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Objective We sought to describe the epidemiology of emergency department (ED) visits for skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI) in an urban area with diverse neighborhood populations using syndromic surveillance system data for the time period from 2007–2011. Our aims were threefold: to demonstrate a proof of concept using syndromic surveillance for SSTI surveillance in the absence of laboratory data, to estimate the burden of ED visits associated with SSTI, and to determine potential geographic “hotspots” for these infections. Introduction The incidence of and hospitalizations for SSTI have steadily increased over the last decade in the United States, primarily due to the emergence and spread of community acquired Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). The ED is a common site for SSTI treatment and serves populations not captured by traditional surveillance, including the homeless and uninsured. The use of near real-time syndromic surveillance within the ED to detect unusual activity for further public health investigation has been used to augment traditional infectious disease surveillance. However, the use of this approach for monitoring local epidemiologic trends in SSTI presentation where laboratory data are not available, has not previously been described. Methods We sought to describe the epidemiology of ED visits for SSTI in an urban area with diverse neighborhood populations using the Boston Public Health Commission’s (BPHC) Syndromic Surveillance System (BSynSS) data for a five year time period (2007 through 2011). SSTI related visits were defined by either chief complaints with SSTI associated words (abscess, cellulitis) or final diagnosis International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9 CM) codes for SSTIs. SSTI related visits were de-duplicated using demographics and visit identifiers and then stratified by age group, gender, race, and neighborhood of residence defined by ZIP code. Each of Boston’s 15 neighborhoods has a unique demographic profile with distinct differences in race, socioeconomic status, and age. Finally, we examined trends in characteristics of potential “hotspots” of neighborhood clustering for SSTIs in EDs. Results Using our SSTI syndrome definition, we estimated unique SSTI visits represented 3.29 % (n= 45,252) of all visits within Boston’s ten EDs during the study period with a seasonal pattern peaking during the summer months (July through September). The majority of SSTI visits (54%) were among patients 18 to 44 years old, which is consistent with the age distribution of the Boston population. However, a disproportionate number of SSTI visits (43%) were among Black patients when compared to both the overall Boston population (22% Black) and to the racial distribution of all ED visits (39% Black). The five-year average rate of SSTI visits for Black patients (281.2 per 10,000 population) was significantly greater at 2.8 times [CI 2.7, 3.0] than the rate for White patients (99.0 per 10,000 population). Geographic neighborhood distribution of SSTI visits ranged from a low of 2.69% to a high of 4.11% of all neighborhood-specific ED visits. Disposition data are available for 2010 and 2011 only and show that 24% and 23% of patients in 2010 and 2011, respectively, were admitted for their SSTI. Conclusions Our study results suggest that syndromic surveillance data can be used to track the burden and patterns of SSTI in an urban population, including disease severity through the use of disposition data. Furthermore, syndromic surveillance can provide information on the local epidemiology of SSTI, including data related to health inequalities. The burden of SSTIs should be compared to overall ED use for a specific population to control for biases in health care seeking behaviors and choice of provider type. A local syndromic surveillance system has the potential to provide public health authorities and ED clinicians near real-time monitoring of trends in severity and demographic risk factors, and may provide an alternative to tracking the severity of illness where no laboratory data are readily available.

Objectives: Cutaneous abscesses are commonly treated in the emergency department (ED). Although incision and drainage (I&D) remains the standard treatment, there is little high quality evidence to support additional interventions such as pain control, type of incision, and use of irrigation, wound cultures, and packing. Although guidelines exist to support clinician management of abscesses, they do not clearly specify these additional interventions. This study sought to describe the ED treatments administered to adults with uncomplicated superficial cutaneous abscesses, defined as purulent lesions requiring incision and drainage, that could be managed in an ED or outpatient setting. Methods: Four hundred and seventy four surveys were distributed to 15 EDs across the United States. Participants were queried about their level of training and practice environment as well as specific questions regarding their management of cutaneous abscesses in the ED. Results: In total, 350 providers responded to the survey (74%). One hundred eighty nine respondents (54%) were attending physicians, 135 (39%) were residents and 26 (7%) were mid-level providers. Most providers (76%) used narcotics for pain management, 71% used local anesthetic over the roof of the abscess, and 60% used local anesthetic in a field block for pain control. Only 48% of responders routinely used irrigation after I&D. Eighty-five percent of responders used a linear incision to drain the abscess and 91% used packing in the wound cavity. Thirty two percent routinely sent wound cultures and 17% of providers routinely prescribed antibiotics. Most providers (73%) only prescribed antibiotics if certain historical factors or physical findings were present on exam. Antibiotic treatment, if used, favored a combination of 2 or more drugs to cover both Streptococcus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcal aureus (47%). Follow up visits were most frequently recommended at 48 hours unless wound was concerning and required closer evaluation. Conclusion: Variability exists in the treatment strategies for abscess care. The majority of providers used narcotic analgesics in addition to local anesthetic, linear incisions, and packing. Most providers did not irrigate, order wound cultures, or routinely prescribe oral antibiotics unless specific risk factors or physical signs were present. Limited evidence is available at this time to guide these treatment strategies. [West J Emerg Med. 2013;14(1):23–28.]

Importance The National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria set a goal of reducing inappropriate outpatient antibiotic use by 50% by 2020, but the extent of inappropriate outpatient antibiotic use is unknown. Objective To estimate the rates of outpatient oral antibiotic prescribing by age and diagnosis, and the estimated portions of antibiotic use that may be inappropriate in adults and children in the United States. Design, Setting, and Participants Using the 2010-2011 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey and National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, annual numbers and population-adjusted rates with 95% confidence intervals of ambulatory visits with oral antibiotic prescriptions by age, region, and diagnosis in the United States were estimated. Exposures Ambulatory care visits. Main Outcomes and Measures Based on national guidelines and regional variation in prescribing, diagnosis-specific prevalence and rates of total and appropriate antibiotic prescriptions were determined. These rates were combined to calculate an estimate of the appropriate annual rate of antibiotic prescriptions per 1000 population. Results Of the 184 032 sampled visits, 12.6% of visits (95% CI, 12.0%-13.3%) resulted in antibiotic prescriptions. Sinusitis was the single diagnosis associated with the most antibiotic prescriptions per 1000 population (56 antibiotic prescriptions [95% CI, 48-64]), followed by suppurative otitis media (47 antibiotic prescriptions [95% CI, 41-54]), and pharyngitis (43 antibiotic prescriptions [95% CI, 38-49]). Collectively, acute respiratory conditions per 1000 population led to 221 antibiotic prescriptions (95% CI, 198-245) annually, but only 111 antibiotic prescriptions were estimated to be appropriate for these conditions. Per 1000 population, among all conditions and ages combined in 2010-2011, an estimated 506 antibiotic prescriptions (95% CI, 458-554) were written annually, and, of these, 353 antibiotic prescriptions were estimated to be appropriate antibiotic prescriptions. Conclusions and Relevance In the United States in 2010-2011, there was an estimated annual antibiotic prescription rate per 1000 population of 506, but only an estimated 353 antibiotic prescriptions were likely appropriate, supporting the need for establishing a goal for outpatient antibiotic stewardship.

Background The US CDC estimates over 2 million foodborne illnesses are annually caused by 4 major enteropathogens: non-typhoid Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Shigella spp. and Yersinia enterocoltica. While data suggest a number of costly and morbid chronic sequelae associated with these infections, pathogen-specific risk estimates are lacking. We utilized a US Department of Defense medical encounter database to evaluate the risk of several gastrointestinal disorders following select foodborne infections. Methods We identified subjects with acute gastroenteritis between 1998 to 2009 attributed to Salmonella (nontyphoidal) spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp. or Yersinia enterocolitica and matched each with up to 4 unexposed subjects. Medical history was analyzed for the duration of military service time (or a minimum of 1 year) to assess for incident chronic gastrointestinal disorders. Relative risks were calculated using modified Poisson regression while controlling for the effect of covariates. Results A total of 1,753 pathogen-specific gastroenteritis cases (Campylobacter: 738, Salmonella: 624, Shigella: 376, Yersinia: 17) were identified and followed for a median of 3.8 years. The incidence (per 100,000 person-years) of PI sequelae among exposed was as follows: irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 3.0; dyspepsia, 1.8; constipation, 3.9; gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), 9.7. In multivariate analyses, we found pathogen-specific increased risk of IBS, dyspepsia, constipation and GERD. Conclusions These data confirm previous studies demonstrating risk of chronic gastrointestinal sequelae following bacterial enteric infections and highlight additional preventable burden of disease which may inform better food security policies and practices, and prompt further research into pathogenic mechanisms.

Antimicrobial resistance is a mounting public health concern. Emergency departments (EDs) represent a particularly important setting for addressing inappropriate antimicrobial prescribing practices, given the frequent use of antibiotics in this setting that sits at the interface of the community and the hospital. This article outlines the importance of antimicrobial stewardship in the ED setting and provides practical recommendations drawn from existing evidence for the application of various strategies and tools that could be implemented in the ED including advancement of clinical guidelines, clinical decision support systems, rapid diagnostics, and expansion of ED pharmacist programs.

Background: When H1N1 emerged in 2009, institutions of higher education were immediately faced with questions about how best to protect their community from the virus, yet limited information existed to help predict student preventive behaviors. Methods: The authors surveyed students at a large urban university in November 2009 to better understand how students perceived their susceptibility to and the severity of H1N1, which preventive behaviors they engaged in, and if policies impacted their preventive health decisions. Results: Preventive health behavior messaging had a mixed impact on students. Students made simple behavior changes to protect themselves from H1N1, especially if they perceived a high personal risk of contracting H1N1. Although policies were instituted to enable students to avoid classes when ill, almost no student self-isolated for the entire duration of their illness. Conclusions: These findings can help inform future decision making in a university setting to best influence preventive health behaviors.

Background Syndromic surveillance has been widely adopted as a real-time monitoring tool for timely response to disease outbreaks. During the second wave of the pH1N1 pandemic in Fall 2009, two major universities in Washington, DC collected data that were potentially indicative of influenza-like illness (ILI) cases in students and staff. In this study, our objectives were three-fold. The primary goal of this study was to characterize the impact of pH1N1 on the campuses as clearly as possible given the data available and their likely biases. In addition, we sought to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the data series themselves, in order to inform these two universities and other institutions of higher education (IHEs) about real-time surveillance systems that are likely to provide the most utility in future outbreaks (at least to the extent that it is possible to generalize from this analysis). Methods We collected a wide variety of data that covered both student ILI cases reported to medical and non-medical staff, employee absenteeism, and hygiene supply distribution records (from University A only). Communication data were retrieved from university broadcasts, university preparedness websites, and H1N1-related on campus media reports. Regional data based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Outpatient Influenza-like Illness Surveillance Network (CDC ILINet) surveillance network, American College Health Association (ACHA) pandemic influenza surveillance data, and local Google Flu Trends were used as external data sets. We employed a "triangulation" approach for data analysis in which multiple contemporary data sources are compared to identify time patterns that are likely to reflect biases as well as those that are more likely to be indicative of actual infection rates. Results Medical personnel observed an early peak at both universities immediately after school began in early September and a second peak in early November; only the second peak corresponded to patterns in the community at large. Self-reported illness to university deans' offices was also relatively increased during mid-term exam weeks. The overall volume of pH1N1-related communication messages similarly peaked twice, corresponding to the two peaks of student ILI cases. Conclusions During the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, both University A and B experienced a peak number of ILI cases at the beginning of the Fall term. This pattern, seen in surveillance systems at these universities and to a lesser extent in data from other IHEs, most likely resulted from students bringing the virus back to campus from their home states coupled with a sudden increase in population density in dormitories and lecture halls. Through comparison of data from different syndromic surveillance data streams, paying attention to the likely biases in each over time, we have determined, at least in the case of the pH1N1 pandemic, that student health center data more accurately depicted disease transmission on campus at both universities during the Fall 2009 pandemic than other available data sources.

A seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) introduced in the United States in 2000 has been shown to reduce invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in both vaccinated children and adults through induction of herd immunity. We assessed the impact of infant immunization on pneumococcal pneumonia hospitalizations and mortality in all age groups using Health Care Utilization Project State Inpatient Databases (SID) for 1996 to 2006 from 10 states; SID contain 100% samples of ICD9-coded hospitalization data for the selected states. Compared to a 1996–1997 through 1998–1999 baseline, by the 2005–2006 season, both IPD and pneumococcal pneumonia hospitalizations and deaths had decreased substantially in all age groups, including a 47% (95% confidence interval [CI], 38 to 54%) reduction in nonbacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia (ICD9 code 481 with no codes indicating IPD) in infants, IMPORTANCE Pneumonia is the world’s leading cause of death in children and the leading infectious cause of death among U.S. adults 65 years old and older. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccination of infants has previously been shown to reduce invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) among seniors through prevention of pneumococcal transmission from infants to adults (herd immunity). Our analysis documents a significant vaccine-associated reduction not only in IPD but also in pneumococcal pneumonia hospitalizations and inpatient mortality rates among both vaccinated children and unvaccinated adults. We estimate that fully 90% of the reduction in the pneumonia hospitalization burden occurred among adults. Moreover, states that more rapidly introduced their infant pneumococcal immunization programs had greater reductions in influenza-associated pneumonia hospitalization of children, presumably because the vaccine acts to prevent the pneumococcal pneumonia that frequently follows influenza virus infection. Our results indicate that seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine use has yielded far greater benefits through herd immunity than have previously been recognized.

The incidence of skin and soft tissue infections has steadily increased over the past decade, and military populations, particularly recruits, have been affected. However, the epidemiology of skin and soft tissue infections in deployed personnel has not previously been described. We conducted a cross-sectional study of United States military personnel in mid-deployment using self-reported questionnaire data containing 11 demographic questions and 20 questions related to skin and soft tissue infections. The primary outcome was self-reported incident SSTI. Descriptive analyses were conducted and incidence estimates calculated. Multivariable regression models were developed to evaluate the association between SSTI and important covariates. Self-reported treatment modalities and effect on work performance were also assessed. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board. 2125 questionnaires were completed over 12 months using convenience sampling. 110 personnel (5%) reported one or more skin and soft tissue infection during their most recent employment, for an incidence of 52 cases per 100,000 person-days. The majority reported a single infection. A higher proportion of individuals reporting skin and soft tissue infection were female, reported antibiotic use in the 6 months prior to completing the survey, had a family member in the healthcare occupation, and were senior enlisted or officers. 40 (36%) were treated with antibiotics and 24 (22%) underwent incision and drainage. Less than 5% (3 patients) required admission. Eighty eight respondents (81%), reported no days of lost job performance. There is a higher than expected incidence of skin and soft tissue infections in deployed military personnel. Although fewer than 20% of patients report missing at least one day of work, this can have a significant impact on the military mission. Further study should be conducted into how to prevent skin and soft tissue infections in military populations.

Background: Concern with the potential for hospital-based transmission of influenza has come to the forefront due to emergency department (ED) crowding and the novel H1N1 pandemic. Compliance with infection control guidelines for influenza in the ED is generally unknown, and effective yet low-resource training is needed to educate staff on the importance of decreasing the potential for ED transmission of the virus. Objectives: This study evaluates compliance with patient assignment and transport precautions for influenza in an urban ED before and after implementation of electronic reminders. Methods: We included patients with a diagnosis of influenza for two consecutive influenza seasons, and retrospectively collected limited patient encounter data on patient location, transport, and compliance with assignment and transport precautions for both years. For the second influenza season we sent monthly reminders to all ED providers via the electronic medical record (EMR), explaining the importance and proper use of infection control precautions in patients with suspected influenza. Compliance between the two seasons was compared using descriptive statistics and chi-squared analysis. Results: Overall compliance with infection control precautions was poor, but increased with the use of electronic reminders from 29% to 45% ( p = 0.015). Compliance with precautions for patients moved to the hallway or Radiology increased from 7% to 24% ( p = 0.001). Conclusions: The EMR may be a useful tool for improving compliance with transmission-based precautions by implementing reminders on order sets and informational mailings, and by tracking compliance. Future study should be undertaken to determine the most effective interventions to prevent ED transmission of influenza.

Clinicians should be competent at contagious disease outbreak detection and management. Given the threat of emerging infectious diseases and biowarfare, there is a need to develop instructional methods on these topics. Presented here is a case-based exercise addressing sentinel case recognition, reporting, and containment. This workshop, conducted for medical students during their emergency medicine clerkship, incorporates the core competencies of systems-based practice, practice-based learning, and patient care. The workshop is held in a hospital conference room with internet, telephone, and other resources available, simulating real life. A hypothetical case of Ebola presenting to an emergency department is outlined. Participants are divided into small groups representing the physician, the local health department, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the hospital administration, infection control, and the laboratory director. Each group has 30 minutes to define its roles and responsibilities in preparation for the hypothetical outbreak. A companion manuscript is provided. Each small group then presents its approach to responding to the outbreak. Next, the faculty facilitator gives a 45-minute lecture. Pre- and postworkshop surveys indicated that this resource is useful. The format of the workshop is easy to reproduce and can serve as a foundation for a curriculum in emerging infections and communicable disease management or be applied to other educational topics. Pre- and postworkshop surveys also indicated a statistically significant improvement in students’ comfort with accessing available resources in the event of an outbreak.

Background All countries need effective disease surveillance systems for early detection of outbreaks. The revised International Health Regulations [IHR], which entered into force for all 194 World Health Organization member states in 2007, have expanded traditional infectious disease notification to include surveillance for public health events of potential international importance, even if the causative agent is not yet known. However, there are no clearly established guidelines for how countries should conduct this surveillance, which types of emerging disease syndromes should be reported, nor any means for enforcement. Discussion The commonly established concept of syndromic surveillance in developed regions encompasses the use of pre-diagnostic information in a near real time fashion for further investigation for public health action. Syndromic surveillance is widely used in North America and Europe, and is typically thought of as a highly complex, technology driven automated tool for early detection of outbreaks. Nonetheless, low technology applications of syndromic surveillance are being used worldwide to augment traditional surveillance. Summary In this paper, we review examples of these novel applications in the detection of vector-borne diseases, foodborne illness, and sexually transmitted infections. We hope to demonstrate that syndromic surveillance in its basic version is a feasible and effective tool for surveillance in developing countries and may facilitate compliance with the new IHR guidelines.