrhea was seen in three cases. Icterus and abnormal gait were each present in two of the animals. Hematologic and serum biochemical abnormalities included leukocytosis in five cases, elevated bilirubin (direct and indirect) in four cases, and anemia in four cases. Radiographic evidence of choleliths was observed in three cases. Surgical removal of choleliths was successfully performed on two animals. Full necropsies were performed on all cases, and choleliths were believed to contribute to morbidity in all cases. However, inflammatory bowel disease was determined to be the primary cause of weight loss and mortality in at least three animals. All choleliths analyzed were pigment stones, two being primarily composed of cystine.

Callitrichid females are often described as energetically constrained. We examined the energy budgets of 10 female wild golden lion tamarins (GLTs, Leontopithecus rosalia) in an effort to understand how energy intake and expenditure might influence physical condition and therefore reproductive performance. We used focal animal sampling to record behavioral data and conducted energy analyses of foods consumed by GLTs to estimate intake and expenditure. We used two-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to compare intake in the reproductive vs. nonreproductive period and expenditure in the reproductive vs. nonreproductive period. Energy intake decreased during the reproductive period compared to the nonreproductive period. While total expenditure did not vary significantly across the two periods, females spent more time and therefore expended significantly more energy engaged in energetically inexpensive behaviors (i.e., sleeping or being stationary) during the reproductive period compared to the nonreproductive period. We suggest that reproductive female GLTs may adopt a reproductive strategy that includes high intake prior to pregnancy and lactation, and energy conservation during pregnancy and lactation.

The purpose of this study was to provide current data on Staphylococcus species from the vaginas of clinically normal captive lion tamarins and to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility of these isolates. Samples were collected from 25 adult lion tamarins, processed to isolate Staphylococcus species, and tested for susceptibility to penicillin G, gentamicin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, streptomycin, ampicillin, and rifampicin. Isolates with the typical characteristics of the genus Staphylococcus were recovered from all 25 samples. Coagulase-negative species were the most common (68% of the isolates), and the most frequently isolated species (10 samples) was S. simulans. Other coagulase-negative species, including S. saprophyticus (n=5), S. epidermidis (n=1), and S. arlettae (n=1), were also recovered. Coagulase-positive Staphylococci were obtained from eight animals (six of from the S. aureus species and two from S. intermedius). Resistance to antibiotics was frequently observed, and 88% of the isolates (23 samples) showed resistance to at least one drug. Resistance to penicillin G was a common finding, and the most active antimicrobial agents were chloramphenicol and gentamicin. Coagulase-positive strains were more frequently resistant to antibiotics (79.7%, average=6.4 drugs) than coagulase-negative strains (38.2%, average=3.0 drugs). The high frequency of resistance observed in those isolates is surprising and very alarming. A detailed history of the use of antimicrobial drugs in these subjects did not reveal any previous exposure to any of the tested antibiotics that could justify the observed resistance rate. Am. J. Primatol. 68:825-831, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

This study examines factors affecting androgen and cortisol levels in wild, male golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia). Golden lion tamarins are a cooperatively breeding species in which groups often contain two potentially breeding males. Brothers frequently emigrate together and develop a clear dominance hierarchy, but interactions between them are primarily affiliative. Duos in which the males are not related are less stable. In addition, reproductive skew theory predicts that dominant males will be less likely to share reproduction with related subordinates. As such, we predicted that both androgens and cortisol would be higher in subordinate males unrelated to the dominant male. We also predicted that androgens in breeding males would be higher during the mating season than the birth/infant care season, as per Wingfield's "challenge hypothesis" (1990). Fecal samples were collected from 24 males in 14 social groups and assayed by enzyme immunoassay. Androgen levels were higher in breeding males during the mating season, thus supporting the challenge hypothesis. However, while subordinate males unrelated to the dominant male had significantly lower androgens than any other group, cortisol levels were not correspondingly higher. These results suggest that unrelated subordinate males show measurable reproductive suppression and may use strategies such as infantilization to avert aggression from dominant males. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The paranasal sinuses remain elusive both in terms of function and in the proximate mechanism of their development. The present study sought to describe the maxillary sinuses (MSs) in three species of callitrichid primates at birth, a time when secondary pneumatization occurs rapidly in humans. The MSs were examined in serially sectioned and stained slides from the heads of two Callithrix jacchus, one Leontopithecus rosalia, and two Saguinus geoffroyi. Specimens were examined microscopically regarding the distribution of osteoclasts and osteoblasts along the osseous boundaries of the MS and other parts of the maxillary bone. Selected sections were immunohistochemically evaluated for the distribution of osteopontin (OPN), which facilitates osteoclast binding. Taken together, OPN immunoreactivity and bone cell distribution suggested trends of bone resorption/deposition that were consistent among species for the superior (roof) and inferior (floor) boundaries of the MS. Expansion at the roof and floor of the MS appeared to correspond to overall vertical midfacial growth in callitrichids. Much more variability was noted for the lateral (alveolar) and medial (nasal walls) of the MS. Unlike the other species, the nasal wall of Saguinus was static and mostly composed of inferior portions of the nasal capsule that were undergoing endochondral ossification. The variation seen in the alveolar walls may relate to the presence or absence of adjacent structures, although it was noted that adjacency of deciduous molars influenced medial drift of the alveolar wall in Saguinus but not Leontopithecus. The results of this study are largely consistent with the "structural" or "architectural" hypothesis of sinus formation with respect to vertical MS enlargement, and the variable cellular/OPN distribution found along the nasal and alveolar walls was evocative of Witmer's (J Vert Paleontol 1997;17:1-73) epithelial hypothesis in revealing that most expansion occurred in regions unopposed by adjacent structures.

Black lion tamarin (BLT) monkeys ( Leontopithecus chrysopygus ) have suffered a severe reduction in their natural range and are consequently critically endangered. Because allozyme data showed very low levels of variation, it was not clear if these monkeys had much genetic diversity. We designed microsatellite primers for BLTs, and from them we identified nine polymorphic loci, seven of which were tested on golden lion tamarins (GLTs) ( Leontopithecus rosalia ). All of the seven polymorphic loci and two other monomorphic BLT loci were polymorphic in GLTs. The microsatellite markers identified here are directly applicable to ongoing lion tamarin population and conservation genetics studies.

Here we demonstrate differences in the relative performance of 15 callitrichids tested in a series of color visual discrimination experiments. Munsell color chips were chosen as stimuli based on their use in earlier experiments with human dichromats. We show behavioral evidence for the existence of four distinct kinds of color-vision phenotypes, each of which has slightly different color discrimination abilities. The different phenotypes may offer different advantages. The data are in accordance with the existence of a visual polymorphism in callitrichids.

Studies on liver morphology and stereology are relevant to the comparative anatomical and pathological research. They also facilitate the use of non-human primates in basic research, which has substantially supported studies in human medicine. Quantitative studies of liver structures have also been more extensive in Old World primates and other vertebrates. Twenty-three livers of adult lion tamarins were studied (six Leontopithecus rosalia, seven Leontopithecus chrysomelas, and 10 Leontopithecus chrysopygus), dissected, and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin solution. For stereological quantification, the liver was regarded as consisting of parenchyma (hepatocytes) and stroma (non-hepatocytes). The volume density (V(v)) was determined by point counting, and the disector method was used to obtain the numerical density of hepatocytes (N(v)). Hepatic stereological differences among the three species of lion tamarins were not statistically significant. Therefore, the pooled V(v[hepatocyte]) and V(v[stroma]) could be determined as 96.2 and 7.4%, respectively, and N(v[hepatocyte]) as 500.33 x 10(6) cm(-3). Significantly different, the values found for V(v[hepatocyte]) and N(v[hepatocyte]) in lion tamarins were, respectively, 0.09 and 2.8 times greater than those in baboons, and 0.17 and 3.8 times greater than those in man. However, the V(v[stroma]) was 1.04 times smaller than that in baboons and 1.79 times smaller than that in man.

Lion tamarins (Callitrichidae: Leontopithecus) are small frugi-faunivores that defend large home ranges. We describe results from the first long-term investigation of wild golden-headed lion tamarins (L. chrysomelas; GHLTs). We present data about activity budgets, daily activity cycles, diet, daily path length, home range size, home range overlap, and territorial encounters for three groups of GHLTs that were studied for 1.5-2.5 years in Una Biological Reserve, Bahia State, Brazil, an area characterized by aseasonal rainfall. We compare our results to those from other studies of lion tamarins to identify factors that may influence foraging and ranging patterns in this genus. Ripe fruit, nectar, insects, and small vertebrates were the primary components of the GHLT diet, and gums were rarely eaten. Fruit comprised the majority of plant feeding bouts, and the GHLTs ate at least 79 different species of plants from 32 families. The most common foraging sites for animal prey were epiphytic bromeliads. The GHLTs defended large home ranges averaging 123 ha, but showed strong affinities for core areas, spending 50% of their time in approximately 11% of their home range. Encounters with neighboring groups averaged two encounters every 9 days, and they were always aggressive. Data about time budgets and daily activity cycles reveal that the GHLTs spent most of their time foraging for resources or traveling between foraging sites distributed throughout their home ranges. The GHLTs spent much less time consuming exudates compared to lion tamarins in more seasonal environments. Additionally, the GHLTs had much larger home ranges than golden lion tamarins (L. rosalia), and did not engage in territorial encounters as frequently as L. rosalia. GHLT ranging patterns appear to be strongly influenced by resource acquisition and, to a lesser extent, by resource defense.

The ability to reproduce in captivity is an essential component of lion tamarin (Leontopithecus) conservation programs. However, infections such as vaginitis, cervicitis, and endometritis are important diseases that may influence the reproduction of these animals. Therefore, it is important to detect continuous or occasional vaginal microbial populations, and to understand their potential role as an endogenous source of infection [Collins, 1964; Blue, 1983; Pugh et al., 1986]. Vaginal swabs were collected from 25 female tamarins of the three currently available species (L. rosalia, L. chrysopygus, and L. chrysomelas) at the Center of Primatology in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The swabs were processed according to standard mycological protocols, and isolates were biochemically characterized. Fungal isolates were recovered from 16 animals (64.0%). The results showed that 70.6% of the isolated microorganisms consisted of yeast, including three species of Candida (mainly C. glabrata). We suggest that this species is a resident member of the normal vaginal flora in Leontopithecus. Filamentous fungi (mainly from Trichosporon, Aspergillus, and Penicilliumgenera) constituted 29.4% of the isolates, and were considered to be transitory contaminants of the genital area. We suggest that colonization of the vaginal environment is related to the endocrine pattern associated with the reproductive status of these animals, but not to parity. Am. J. Primatol. 64:337–343, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Rare morphological features of the Leontopithecus cardiovascular system have been reported in the literature. The samples analyzed in this study came from 33 specimens of Leontopithecus from the collection of the Center of Primatology of Rio de Janeiro-FEEMA (CPRJ-FEEMA). Morphometry and stereological data were obtained from all animals. Adult body weights of L. rosalia were the lowest, the greatest being those of L. chrysopygus caissara; body weights of L. chrysomelas and L. c. chrysopygus were similar and in between those of the two former species. Cardiomyocytes (left ventricular myocardium) were bigger in adults than in infants. The myocardium of L. rosalia showed focal fibrosis, fatty vacuoles, and hyalinization. In L. chrysomelas the myocardium showed areas of fibrosis and presence of mononuclear cells. Fibrosis and areas of congestion were observed in L. c. chrysopygus; areas of disorganization and vascular congestion were found in L. c. caissara. In L. rosalia infants, a greater density of vessels per myocardial area and a greater length density of vessels were observed as compared with those of L. chrysomelas. In adults, L. chrysomelas showed greater density of connective tissue in the myocardium than L. c. chrysopygus and L. c. caissara did. In L. rosalia, cardiomyocyte nuclei had a greater area density than those of the other forms of Leontopithecus. These characteristics may explain the faster development of L. rosalia infants as compared with that of L. chrysomelas and L. c. chrysopygus kept under the same handling conditions at the CPRJ-FEEMA.

Black lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysopygus) are endangered callithrichids. Their conservation may require future translocations or reintroductions; however these approaches involve risks of pathogen introduction in the environment and stress-related opportunistic infections in these animals. In order to screen for opportunistic and potential pathogenic bacterial and fungal microbiota, ten free-ranging and ten captive Black lion tamarins were studied and the results compared. Nasal, oral and rectal swabs were collected and cultured for aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria and fungi, and a total 203 bacterial and 84 fungal isolates were obtained. Overall, the most frequent organisms were Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp., Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp. Microbiota of free-ranging and captive animals were similar in composition. A number of potentially pathogenic organisms were identified, emphasizing the importance of microbiological screening in future translocation or reintroduction conservation management programs.

Four variable microsatellite loci were used toexamine the genetic diversity and differentiation of golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) in four populations recently isolated by habitat fragmentation. Using Rst estimates of genetic differentiation, a considerable genetic divergence was detected among these populations, with an averagedifferentiation of 31%. Significant differences in allele number among these populations were found. However, the heterozygosity among these populations was not statistically different. These results suggestthat loss in allele diversity was faster than loss in heterozygosity. Conservation implications, particularly for golden lion tamarins, are then discussed. Loss of allelic diversity might be as serious a concern to endangered species as heterozygosity or inbreeding.

Few morphologic aspects of Leontopithecus are listed in the literature, which does not provide sufficient knowledge of those simians. However, such results are important to evaluate the potential of those species as a model for studying comparative pathology. In this study, the material came from the collection of the Museu de Primatologia do Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro, fixed in 10% formalin pH 7.2. The samples were 33 individuals (five infant and five adult L. rosalia, L. chrysomelas, L. chrysopygus chrysopygus, and three adult L. chrysopygus caissara). The sections of the thoracic aorta were prepared for histological study and measurements were obtained. In the infant Leontopithecus, the aorta presents endothelial line and subendothelial space, the tunica media is not comparatively very thick. In the adults, the aorta showed enlarged tunica intima with consequent thick arterial wall, which increased with the aging process. The atheromatous plates were seen in the aortic wall of all adult L. chrysopygus chrysopygus, in two adult L. rosalia and only one adult L. chrysomelas. Differences in the aortic internal and external diameters were not significant in infants. In the adults, no significant difference was found among L. rosalia, L. chrysomelas and L. c. caissara, although the average of the aortic internal diameter in L. chrysomelas was larger than in L. c. caissara. In infant and adults L. c. chrysopygus, the thickness of the thoracic aorta is larger than in the other forms of Leontopithecus. These findings suggest a morphometric and morphologic aortic difference among the species of Leontopithecus, which could have biological significance that needs major investigation in the future.

This study examined methods of environmental enrichment for zoo animals for 4 New World primate species: pygmy and Geoffrey's marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea and Callithrix geoffroyi), red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus), and golden- headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelus). Subjects were housed in groups at the Philadelphia Zoo. Baseline behavioral time budget data were collected, and stimulus objects were then introduced in succession to each enclosure. Each object included multiple manipulable subcomponents. Time budget data were collected while objects were in the enclosures, and subjects' contacts with objects were videotaped. Overall time budgets were significantly altered in only the red-bellied tamarins, the least active of the species, solely due to a shift from social grooming to passive social contact; when categories were collapsed into broader categories, this effect disappeared. Object contact occurred within the 1st hr for all species and ranged over nearly 2 orders of magnitude, ...

Sequences of a 0.9-kb DNA segment spanning intron 11 of the von Willebrand Factor gene (vWF) were determined for 21 individuals of 19 primate species. The results of maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses of these vWF sequences are congruent with previous molecular findings from other nonlinked nuclear genomic loci which divide the platyrrhine superfamily Ceboidea into three monophyletic families: Cebidae, Atelidae, and Pitheciidae. The vWF results strongly support the taxon Callitrichinae as a monophyletic subfamily within Cebidae. The four extant callitrichine genera constitute tribe Callitrichini, and the basal branchings within this tribe first separate out Saguinus (tamarins), next Leontopithecus (lion tamarins), and last the sister genera Callimico (Goeldi's monkeys) and Callithrix (marmosets). Callithrix divides into three subclades, with pygmy marmosets (C. pygmaea) as sister of the C. argentata species group and with the C. jacchus species group as their sister. Fossil and DNA evidence place the emergence of the callitrichine clade in the basal cebid radiation at about 20 Ma (million years ago) and the three basal branchings in the callitrichin radiation at about 13 to 11 Ma. In turn, the branchings separating the three subclades of Callithrix are placed at about 5 to 4 Ma.

Cytogenetic and cytotaxonomic studies (G, C, sequential G/C, and NOR banding) were performed on 110 specimens representing the four genera of South American primates of the family Callitrichidae: Cebuella (C. pygmaea), Callithrix, groups argentata (C. argentata, C. emiliae, C. chrysoleuca, C. humeralifera, C. mauesi), and jacchus (C. aurita, C. geoffroyi, C. jacchus, C. kuhli, C. penicillata), Leontopithecus (L. chrysomelas, L. rosalia), and Saguinus (S. midas midas, S. m. niger). Mitotic chromosomes are characterized, and the rearrangements distinguishing the karyotypes of the taxa are inferred from arm homologies. The results were then converted into numerical data and submitted to cladistic analysis. The following conclusions were achieved: 1) Five karyotypic classes were observed, which correspond to the five taxa studied. Differences between them are as follows: a) Cebuella (2n = 44, 10 acrocentrics, A + 32 bi-armed autosomes, bi) and the argentata group (2n = 44, 10A + 32bi) are different from each other due to a reciprocal translocation; b) both can be distinguished from the jacchus group (2n = 46, 14A + 30bi) by a centric fusion/fission rearrangement and a paracentric inversion; c) Leontopithecus (2n = 46, 14A + 30bi) and Saguinus (2n = 46, 14A + 30bi) differ from the jacchus group by a reciprocal translocation and three paracentric inversions; and d) Saguinus is different from the others by one paracentric inversion and pericentric inversions in at least four pairs of acrocentric autosomes. 2) The cladistic analysis separates Cebus (used as an outgroup) from the Callitrichidae groups, which forms a clade. Among the Callitrichidae, marmosets (Cebuella and Callithrix) form a sub-clade, Cebuella and the argentata group being more closely related to each other than both are to the jacchus group. Tamarins (Leontopithecus and Saguinus) are also quite close, so that if one was not derived from the other, they with the marmosets share a common ancestor. Among the tamarins, Leontopithecus is karyotypically closest to the marmosets, specifically to the jacchus group. 3) Based on the chromosome information and considering the possible direction of the evolutionary changes (primitivity or phyletic dwarfism hypothesis, previously advanced by other authors), it was possible to propose the ancestral karyotypes and to develop two alternatives for the origin, differentiation and dispersion of the callitrichid. Both proposals are plausible, but when the geographical distribution is considered, the phyletic dwarfism hypothesis seems to be the most probable. Am. J. Primatol. 49:133–152, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Hand use was compared in 45 individuals of three genera of the Callitrichinae (Callithrix, Saguinus, Leontopithecus) which differ concerning their postural and manipulative behaviour. The Postural Origins theory of MacNeilage et al. (1987) predicts left-hand preference for visually guided reaching, especially when performed from a vertical clinging posture (as mainly seen in Callithrix) and right-hand preference for manipulative acts (as shown by Leontopithecus). Five tasks were carried out, differing in sensory modality (visual/tactile), postural requirements (vertical/quadrupedal) and task demands (accessibility to food-items). Data on successful left and right-hand reaching and mouth pick-ups were collected using all occurrences sampling. Statistical analysis comprised calculation of binominal z-score, application of unbalanced repeated measures models with structured covariance matrices and analysis of covariance. All individuals displayed hand preferences not influenced by task design. The genera differed in the hand preferred: Leontopithecus showed a greater proportion of right-hand preferences, whereas Callithrix tended to prefer the left hand. Saguinus was intermediate between these two genera. The results point out that genus-specific foraging strategies determine population-level hand preferences rather than task-specific demands. The differences in foraging strategy and hand preference among the three genera correspond to the Postural Origins theory (MacNeilage et al., 1987). When feeding on freely accessible, non-mobile food items, most individuals showed a clear preference in picking-up with the mouth or with one hand. Callithrix took objects predominantly with the mouth, Leontopithecus preferred the hand and Saguinus favoured neither mouth nor hand. Mouth-hand preferences can also be linked to genera differences on hand function in foraging behaviour.

Adult-infant food-sharing behavior is a major component of the infant care strategies of callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins). It is particularly well-developed in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus Oedipus) and lion tamarins (Leontopithecus spp), which show frequent adult-initiated food offering, as well as sharing of food in response to begging by infants. This report documents a case of cross-generic food sharing, in which a male golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) shared food with an infant cotton-top tamarin. The lion tamarin provided more food to the infant than its mother did. This emphasizes the importance of this behavior in the reproductive strategies of the communally-rearing Callitrichidae and raises questions about mechanisms that underly it.

The phylogenetic relationships of callitrichine primates have been determined by DNA sequence analyses of exons 1, 2, and 3 of the β2-microglobulin gene. Parsimony, distance, and maximum likelihood analyses of ca. 900 base pairs of 21 taxa, representing all callitrichine genera, indicated that Saguinus was the most basal offshoot. Within Saguinus, S. fuscicollis appeared as the first divergent lineage followed by an unresolved trichotomy formed by S. mystax/S. imperator, S. midas/S. bicolor, and S. oedipus. A second callitrichine lineage was formed by Leontopithecus; each of the three species studied showed identical nucleotide sequences. Callimico appeared as the sister taxon of Callithrix/Cebuella. Genetic distances within this latter group were very small, although a stronger association between Cebuella and species of the Callithrixargentata group was observed. The inclusion of Cebuella in the genus Callithrix is suggested. These studies indicated that tamarins are more plesiomorphic than marmosets in agreement with the phyletic dwarfism hypothesis. Am. J. Primatol. 48:225–236, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

In this paper, we report on a craniometric analysis comparing the species of lion tamarins, Leontopithecus Lesson, 1840. Seventeen cranial and mandibular measures were taken on skulls of 59 adult crania: 20 L. rosalia (14 females and 6 males); 13 L. chrysomelas (6 females and 7 males); 23 L. chrysopygus (8 females and 15 males), and 3 L. caissara (1 female and 2 males). All specimens were from the Rio de Janeiro Primate Center (CPRJ-FEEMA, Brazil), except the specimens of L. caissara. Statistical treatment involved a one-way analysis of variance (the Bonferroni test) and discriminant analysis, comparing cranium and mandibles separately to determine variables which best distinguished groups and to group the specimens, using size corrected methods. The Mahalanobis distance was computed from the centroids of each group. Seven measures distinguished females of L. chrysopygus with L. rosalia, six to L. rosalia with L. chrysomelas, and L. chrysopygus with L. chrysomelas. In males, the numbers of measures statistically different were 5, 4, and 3 of the pairwise comparisons above mentioned. Cranial base length and orbital breadth were the only measures that were significantly different in all three dyads, considering both sexes. For the cranium, function 1 of the Discriminant Analysis accounted for 52.4% of the variance and function 2 accounted for 40.3%. Both functions exhibited a significant value for Wilks' lambda (P

The New World monkeys are divided into two main groups, Callitrichidae and Cebidae. Callimico goeldii shares traits with both the Cebidae and the Callitrichidae. Recent morphological phyletic studies generally place Callimico as the most basal member of the Callitrichidae. In contrast, genetic studies (immunological, restriction fragment, and sequence data) have consistently placed Callimico somewhere within the Callitrichidae, not basal to this clade. A DNA sequence data set from the terminal 236 codons of the mitochondrial ND4 gene and the tRNA(His), tRNA(Ser), and tRNA(Leu) genes was generated to clarify the position of Callimico. The sequences of 887 base pairs were analyzed by maximum-parsimony, neighbor-joining, and maximum-likelihood methods. The results of these various methods are generally congruent and place Callimico within the Callitrichidae between the marmosets (Callithrix and Cebuella) and the tamarins (Saguinus and Leontopithecus). Combined analyses of all suitable nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences confirm the position of Callimico between the marmosets and the tamarins. As available molecular evidence indicates that Callimico is more closely related to the marmosets than to the tamarins, a reconsideration of the morphological evidence in light of the consensus tree from DNA sequence analyses is warranted. The marmosets and tamarins share four morphological characters (loss of the third molar, loss of the hypocone, reduced body size, reproductive twinning). Dwarfism may have evolved repeatedly among the Callitrichidae. It is well-known that the loss of a character can occur many times independently. The reproduction of marmosets and tamarins is extremely specialized and it is difficult to imagine that this complex and unique twinning system evolved separately in marmosets and tamarins. However, it is possible that a secondary reversal to single offspring took place in Callimico.

Five hundred forty-three blood samples from 15populations of the four genera of callitrichin primateswere studied electrophoretically. Polymorphism andgenetic distances were estimated for 20 loci, 13 of which were polymorphic. The lion tamarin(Leontopithecus) studied here exhibited theleast variability for these loci, while the monospecificCebuella showed the most. The genetic distancesobserved between Callithrix andCebuella genera support previous evidenceindicating a close taxonomic relationship between them.Genetic distance values obtained in this study alsosupport the synonimization of the kuhli form with Callithrix jacchuspenicillata.

In a colony of New World monkeys five tamarins (Saguinus oedipus, Saguinus labiatus and Leontopithecus rosal. rosal.), three marmosets (Callithrix jacchus and Callithrix pygmaea) and one saki (Pithecia pithecia) died suddenly. The colony comprised 16 marmosets, 10 tamarins and three sakis. The main pathological findings were necrotic lesions in the lung, the intestine, and the liver. Histopathologically T. gondii parasites were observed in organs from the tamarins and the marmosets but not in the saki. Some considerations on epidemiology are presented. Preventive measures were directed against the bottom layer of the cages, on cockroach extermination, and on freezing of raw meat.

Care of offspring by individuals other than the mother is ubiquitous in callitrichid primates. In spite of its widespread occurrence, however, there is considerable taxonomic variation in the timing and intensity of parental effort by breeding males and nonbreeding juvenile group members. These differences may be attributable to generic and specifies differences in the costs of reproduction for females or in ecological constraints on travel and foraging. We present data on patterns of infant carrying in social groups of two taxa of callitrichid primates (Callithrix and Leontopithecus) throughout the first 3 months of infant life. We evaluated patterns of care in small groups (two or fewer juvenile or subadult helpers) and in large groups (three or more helpers in addition to the breeding adult male and female). Group size had little effect on levels of maternal carrying effort in either marmosets or lion tamarins, and mothers ceased carrying infants by 3 months of age. Carrying efforts by fathers were significantly reduced in groups with many helpers relative to small groups. Helpers carried at consistent rates during the second and third months of infant life in Leontopithecus, while in Callithrix, carrying by helpers peaked during the second month. These results suggest that if helpers reduce energetic demands on lactating females, the mechanism by which helpers reduce these burdens is independent of maternal carrying effort.

The karyotypes of two taxa of genus Leontopithecus (rosalia and chrysomelas) are studied. Their G-, C- and NOR-banding patterns are compared with those of representatives of the genus Saguinus to determine chromosomal similarities and differences between the two genera and thus contribute to explaining phylogenetic relations between the tamarins. Leontopithecus, like the Saguinus, presents 2n = 46, 14 autosomes plus the Y acrocentric and 30 autosomes plus the X biarmed. No chromosomal rearrangement distinguishes the karyotypes of the representatives of genus Leontopithecus or genus Saguinus. The two genera are distinguished from each other by a paracentric inversion and pericentric inversions on at least four pairs of acrocentric autosomes, displacing the NORs of the small short arms in Leontopithecus to the proximal region of the long arms in Saguinus or vice versa. The tamarins are also distinguished by the distribution of noncentromeric constitutive heterochromatin. The data obtained indicate that the two tamarin genera are closely related chromosomally, suggesting that they probably originated from the same ancestral branch.

Lion tamarins are among the World's most critically endangered primates. Many studies have been produced under guidance of the International Management Committees for the preservation and management of these tamarins. Primates present morphological sexual differences in a wide range of characteristics, including cranial morphology. Studies of sexual dimorphism in the cranial morphology of theLeontopithecus are few in number and contradictory in their results. In order to check for the existence of sexual dimorphism in lion tamarins the present study analyzed 17 craniometric distances on 56 crania of three species of lion tamarins (Leontopithecus): 20L. rosalia (14 females and 6 males); 13L. chrysomelas (6 females and 7 males); and 23L. chrysopygus (8 females and 15 males). All crania are housed in the CPRJ-FEEMA collection (Primatological Center of Rio de Janeiro) and came from animals born in captivity.L. chrysopygus was more sexually dimorphic (10/17 measurements, 59%) thanL. chrysomelas (9/17 measurements, 53%) orL. rosalia (7/17 measurements, 41%). In all three species, male values are greater than the female ones, except for orbital breadth (m7) inL. rosalia. However, this distance is not sexually dimorphic in this species. This study reveals that some cranial distances, especially in the facial region, are sexually dimorphic in lion tamarins.

We determined DNA sequences spanning the 1.8-kb long intron 1 of the interstitial retinol-binding protein nuclear gene (IRBP) for Callithrix geoffroyi, Callithrix humeralifer, and Callithrix argentata. With the 22 previously determined IRBP intron 1 sequences—21 from the 16 currently recognized genera of New World monkeys—the enlarged IRBP data represent for the marmoset genus Callithrix both its argentata and its jacchus species groups. Maximum-parsimony and neighbor-joining trees, constructed for the 25 aligned IRBP intron 1 sequences, support a provisional phylogenetic classification with three families: Atelidae, containing subfamily Atelinae; Pitheciidae, containing subfamily Pitheciinae; and Cebidae, containing subfamilies Cebinae, Aotinae, and Callitrichinae. In order to have taxa at the same hierarchical rank at equivalent age, this classification has all living callitrichines in a single tribe, Callitrichini, with four subtribes: Saguinina (Saguinus), Callimiconina (Callimico), Leontopithecina (Leontopithecus), and Callitrichina (Callithrix with the pygmy marmoset, Cebuella pygmaea, merged into it). The DNA evidence shows not only that Callithrix must include C. pygmaea to be monophyletic but also that the times of separation of pygmaea and the argentata and jacchus species groups from one another are to be expected (

Serum samples from 73 lion tamarins of three species living at the Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro were tested for antibodies against serovars of Leptospira interrogans by microscopic agglutination test. Antibodies were detected in serum samples of 15% of tested samples. Seroreactivity prevalence was lower than that described in other non-human primates and could be explained by the arboreal behaviour of these animals. Icterohaemorrhagiae was the most common serogroup.

The marmosets and tamarins, Family Callitrichidae, are Neotropical primates with over 60 species and subspecies that inhabit much of South America. Although callitrichids exhibit a remarkable widespread distribution, attempts to unravel their biogeographic history have been limited by taxonomic confusion and the lack of an appropriate statistical biogeographic framework. Here, we construct a time-calibrated multi-locus phylogeny from GenBank data and the callitrichid literature for 38 taxa. We use this framework to conduct statistical biogeographic analyses of callitrichids using BioGeoBEARS. The DIVAj model is the best supported reconstruction of biogeographic history among our analyses and suggests that the most recent common ancestor to the callitrichids was widespread across forested regions c. 14 Ma. There is also support for multiple colonizations of the Atlantic forest region from the Amazon basin, first by Leontopithecus c. 11 Ma and later by Callithrix c. 5 Ma. Our results show support for a 9 million year old split between a small-bodied group and large-bodied group of tamarins. These phylogenetic data, in concert with the consistent difference in body size between the two groups and geographical patterns (small-bodied tamarins and large-bodied tamarins have an unusually high degree of geographic overlap for congeners) lend support to our suggestion to split Saguinus into two genera, and we propose the use of distinct generic names; Leontocebus and Saguinus, respectively.

Understanding how biodiversity will respond to climate change is a major challenge in conservation science. Climatic changes are likely to impose serious threats to many organisms, especially those with narrow distribution ranges, small populations and low dispersal capacity. Lion tamarins (Leontopithecus spp.) are endangered primates endemic to Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF), and all four living species are typical examples of these aggravating conditions. Here, we integrate ecological niche modeling and GIS-based information about BAF remnants and protected areas to estimate the exposure (i.e., the extent of climate change predicted to be experienced by a species) of current suitable habitats to climate change for 2050 and 2080, and to evaluate the efficacy of existing reserves to protect climatically suitable areas. Niche models were built using Maxent and then projected onto seven global circulation models derived from the A1B climatic scenario. According to our projections, the occurrence area of L. caissara will be little exposed to climate change. Western populations of L. chrysomelas could be potentially exposed, while climatically suitable habitats will be maintained only in part of the eastern region. Protected areas that presently harbor large populations of L. chrysopygus and L. rosalia will not retain climatic suitability by 2080. Monitoring trends of exposed populations and protecting areas predicted to hold suitable conditions should be prioritized. Given the potential exposure of key lion tamarin populations, we stress the importance of conducting additional studies to assess other aspects of their vulnerability (i.e., sensitivity to climate and adaptive capacity) and, therefore, to provide a more solid framework for future management decisions in the context of climate change.

45. Golden-headed Lion Tamarin Leontopithecus chrysomelas French: Tamarin-lion a téte dorée / German: Goldkopf-Lowenaffchen / Spanish: Titi lebn de cabeza dorada Taxonomy. Midas chrysomelas Kuhl, 1820, Brazil, forests of the rios Ilhéos, Pardo, and Belmonte. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to Ribeirao das Minhocas, left bank of upper Rio dos Ilhéus, upper Bahia State. The lion tamarins were formerly considered to be subspecies of L. rosalia, but a comparative study of craniodental morphology of the genus by A. Rosenberger and A. F. Coimbra-Filho in 1984 concluded that the three taxa known at the time are heterogeneous and individually distinctive with a non-clinal distribution of characters. Anatomically, L. chrysomelas was found to be the most divergent, with a more robust body, relatively large and modified incisors, relatively small cheek teeth, and a unique cranial shape. A molecular genetic phylogeny of the genus by B. Perez-Sweeney and coworkers in 2008 found L. chrysomelas to be basal in the lion tamarin clade. Monotypic. Distribution. E Brazil (Bahia), between the Rio de Contas (N limit) and the Rio Pardo, but also S of the Rio Pardo along its middle reaches to the Rio Jequitinhonha on the border between the states of Bahia and Minas Gerais. Introduced into the suburbs of Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro State. Descriptive notes. Head-body 22-26 cm, tail 33-39 cm; weight 540-700 g (males) and 480-590 g (females). The Golden-headed Lion Tamarin’s fur is predominantly glossy black but with thick, long, golden-red and reddish-orange hairs on the front of the mane, forearms, hands, feet, thighs, and upper side of the proximal one-half of the tail. Habitat. Coastal lowland tropical forest and coastal white sand forest characteristically abundant in piacava palms (Attalea funifera). Golden-headed Lion Tamarins use secondary growth forest and abandoned rubber plantations, but they evidently prefer oldgrowth forest for its abundance of tree holes, which they use as sleeping sites, and epiphytic bromeliads, which are key foraging sites. They are adaptable and able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year-round food sources and foraging sites. They are also able to occupy “cabruca” (cacao agroforest plantations, shaded with a few native trees left standing, along with cultivated fruit trees). Cabruca agroforest predominates in the eastern part ofits distribution. Food trees such as fig (Ficus), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), and Inga in cabruca can be important food sources, and given sufficient sleeping sites (tree holes) and foraging sites (epiphytic bromeliads), group can live in old cabruca, although predation risk in the more open vegetation and scantier trees is high. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins frequently go to the ground because of the broken/open canopy and open understory. Near the coast in the cacao growing region, there is no distinct dry season, with rainfall exceeding 2000 mm/year (heaviest rains in March—June), but in the western part of their distribution, forests are mesophytic with a distinct dry season, and forests in some areas are semi-deciduous, with rainfall as low as 1000 mm/year. Food and Feeding. Diets of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin include fruits, flowers, nectar, gums, and small animal prey, including principally arthropods but also snails, small frogs, lizards, small snakes, and bird eggs. Three groups studied for 2-5 years in Una Biological Reserve ate fruits from 71 species (32 families), nectar from four species of Manilkara (Sapotaceae) and Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae), flowers from two species (one of them Mabea piriri, Euphorbiaceae), and, infrequently, gum from gouge holes made by sympatric Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii) and seed pods of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae). The main families providing fruits included Myrtaceae (Eugenia, Myrcia, Psidium, and Marlierea), Melastomataceeae (Miconia, Henriettea), Moraceae (Ficus, Brosimium), Urticaceae (Pourouma), Fabacae (Inga), and Bromeliaceae (Aechmea). Ttypical of other callitrichids, Golden-headed Lion Tamarins concentrate on just a few species at a time. For example, in any one month, just three species can account for 70-75% of the feeding records on plant foods. With home ranges larger (40 ha or more) than sympatric marmosets (12-30 ha), Golden-headed Lion Tamarins are able to take more advantage of fruiting seasons of each species; they have more individual trees in their home range than, for example, Wied’s Black-tuftedear Marmosets that might have just one. Marmosets depend more on gum. Groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins living in cabruca have a less diverse diet offruits (20 or so species, including Myrtaceae and Sapotaceae), but they benefit from access to cultivated trees that produce fruit for most of the year, including Inga affinis (Fabaceae), Ficus gomelleira, and the exotic Artocarpus heterophyllus (both Moraceae). In 1999-2000, a study of three groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarin using mature forest, cabruca, and secondary forest found 155 plants species from 49 families in their diets; they ate fruits from 94% of the species, nectar from 5%, and gum from 1%. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins ingest and disperse seeds of many of these species. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins forage for small animal prey in specific microhabitats: nooks and crannies, accumulations of leaf litter in palm crowns and vine tangles, and particularly epiphytic bromeliads (c.76% ofthe time). In cabruca areas, 97% of the foraging sites used by Golden-headed Lion Tamarins were bromeliads (they also eat their pineapple-like, multiple fruits). They forage mostly in the lower and middle canopy 10-20 m above the forest floor. Sympatric marmosets occur lower in the canopy/understory and are stalk-and-pounce, foliage gleaners at heights of 5-13 m above the ground; they almost never forage in bromeliads. Breeding. Despite a lack of seasonality in rainfall in the coastal region, births of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin are seasonal, occurring in October-April. Females generally give birth to twins or singletons, just once a year; only four of 15 females monitored for eight years at Una Biological Reserve bred twice per year. Reproductive parameters and mating systems are typical of the genus, as described for the Golden Lion Tamarin. The ovarian cycle is c.21 days, gestation is c¢.125 days, and postpartum ovulation occurs c.17 days later. Female Golden-headed Lion Tamarins do not conceal their reproductive status. They show proceptive sexual presenting, and males increase their frequency of anogenital sniffing and mounting during the fertile period. Males remain close to the female during this time, indicating mate-guarding. Activity patterns. The Golden-headed Lion Tamarin spends ¢.30-38% of its time traveling, 20-25% stationary and resting, 18-25% foraging for and eating small animals, 12-18% foraging for and eating fruits, 10-15% in social activities, and 2% eating flowers and nectar. Overall, foraging and feeding take up ¢.25-35% of their day. They typically begin their day traveling and feeding on fruits or nectar. During the morning, they increase their foraging on animal prey and then tend to rest from c.11:00 h until 14:00 h. After that, foraging on animal prey and fruits resumes and continues until they retire to their sleeping sites at ¢.16:00-17:00 h. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins use a limited number of sleeping sites, and high rates of travel seen early and late in the day are the result of them going to and from these sites, sometimes traveling several hundred meters in the process. Tree holes are used most commonly, but they also sleep in large bromeliads and in dense vegetation and tangles of lianas. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins are generally 2-8 individuals (although sometimes as large as 15), with 1-3 adult males and one, sometimes two, adult females, along with infants, juveniles, and subadult offspring. They occupy home ranges of 40 ha (Lemos Maia Experimental Station) to as many as 200 ha (Una Reserve), depending on distribution and abundance of their food sources and foraging sites, which are related closely to the mosaic of vegetation types available to them. In Una, home ranges overlap is as much as 36%. They travel 1400-2175 m/day. In cabruca, a home range can be as small as 22-28 ha. Both males and females disperse from their natal groups. Male sibling pairs may set up new groups. It is probable that dispersal and formation of new groups follow the same pattern in the betterstudied Golden Lion Tamarin. The density of the Goldenheaded Lion Tamarin in Una Biological Reserve is 5 ind/km?, but densities were as high as 17 ind/km?* (0-9-3 groups/km?) in certain parts of the forest in nearby Lemos Maia Experimental Station. In cabruca vegetation, densities are higher at 17-21 ind/ km?*. Mammals seen attacking Golden-headed Lion Tamarins include the Tayra (Eira barbara), the Margay (Leopardus wiedii), and dogs. Raptors and snakes are no doubt also significant predators. Groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins and Wied’s Blacktufted-ear Marmosets sometimes travel together. This association is more common in open cabruca areas, especially when there are newborn twins in the groups, probably a response to the higher risk of predation there. Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Golden-headed Lion Tamarins is threatened by loss of habitat through logging, charcoal production, agriculture, cattle ranching, highway construction, and urbanization. Humid forests in the eastern parts of their distribution were relatively well preserved until the 1970s. Land use was characterized by very large estates where cacao cultivation required only a small portion of the land and left wide expanses of forest intact. The predominant form of cultivation used native canopy trees to shade the cacao trees, so-called cabruca. Modern times brought efforts to maximize profits by clear-cutting the forest and planting rubber trees, fast-growing African Erythrina trees, or bananas to shade the cacao. The fall in price on the world cacao market and the introduction of a fungal disease (Witches’ Broom Disease) from the Amazon severely damaged the industry and the regional economy in the 1980s. Consequences included a diversification of crops (rubber, coconut, oil palm, and pepper), an increase in cattle ranching (clear-cutting for pasture), and a boom in charcoal and logging industries. Resulting rural unemployment caused an influx of squatters who used destructive slash-and-burn agriculture. In the western distribution of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin, cattle-ranching has been predominant since the 1930s, and the forest is now largely destroyed and highly fragmented; only c.10% ofit remains in scattered fragments. In the early 1990s, the wild population of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin was estimated to be 6000-15,000 individuals. Areas of cabruca were excluded as unsuitable (although important as corridors for wildlife between forest patches), but recent findings of the high densities of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins in old cabruca plantations indicate that the total population is probably larger. The first protected area for the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin was Una Biological Reserve, created in 1980 and expanded to encompass 18,500 ha in 2007. Various other protected areas have been established in recent years, including Serra das Lontras National Park and Una Wildlife Refuge. Lemos Maia and Canavieiras experimental stations of the regional cacao growing authority also have small populations of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins. There is a well-managed captive breeding program for the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin with a good founder stock, confiscated from illegal export in the early 1980s. Conservation and management of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin is overseen by an international committee formed by the Brazilian government in 1985. Besides the Brazilian government, the principal motivation behind conservation measures for the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin has come from the Instituto de Pesquisas Socio-Ambientais do Sul da Bahia (IESB), founded in 1994 specifically to protect it and the forests of the region. Bibliography. Alger & Caldas (1994), Bach et al. (2001), Ballou (1989), Ballou et al. (2002), Baker et al. (2002), Cardoso et al. (2011), Catenacci et al. (2009), Coimbra-Filho (1969, 1970a, 1977, 1981), Coimbra-Filho & Mittermeier (1973, 1977b), De Vleeschouwer, Heistermann et al. (2000), De Vleeschouwer, Leus & Van Elsacker (2003), Dietz, de Sousa & Billerbeck (1996), French, De Vleeschouwer et al. (2002), French, Pissinatti & Coimbra-Filho (1996), Hankerson et al. (2006), Hershkovitz (1977), Holst et al. (2006), Kierulff, Raboy et al. (2002), Kleiman & Mallinson (1998), Kleiman & Rylands (2002), Kleiman et al. (1988), Mallinson (1984, 1989), Oliveira & Dietz (2011), Oliveira, Hankerson et al. (2010), Oliveira, Neves et al. (2011), Padua et al. (2002), Perez-Sweeney et al. (2008), Pinto & Rylands (1997), Pissinatti et al. (2002), Raboy & Dietz (2000, 2004), Raboy, Christman & Dietz (2004), Raboy, Neves et al. (2011), Rambaldi et al. (2002), Rosenberger & Coimbra-Filho (1984), Rylands (1989a, 1993c), Rylands, Kierulff & Pinto (2002), Rylands, Mallinson et al. (2002), dos Santos & Blanes (1999), Tardif, Santos et al. (2002)., Published as part of Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands & Don E. Wilson, 2013, Callitrichiade, pp. 262-346 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 343-344, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5730714

47. Black-faced Lion Tamarin Leontopithecus caissara French: Tamarin-lion a téte noire / German: Schwarzkopf-Léwenaffchen / Spanish: Titi le6n de cara negra Other common names: Superagti Lion Tamarin Taxonomy. Leontopithecus caissara Lorini & Persson, 1990, Barra do Ararapira, Ilha de Superagui, municipality of Guaraquecaba, Parana State, Brazil (25° 18’ S, 48° 11°’ W). The geographical proximity of L. caissara and L. chrysopygus and the finding that some captive L. chrysopygus show a pelage color pattern very similar to that of L. caissara led to the suggestion that L. caissara was a subspecies or mere color variant of L. chrysopygus. This was refuted by an analysis of the cranial and mandibular morphology by C. Burity and coworkers in 1999, which found L. caissara to be distinct. A molecular genetic analysis by B. Perez-Sweeney and coworkers in 2008 confirmed the conclusion of Burity, and placed L. caissara as a sister species to a clade comprising L. rosalia and L. chrysopygus. Monotypic. Distribution. SE Brazil (states of Parana & Sao Paulo), on Superagti I, and on the mainland in parts of the valleys of the rios Sebui and dos Patos;its entire distribution is less than 300 km?®. Descriptive notes. Head-body c.34 cm,tail ¢.40 cm; weight 540-710 g. The body of the Black-faced Lion Tamarin is orange-gold, with black on the mane, face, chest,feet, forearms, and tail. The transitional region behind the shoulders consists of long golden hairs that are dark brown at the base. Habitat. Mature lowland coastal forest. On the mainland and the island of Superagiii, Black-faced Lion Tamarins use swamp and inundated areas intensively because of their abundant foraging microhabitats and plants providing fruits and nectar. Dryland forest, however,is where they sleep in tree holes, Indaia palms (Attalea dubia, Arecaceae), and epiphytic bromeliads. Mainland groups, in particular, also use secondary forest because of their high densities of preferred fruiting trees. On the mainland, they avoid montane and submontane forest and are not found at elevations above 40 m. The Black-faced Lion Tamarin is the southernmost of any of the callitrichids, and changes in temperature and vegetation with elevation are more abrupt than at lower latitudes. Mountains come close to the sea in this region, and for this reason, their geographic distribution is very small. Middle and upper layers of the canopy are preferred. Food and Feeding. Thefirst study of the Black-feaced Lion Tamarin indicated a diet of 745% fruits, 129% fungi, 10-3% animal prey, 1:3% gums, and 1% flowers and nectar. Thirty plant species in 17 families have been recorded in its diet. The principal family providing fruits is the Myrtaceae. Overall, nine species accounted for 94% of the plant part of the diet, 31% involving four species of Myrtaceae (Myrcia acuminatissima, M. multiflora, Marlierea tomentosa, and Psidium cattleianum). Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae), Syagrus romanzoffiana (Arecaceae), Calophyllum brasiliense (Clusiaceae), and an unknown species of Myrsinaceae were also significant providers of fruits during the year. Nectar is taken from a number of species of Myrtaceae, Melastomatacae, and Bromeliaceae (Aechmea). They eat flowers of Aechmea and Marcgravia polyantha (Marcgraviaceae), and gum of 1. guianensis is eaten occasionally. An interesting component of the diet is the sporocarp of the ascomycete fungus Mycomalmus bambusinus (Clavicipitaceae) that they find on bamboo culms (Chusquea) near the ground. Fungi are eaten in the dry season and early wet season in June—-October and particularly in July-September. Consumption offruit declines in the dry season (April-September). Animal prey include grasshoppers, cockroaches, stick-insects, beetles, insects, spiders, and tree frogs. They forage for animal prey from the ground to c.15 m in the forest canpoy but concentrate more effort at heights of 6-10 m. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. Black-faced lion Tamarins begin their activities at 06:00 h and return to their sleeping sites at ¢.16:00 h. They are most active—feeding and foraging— in the morning at 09:00-12:00 h, after which they tend to rest more until ¢.15:00 h. They spend ¢.56% of their time moving, 29% feeding, 14% in social activities (mainly grooming), and only c¢.1% resting. On the island of Superagtii, they use mainly tree holes as sleeping sites, but on the mainland, they frequently use crowns of Indaia palms, bromeliads, and sometimes termite nests. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of the Black-faced Lion Tamarin are 3-7 individuals. Their home ranges are the largest recorded for any callitrichid. The average home rangesize for seven groups was 300 ha. They travel 1000-3400 m/day. Groups on the island of Superagtii tend to have longer daily movements indicating more dispersed food sources. On the mainland, two groups shared the same home range, with 100% overlap. With their large home ranges, densities are low and estimated at 1-7 ind/km?® on Superagiii. Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Black-faced Lion Tamarin was first discovered in 1990 on the island of Superagti. In 2002, the total world population was estimated at less than 300 individuals. Currently, they are believed to number less than 400 individuals. Conservation and management of the Black-faced Lion Tamarin has been overseen by an international committee formed by the Brazilian government in 1992. The Brazilian government,in collaboration with the Instituto de Pesquisas Ecolégicas (IPE), has been carrying out conservation programs for the Black-faced Lion Tamarin since 1995. These activities included ongoing research on its ecology and behavior, management of the Superagui National Park, environmental awareness programs with schools and local communities, and programs to involve local fishing communities in conservation measures and to improve their livelihoods. Bibliography. French et al. (2002), Holst et al. (2006), Kierulff, Raboy et al. (2002), Kleiman & Mallinson (1998), Kleiman & Rylands, (2002), Lorini & Persson (1990, 1994), Nascimento & Schmidlin (2011), Nascimento et al. (2011), Padua et al. (2002), Perez-Sweeney et al. (2008), Persson & Lorini (1993), Prado (1999), Prado & Valladares-Padua (2004), Prado et al. (2000), Rambaldi et al. (2002), Rodrigues et al. (1992), Rylands (1993c), Rylands, Kierulff & Pinto (2002), Rylands, Mallinson et al. (2002), Valladares-Padua & Prado (1996), Vivekananda (1994)., Published as part of Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands & Don E. Wilson, 2013, Callitrichiade, pp. 262-346 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 345-346, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5730714