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The experience of clinical teachers as well as research results about senior medical students' understanding of basic science concepts has much been debated. To gain a better understanding about how this knowledge-transformation is managed by medical students, this work aims at investigating their ways of setting about learning anatomy. Second-year medical students were interviewed with a focus on their approach to learning and their way of organizing their studies in anatomy. Phenomenographic analysis of the interviews was performed in 2007 to explore the complex field of learning anatomy. Subjects were found to hold conceptions of a dual notion of the field of anatomy and the interplay between details and wholes permeated their ways of studying with an obvious endeavor of understanding anatomy in terms of connectedness and meaning. The students' ways of approaching the learning task was characterized by three categories of description; the subjects experienced their anatomy studies as memorizing, contextualizing or experiencing. The study reveals aspects of learning anatomy indicating a deficit in meaningfulness. Variation in approach to learning and contextualization of anatomy are suggested as key-elements in how the students arrive at understanding. This should be acknowledged through careful variation of the integration of anatomy in future design of medical curricula.

The Prochaska model of readiness to change has been proposed to be used in educational interventions to improve medical care.To evaluate the impact on readiness to change of an educational intervention on management of depressive disorders based on a modified version of the Prochaska model in comparison with a standard programme of continuing medical education (CME).This is a randomized controlled trial within primary care practices in southern Tehran, Iran. The participants included 192 general physicians working in primary care (GPs) were recruited after random selection and randomized to intervention (96) and control (96). Intervention consisted of interactive, learner-centred educational methods in large and small group settings depending on the GPs' stages of readiness to change. Change in stage of readiness to change measured by the modified version of the Prochaska questionnaire was theThe final number of participants was 78 (81%) in the intervention arm and 81 (84%) in the control arm. Significantly (P0.01), more GPs (57/96 = 59% versus 12/96 = 12%) in the intervention group changed to higher stages of readiness to change. The intervention effect was 46% points (P0.001) and 50% points (P0.001) in the large and small group setting, respectively.Educational formats that suit different stages of learning can support primary care doctors to reach higher stages of behavioural change in the topic of depressive disorders. Our findings have practical implications for conducting CME programmes in Iran and are possibly also applicable in other parts of the world.

OBJECTIVE To obtain an understanding of basic science medical teachers' conceptions of learning and their ideas for facilitation of learning. METHODS Teaching staff at a biomedical centre (n = 62) were asked to describe their definitions of learning, their suggestions for how to solve an applied educational problem and their intended activities when teaching students. The research was carried out using a questionnaire consisting of open-ended and fixed-choice questions. RESULTS Although 1 in 4 teachers endorsed constructivist conceptions of learning, only 1 in 8 actually reported using activating teaching strategies. Conceptions of learning did not co-vary with teaching practice. CONCLUSIONS The assumption that conceptions of learning and teaching practice are aligned was challenged. The current questionnaire could be used as an intervention tool for educational development to map whether or not there is a match between teachers' conceptions and their practice.

The relationship between medical students' well-being, motivation, and their conceptions of learning and knowledge has not been previously explored.This study aimed to validate a research instrument intending to measure medical students' (n = 280) (1) experiences of stress, anxiety and disinterest, (2) motivational (thinking) strategies, (3) conceptions of learning and knowledge (epistemologies), and (4) approaches to learning.We developed an instrument, MED NORD, which is a composition of scales measuring different theoretical constructs that previously have shown good predictive value, validity and reliability. A principal component analysis with Varimax-rotation was performed in order to see how the scales related to each other.The internal consistency reliability was found to be satisfactory or good for each scale. The results showed five factors: Dysfunctional Orientation, Collaborative Knowledge Building Orientation, Cookbook Orientation, Social Orientation, and Individual Abilities Orientation. These study orientations were related to how medical students perceived their learning environment.The new tool showed consistency and validity and was judged appropriate for future use in measuring medical students' well-being and study orientations.

Objective To assess the validity and reliability of an 11-item questionnaire for stages of readiness to change according to a modified Prochaska model (including attitude, intention and action stage) in the context of continuing medical education (CME) on depressive disorders for general practitioners (GPs) in Tehran, Iran. Methods Three hundred and fifty GPs were recruited for filling in a questionnaire in order to assess content validity and modifying the questionnaire. Fifty-nine GPs were involved for testing reliability and 39 GPs for testing concurrent validity. Content validity of the questionnaire was assessed by expert consensus. Concurrent validity was assessed by correlating the results of a semi-structured interview with those of the self-assessment questionnaire. For testing reliability there was a test–retest approach with an interval of 3–7 days. Results A panel of experts was held at four times and the final version of modified Prochaska questionnaire (MPQ) was compiled by the panel. Total κ coefficient for concurrent validity of the whole questionnaire was 0.80. Only two of the questions had a κ coefficient lower than 0.70. In the test–retest, 96% of participants reassigned to the same stage and the total κ coefficient of reliability was 0.89 for the whole questionnaire. Conclusion The validity and reliability of the MPQ for assessing GPs’ readiness to change in the field of depressive disorders were found to be high in the Iranian context. These findings support its application in tailoring and evaluating CME programmes for GPs in Iran.

Clinical teachers often complain that medical students have forgotten or somehow "lost" knowledge that has been taught at pre-clinical levels at the time of entering the clinical part of education. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore, whether transfer of knowledge was identified as a problem by the teaching staff of anatomy and surgery, and if so, what strategies they used to overcome it. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten medical teachers in anatomy and surgery. Most teachers recognised that there was a problem of transfer and some individuals had adopted strategies to address this. However, there was no formal educational strategy suggested to overcome the problem of transfer. The conclusion is that transfer needs to be addressed both by basic science teachers and clinical teachers. There is a need for a mutual educational discourse of the contexts students will face.

The current generation of young people indulges in more media multitasking behavior (e.g., instant messaging while watching videos) in their everyday lives than older generations. Concerns have been raised about how this might affect their attentional functioning, as previous studies have indicated that extensive mediamultitasking in everyday life may be associated with decreased attentional control. In the current study, 149 adolescents and young adults (aged 13-24 years) performed speech-listening and reading tasks that required maintaining attention in the presence of distractor stimuli in the othermodality or dividing attention between two concurrent tasks. Brain activity during task performance was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We studied the relationship between self-reported daily media multitasking (MMT), task performance and brain activity during task performance. The results showed that in the presence of distractor stimuli, a higher MMT score was associated with worse performance and increased brain activity in right prefrontal regions. The level of performance during divided attention did not depend on MMT. This suggests that daily media multitasking is associated with behavioral distractibility and increased recruitment of brain areas involved in attentional and inhibitory control, and that media multitasking in everyday life does not translate to performance benefits in multitasking in laboratory settings. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern learning psychology places an emphasis on the ability of teachers to promote their students’ social and emotional learning (SEL) and living a good life. Research on precisely how teachers promote SEL and well-being among their students, however, remains scarce. This study focused on evaluating the Lions Quest teaching workshop (LQ), which aims to improve the knowledge and skills of teachers in SEL and to promote a healthy and meaningful life among students. In total, 153 Finnish teachers participated in LQ. We compared these to 61 Finnish teachers who did not participate in the LQ training as well as a second comparison group consisting of 46 Finnish teachers to investigate the possible effects of pre-testing. We collected data from the intervention group before and after the training and from the first comparison group at approximately the same time points. Data from the second comparison group was collected only once. Using the repeated measures general linear model, we analyzed teachers’ readiness to promote the LQ goals from two perspectives, namely from participants’ experienced importance of those goals and their perceived competence in promoting them. In addition, we evaluated task values among participants. Teachers participating in LQ rated the goals as more important and relevant after receiving training. Furthermore, participants from the intervention group felt more competent in skills related to the LQ goals than the comparison groups.

The purpose of this article is to review what engages digital natives, i.e., children and adolescents who have, from the beginning of their lives, been socialized to use sociodigital technologies. Surveying the research literature, we present findings as to what pursuits digital natives find interesting, motivating, and involving in both informal and formal learning environments drawing upon motivation theories of flow and engagement. Our conclusion, in this article, is that adolescents' ways of engaging in using digital technologies are heterogeneous; a minority of young persons has access to parental or peer support and facilitation that engagement in creative use of digital technologies together with their own motivation and efforts may require. Although sociodigital technologies facilitate creating and maintaining extended networks, cultivating technological fluency, and participating in passionate interest communities and networks, there are worrisome trends; these include ‘addictive’ use of technology, fragmented processing of information, and ‘digital divides’ between creative and educational use of sociodigital technologies.

PhD in the field of medicine is more common than in any other domain. Many medical doctors are driven towards PhD, but also students with other backgrounds (usually MSc) are conducting a PhD in medical schools. Higher education has invested a lot in developing generic and research competences. Still little is known about how PhD students themselves perceive the competence of future PhDs’. The aim of this study is to determine how medical PhD students perceive their future competences and whether there is a difference between MD PhD and MSc PhD students’ perceptions. Moreover this study examines students’ perceptions of their learning environment and their experienced well-being. The data were collected from 163 medical PhD students. The survey data consisted of Likert type statements, open-ended questions and background variables. PhD students' perceptions of acquired competences were content analysed. The connection between conducted degree and emphasised competences were analysed using cross tabulation and c² -test Perceptions of well-being and the learning environment were examined using descriptive statistics of scales. The results showed that PhD students considered a wide variety of competences to be central to future PhDs’. Their perception of their future competences consisted of scientific and generic competences. All students emphasised scientific competences over generic competences but MSc PhD students emphasised generic skills more than MD PhD students. PhD students’ perceptions of their well-being and the learning environment showed that PhD studies are a burdening and stressful process. However students also felt that they received feedback from the scientific community.

1. IntroductionSinging has been profoundly rooted in human culture from ancient times (Blacking, 1976; Cross, 2001; Mithen, 2006; Sepp, Ruokonen, & Ruismaki, 2014; Small, 1980). Although singing is a commonplace activity, not all people in Western societies sing, even when they would like to. Many report themselves to be tone deaf, which is often synonymous for "can't sing" (Sloboda, Wise, & Peretz, 2005). Both professional musicians and lay people often concur with the common folk psychology belief that the singing skill is an "on-off phenomenon": either you have it or you do not (see Abril, 2007; Knight, 2011; Richards & Durrant, 2003; Welch, 2001). As Wise and Sloboda (2008) argue, the field of music, including singing skills, is particularly susceptible to the talent explanation of success. Further, commonly used concepts such as tone dumb, monotone, uncertain singer, poor pitch singer, and onchi, in Japanese meaning "tone idiot", (Murao, 1994) refer to permanent singing disabilities. Additionally, most people who have not received vocal training believe that they are inaccurate singers (Dalla-Bella & Berkowska, 2009) and self-report to be tone deaf, which often, however, is not the case (see Cuddy, Balkwill, Peretz, & Holden, 2005; Pfordresher & Brown, 2007; Sloboda et al., 2005).Modern learning theories see learning as a process of participating in a culture and developing one's identity and attributions as a learner (e.g. Bruner, 1996; Wenger, 2003). Belief in innate fixed abilities is generally harmful (Dweck, 2008). If learning is reduced to an individual, innate ability (Schommer, 1990), a distorted picture forms of the potentiality of learning (see Vygotsky, 1978). For instance, if the ability to write in an academic style is seen as an on/off, innate characteristic, a writer would be less likely to revise his or her texts or develop him - or herself as an author - in other words, the development of writing skills may stop (Lonka, Chow, Keskinen, Hakkarainen, Sandstrom, & Pyhalto, 2014). Moreover, attitudes and expectations affect learning results, as the Pygmalion effect argues: teachers' expectations of their students' abilities have been shown to influence students' learning outcomes and student performance in school (see e.g. Jussim & Harber, 2005). Socio-cultural research has convincingly shown that learning and teaching form a multifaceted, deeply culturally rooted net where e.g. situated possibilities, motivation, received support, and conceptions of oneself as a learner play a role (Bruner, 1996).However, a fracture often occurs between learning conceptions based on modern learning sciences and learning conceptions in music. For instance, singing is not traditionally taught to those who do not "naturally" sing in tune, which may be related to the identity formation of a non-singer (e.g. Knight, 2011; Numminen, 2005; Whidden, 2009). An orientation towards the end product frequently comes at the expense of the process: the emphasis on sight-singing skills and performance in Western choirs has created a situation where many "ordinary" people feel threatened by the thought of solo auditioning in order to join in choral activity. In addition, conductors tend to expect their singers to already be good rather than accept the responsibility of teaching and developing them (Richards & Durrant, 2003). In the Finnish music education system, students of singing pedagogy practice their teaching skills with highly selected trainee students who have demonstrated their singing skills in an entrance test. Consequently, future singing teachers may not learn to work with beginners with no, or a minor, singing background. Traditionally, singing pedagogy is based on a teacher modelling-apprentice approach, which focuses on the student's ability to sing according to the teacher's or other models. This approach emphasizes behavioural aspects and overlooks motivation and self-efficacy (see Bandura, 1997). …

The aim of the study was to examine do health care students, who study at different programs, value similar expert qualities. To investigate this issue, a questionnaire was administered among health care students in a Finnish polytechnic (two cohorts, total n = 466), consisting of a scale for rating the importance of different expert qualities. The questionnaire resulted in the following dimensions of the conceptions of expertise: (1) social skills, (2) scientific skills, (3) innovativeness, (4) continuing self-development, and (5) problem-solving skills. Also the Inventory of General Study Orientations (IGSO) was applied to analyse possible motivational explanations for different conceptions of expertise. In addition to the scales, an open-ended writing task was used to explore in depth students' conceptions of expertise. It appeared that study orientations were a minor factor in the study, while study environment (study programs) clearly differentiated students' conceptions of expertise. Thus, the study argues that health care students' conceptions of expertise are constituted mainly on domain-specific bases and that students who graduate from different programs may possess very diverse ideas about their profession. Consequently, different conceptions captured during the education form a major challenge for inter-professional care later in work-life. This phenomenon should be taken into account when organising health care education.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the learning outcomes expressed in the core medical curriculum at a Swedish university and how these were interpreted by, and related to, teachers’ teaching goals. Additionally, we wanted to find out how these teaching goals relate to the development of expertise, a key value in medical education. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with teachers in anatomy and surgery, which is taught in the first and fourth years of the medical programme. To be implemented, a curriculum has to be interpreted by teachers, and this can lead to a mismatch between curriculum intentions and teacher goals. Hence, it is necessary to provide guidance as to whether the application of a core curriculum should be focusing on content only or include socio‐cultural ideas of learning encouraging an emphasis on process. The degree of teacher involvment in the design of the core curriculum seems to clarify the role of the core curriculum to teachers and st...

The authors looked at aspects of successful and problematic studying in terms of three different research traditions: students’ approaches to learning, self‐regulated learning and cognitive strategies. These frameworks have been widely applied when explaining university student learning. However, relations among different traditions have not been sufficiently looked at. In this study the authors explored the relations between learning approaches, regulation of learning and cognitive strategies. The subjects were students at the University of Helsinki who filled in the Task Booklet of Learning and the Strategy and Attribution Questionnaire. Their academic achievement was coded from university archives. It was found that approaches to learning, regulation of learning, and cognitive strategies were related to each other, and further, to study success.

Cardiac auscultation is an important skill for medical students to master but students' exposure to cardiac auscultation is often unmonitored. The objective of this study was to gather data at the point of care about students' cardiac auscultation experience on a required medicine rotation using a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) 'murmur form'. During an eight-month period, 120 M3 students used the authors' PDA-based learning tool to record information on 940 heart sounds and murmurs. Some 93% of all heart sounds/murmurs reported by students were verified by either a faculty member (56%) or a supervising resident (43%). A PDA can be a useful tool to monitor students' experiences of cardiac auscultation and to track direct observation of such skills by faculty or residents. Medical students are eager to use technology at the point of care to practice their clinical skills.

Computer-based systems have great potential for delivering learning material. Here, a Web-based learning management system is employed by a medical university to support undergraduate courses. The objective was to help the university's staff to understand the readiness and attitudes of students to the use of information technology, their orientation to new learning environments, and the functionality of the system. The participants were a cohort of first-year medical students enrolled in an introductory microbiology course. Students' attitudes to information technology and learning styles were measured by a rearranged questionnaire, and a principal component analysis identified the students' orientations to information technology and the learning environment. The results of the study revealed that students showed readiness to and positive attitudes towards information technology in education and exposed a possible benefit from its use in the long run. However, they also conveyed negative opinions of the learning management system used in their coursework, suggesting a need for change of the technology. This study provides evidence that in order for computer-based system to be effective they must be designed and implemented with care, otherwise they may risk to lower students' interests and activation.

The development of two dominant research traditions is described: students' approaches to learning (SAL) and information processing (IP). The development of the third tradition, self-regulated learning (SRL) is added. SAL is based on European research, whereas IP and SRL are more typical background ideas for North-American research. The most central conceptual frameworks behind these traditions are analyzed. These frameworks form the foundations for the most common inventories used in higher education to measure university students' learning and studying. A larger multilayered perspective is then outlined with three levels of context: general, course-specific, and situational. The other contributions to this Special issue are discussed in relation to this larger picture.

The purpose of the study was twofold. Firstly, we aimed at distinguishing groups of students with differing general orientations to university studies. Secondly, our goal was to establish a connection between orientations and students' intentions to discontinue their studies as well as their actual absences. The participants of the study were all the first year students of a multi-disciplinary Finnish university. A questionnaire was used including the Inventory of General Study Orientations (IGSO) and questions about students' motives for entrance and intentions to discontinue their studies. Archive data from the university's student register were also utilised to examine study orientations' connections with actual absences and study success. Students were divided into three study orientation groups: study-oriented students, work- life oriented students, and non-committed students. Students' intentions to discontinue their studies were related according to their study orientation. It was found that students who intended to change their major subject or to abandon their studies altogether belonged most often to the group of non-committed students. The same was true concerning students' actual absences during the first two years of studying. Regarding the study success as measured by study credits and grades, work-life oriented students obtained the best result.

AIMS: This paper describes the context of interprofessional training on clinical education wards (CEWs) and reports students' perceptions of this type of interprofessional and professional training. CONTEXT: A 2-week interprofessional clinical course was designed for medical students in their surgical eighth term, and nursing, occupational therapy and physiotherapy students, all in their sixth term. Clinical tutors were responsible for the patients and also supervised the students. The goals for the students included: to provide the patients with good medical care, nursing and rehabilitation; to develop their own professional roles; to enhance their level of understanding of the other professions; to stress the importance of good communication for teamwork and for patient care; to enhance understanding of the role of the patient, and to become more aware of ethical aspects of health care. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A questionnaire developed by teachers from the 4 educational departments was used. A total of 962 students responded (78%). RESULTS: The CEWs provided the students with good clinical practice in terms of training in their own professions as well in learning more about the other professions. The importance of good communication for teamwork and for patient care was recognised. The quality of supervision and students' perception of their own professional roles were important factors regarding satisfaction with the CEW course. CONCLUSIONS: The CEW course seemed to provide the students with an opportunity to develop their own professional roles and their functions as team members.

The implementation of new engaging learning environments also calls for an innovative organizational culture. Still, there is not much knowledge about the leadership practices that foster such culture. The aim of this study was to investigate, what kinds of leadership practices can be detected behind innovative school culture and how such practices are related to the ways of teaching and learning. As a result, a wide variety of new leadership practices in innovative school context were revealed. Particularly practices of shared leadership were present, but also elements of strategic leadership could be identified. Interestingly, the interactive leadership practices seemed to foster new kinds of collaborative knowledge practices in different levels of school activity, for example, varying forms of team work and co-operation. The results indicated that an innovative school culture consists of communal and collaborative practices which are guided by practices of shared leadership. It is important that we take in account the surrounding organization culture when designing future schools. We should also be aware of the possible contradiction between the existing organizational culture and intended new pedagogical settings by arranging a comprehensive and collaborative design process.

1. IntroductionLearning environments and learning organisations have in the recent years been faced with radical changes as new generations of students enter the old institutions. Both the physical facilities and the practices that the organizations entertain may be challenged (Faulkner & McLaughlin, 2012; Harrison & Hutton, 2014). Many of the newcomers belong to the socalled digital natives (Prensky, 2012) who use various digital applications and mobile devices as integrated parts in their everyday lives in different knowledge seeking and knowledge sharing activities. However, not much is known about the relationship between students' beliefs about knowledge - their epistemologies - and their perceptions of different learning environments.Learning always takes place in a context: it is not only a process of acquiring more knowledge, but rather, increasingly active participation in a culture (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Lonka, 2012). In higher education, as well, the ways students learn are embedded in the different dimension of the learning environment. This context is not only situational, but it relies on culturally and historically developed structures (Vygotsky, 1978). The cognitive development of human beings depends of on a certain kind of cultural environment for its realization (Tomasello, 1999).Bruner (1996) pointed out the power of culture in shaping human mind. Also the environments where learning takes place shape our intellectual efforts. Our activities are mediated by varying tools and artifacts (Hakkarainen, 2009). The physically distributed cognition and intelligence is supported and emergent along with technological innovations (Hakkarainen et al., 2013). Today, also technologies and social media mediate our forms of collaboration and learning even though we may not at all times be aware of it. Even when we are not using such aids ourselves, they inevitably change the ways of communication in the society. For example, many societal movements and revolutions have spread and been reinforced by Twitter, and innovations - areally and intellectually - are spread and mediated by these technological prostheses that we use in the ordering of things and in communication (see also Hakkarainen et ah, 2004).Learning environments consist of the practices of teaching, learning, and assessment (Biggs, 1996) as well as the physical learning environment. Biggs (1996) used the concept constructive alignment to describe an ideal educational enterprise in which students adopt approaches to learning allowing for a profound understanding of the learning material, and in which all aspects of the teaching, including the assessment systems, are aligned to, and support these approaches.Relationships between teaching and learning are not always simple. Rather, they are mediated by students' goals and strategies as well as situational factors. Lindblom-Ylanne & Lonka (1999) investigated this dynamic interplay between learners and the learning environment in a traditional educational setting by using Vermunt & Verloop's (1999) idea of frictions between learners and learning environment. A friction may be either constructive or destructive, the former promoting students' intellectual development, and the latter hindering it. Lindblom-Ylanne and Lonka (1999; 2001) found indications of destructive frictions when medical students, in their attempts to make sense of the learning environment and its requirements, were prone to adopting superficial learning strategies that were below their knowledge capacity. Their study showed that the best students of that time did not entertain very collaborative ideas of learning. Only later, Lonka et al. (2008) introduced the concept collaborative construction of knowledge, a perspective that had become a more common epistemological view among medical students. This standpoint was later confirmed in various domains, e.g. engineering (Heiskanen & Lonka, 2012). …

Context We developed a structured portfolio for medical students to use during their obstetrics and gynaecology undergraduate training. The main objective was to support the learning process of the students. We also wanted feedback information to enhance teaching. Methods The study population consisted of 91 medical students who completed the portfolio during their training course. The portfolio consisted of a 28-page A5-size booklet. The students entered all the clinical procedures they had performed and all the deliveries they had attended. After each group session, they answered questions about what they had learned and evaluated the performance of the teacher. They also indicated their general evaluation of the course and the portfolio itself. The teachers listed the 13 most important skills to be learned during the course. The students were asked to evaluate their own development on a scale of 0–5 before and after the course. A content analysis was performed on all the texts the students produced, and all quantitative variables were coded. Results The amount of text written in the portfolio correlated (P

Context The aim of the national ‘IT Culture in Medical Education’ project in Finland is to enhance the opportunities new technology may provide for medical education. The project focuses on attitudes towards information technology (IT) and on its current use among teachers and students. Method This survey was part of a Finnish nationwide project in medical education. Data were collected by means of a questionnaire designed to gather information about IT use in medical education, sent to teachers and students. The questions were 5-point Likert-type. The participants were medical teachers (na 196) and medical students (na 392) at two medical schools. Results In both universities, it appeared that medical teachers and students had a very positive attitude toward the advances in modern technology. In addition to the favourable attitudes, computer-related technology was also widely applied. Teachers, however, used information technology more in their research work than in teaching. Conclusions The results pose challenges to medical education and underline the importance of educational and psychological knowledge in combination with new technical skills.

This study examines advanced medical students' perceptions of assessment practices and their ways of studying for examinations as related to their approaches to learning. This study further validates a cluster model obtained in a previous study through medical students' interviews. In this cluster model students were divided into four groups on the basis of their approaches to learning. The subjects (N = 35) were advanced medical students who volunteered to be interviewed. The interviews focused on learning strategies, study behaviour and perceptions of the learning environment. The results indicated that there were no differences in students' perceptions of the examination procedures. Students in all four groups criticised quite similarly the examination practices. However, the results showed that students in the four groups reported different ways ofpreparing for examinations and, furthermore, had different views of the most functional ways to study for them. This study brought into light problems that arise in a traditional medical curriculum, particularly concerning traditional assessment practices.

Two studies explored the existence of gender differences in spontaneous study-strategies use while learning from texts. In Study I, the Learning-from-text test (LFT), intended to measure deep-level text comprehension skills by high-school graduates, was about philosophy (n = 200) and in Study II about statistics (n = 487).

While doctoral students’ reasons for attrition and negative experiences have been explored for a long time, little is known about their engagement in their doctoral process. This study aimed at filling the gap in the doctoral education literature by exploring the nature of students’ engagement in doctoral work. Altogether, 21 behavioural sciences doctoral students from one top-level research community were interviewed. The interview data were qualitatively content analysed. The students described their engagement in terms of experiences of dedication, efficiency and sometimes absorption. The sources of their engagement were typically increased sense of competence and relatedness. They less often reported strengthened sense of autonomy and contribution as the sources. In addition, three qualitatively different experiences of engagement in doctoral work, adaptive engagement, agentic engagement and work-life inspired engagement were identified from the students’ descriptions. Further, there was a variation among the students in terms of what experiences of engagement they emphasized in different phases of their doctoral studies. Our results suggest that rather than being a singular entity doctoral student engagement in the doctoral work varies.

This study focuses on the dissonant study orchestrations of high-achieving university students. Advanced psychology students’ dissonant study orchestrations were compared with previous findings of advanced medical students orchestrations. Further, the relation of study orchestrations to study success was examined. The subjects were 28 advanced psychology students at the University of Helsinki, Department of Psychology who returned a task booklet of learning; of these, 24 students completed a questionnaire concentrating on the students’ interests, expectations and evaluation of the curriculum. All students were high achievers who had gone through a demanding selection process. The subjects completed three questionnaires concentrating on their study practices, conceptions of knowledge, expectations, and evaluation of the instruction in the Department of Psychology. The results showed that seven out of 28 students expressed a dissonant study orchestration. The results further showed that students’ individual study orchestrations were not related to study success. A comparison between advanced medical and psychology students showed that although the profiles of dissonant study orchestrations were technically similar among medical and psychology students, content analyses revealed that reasons for the development of dissonant study orchestrations were different.

SUMMARY During the past two decades, a constructivist approach to learning and knowledge has become dominant in educational psychology, especially in science education. Learning is viewed as an active, constructive process rather than a passive, reproductive process. However, our ways of instruction have not changed as much as our ideas which also need theoretical clarification. This article first challenges some claims that are made about differences between children and adults as learners. Evidence is presented according to which children's early and primary school learning exhibits features that previously were thought typical of adult learners only. Second, the idea of child-centred primary education is reconceptualised in the light of theories on expertise, conceptual change and epistemological development. Third, a theoretical approach to learning, based on questions, is explored. We call this approach progressive inquiry learning. Fourth, we present some evidence of computer-supported learning envi...

This study evaluated concept maps spontaneously constructed by applicants (N = 502) in a medical school entrance examination. In all, 36 maps were produced. Concept maps were evaluated for content of relevant terms and for the number of interrelationships indicated. The aim was to determine whether including relevant ideas on a concept map is related to the learning of those ideas. Because concept maps are effective tools for making the structure of knowledge explicit, it was hypothesized that the quality and content of spontaneously made maps would be related to improvement in the comprehension of text material. Understanding was assessed in terms of success in essay-type tasks designed to measure the ability to define, explain, and apply statistical knowledge. The results indicated that merely including the relevant concepts in a map has little effect on the comprehension of those concepts, whereas the extent and complexity of concept maps plays a powerful role in the understanding of scientific texts.

This study examines how quantitative and qualitative differences in spontaneously taken notes are related to text comprehension in combination with reviewing or not reviewing previously made notes. High school graduates (N = 226) were allowed to take notes in any way they desired while reading a philosophical text. Approximately half the participants were told that they could review their notes during writing tasks designed to measure the ability to define, compare, and evaluate text content. The other half of the participants answered the subsequent questions without their notes. The process of taking notes was rated on the basis of note quality and quantity. The results revealed significant review and process effects in spontaneous note-taking. Reviewing the notes during essay-writing generally resulted in good performance in an exam calling for deep-level text comprehension. However, this review effect was mainly limited to detailed learning instead of making one's own inferences. Results pertaining to note quality indicated that the participants who summarized the content of the text resulted in better performance in all tasks in comparison with those who produced notes following the text order or verbatim notes. The amount of note-taking was also positively related to text comprehension. The discussion focuses upon the situational appropriateness of note-taking effects that pose challenges to educators. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

How to select medical students who will be successful during different study phases as well as later in their profession is a difficult problem. This study focuses on the predictive value of students' entry-level skills measured by three multiple-choice science tests, the secondary school matriculation examination, and 'Learning-from-text' (LFT) tasks which were designed to measure critical thinking skills. The subjects (N = 109) were those medical students who were accepted in the University of Helsinki Faculty of Medicine in 1988. The results showed that the three science tests predicted the medical course grades. Further, a LFT task intending to measure the ability to pull together the essentials of a text predicted the pace of studying during both basic and advanced studies. LFT tasks intending to measure the deepest level of learning, i.e., the application of knowledge, predicted the grades obtained for the advanced courses.

This study examined the conditions under which using notes while essay‐writing is helpful. The study was conducted among 226 high school graduates attending an entrance examination to a nursing school. All participants were provided with an opportunity to write notes about the text in any way they desired. Subjects were randomly assigned either to a group which was to write with notes or to a group that was to write without notes. It was assumed that the effectiveness of using notes while essay‐writing would vary depending on the nature of the task. It appeared that when a task called for text‐based reproduction of information, using notes in essay‐writing helped students to write lengthier, more coherent and cohesive essay‐type answers. In contrast, in a task which required critical review of the text information, there was not much use in having the notes present during writing. The results indicated that the advice to write an essay using spontaneously written notes is not applicable in all si...

Background. Previous research indicates that generative study strategies (e.g., summarising, concept mapping) produce qualitatively better learning as compared to reproductive strategies (e.g., verbatim notetaking, underlining). In the present study it was assumed that the more generative study strategies used the better the learning outcomes would be. Aims. This study considered the role that spontaneously used study strategies play in knowledge construction, that is, learning the content matter from text and writing answers to short essay-type tasks on this basis. Samples. The study was conducted among 502 applicants to a medical school during an entrance examination. Methods. One-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the relationship between spontaneous study strategies and learning the content matter and writing performance. Results. As expected, it appeared that summarising and concept mapping were related to high scores in learning the content matter in most tasks. However, any type of overt notetaking activity was related to the good quality of written expression, measured as coherence in essay-type answers. The subjects who did not produce any physical records while reading the text obtained the lowest scores on all measures. Conclusions. It was shown that generative study strategies were useful while learning from text, especially when application of knowledge was called for. Yet, more research on situations in which spontaneous study strategies are effective is needed in the future.

1. IntroductionCultural sensitivity is one of the quality criteria of programmes on social and emotional learning (SEL) (Collaborative of Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2002). When students with various cultural backgrounds enter the SEL workshop it is important that their experiences are beneficial so that they can anchor the outcomes of the workshop to their life. Hence, when adapting the SEL programme to a new country, local circumstances including values and customs should be taken into consideration. However, international SEL programmes are often registered trademark products including the requirement to obey predefined principles and goals so that they can be identified as the same programme. Thus, recommendations about cultural sensitivity might remain unfulfilled because of certain agreements between the implementer and the owner of the programme.Lions Quest (LQ) is a registered trademark SEL programme organized for teachers in 80 countries. More than 500,000 educators have been trained to implement the LQ programmes (Lions Clubs International, 2013a). When LQ is adopted in a new country, it is implemented through the local trainers and country directors who are trained and supported by the LQ headquarters. At a national level, trainers adjust the original LQ curricula to the local circumstances and conduct LQ teachers' workshops in their own country. Country directors, in turn, are responsible for organizing resources for marketing and financing. Thus, it depends to a large extent on these two groups what the course is like in a particular country. At present, the length of the teachers' workshop varies from one to three days depending on the country. In addition, the content of the teacher's manual varies from country to country.The current study is part of a larger evaluation project on the outcomes of LQ. To be able to compare them in different countries, it is essential first to compare the perceptions on LQ goals of these two key groups. Only if their perceived goals on LQ are similar in different countries can we compare the outcomes of the LQ training later on. In this study we investigated if the original goals of the multinational LQ programme differ from the perceived goals of the national LQ executors and whether there was variation internationally.1.1. Social and emotional learning (SEL) and substance abuse prevention behind the LQ programmeSocial and emotional learning (SEL), first introduced in 1994, is a conceptual framework including core components, namely self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision making (Elias et al., 1997). According to Greenberg et al. (2003), the roots of the framework of SEL are found in young people's health promotion and prevention. The perceived ineffectiveness of diverse educ ational efforts on, for example, drug and alcohol prevention, spurred a meeting of school-based education researchers, teachers and advocates. They created a framework of SEL to address the underlying causes of problem behaviour rather than targeting a specific problem (Greenberg et al., 2003). Based on the foundation of the SEL framework, a new non - profit organization, the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), was established, which works to advance both the science and evidence-based practice of SEL and strengthen the field and impact of SEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2013; Greenberg et al., 2003).SEL is based on the idea that learning can be improved by enhancing the relationships in the learning context (Elbertson, Brackett, & Weissberg, 2010). Two groups of theoretical models comprise the SEL framework (Payton et al., 2000). First, theoretical models of social and emotional learning consist of theories of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997), social and emotional competence promotion (Haggerty, Sherrod, Garmezy, & Rutter, 1994), the social developmental model (Hawkins, 1997), social information processing (Crick & Dodge, 1994), and self-management (Kanfer & Goldstein, 1991). …

'Learning environment’ usually refers to the social and pedagogical contexts in which learning occurs. However, physical learning environment and its relation to learning are often neglected. The present study explored the relationship between chemistry student perceptions of physical space, social space and mental space regarding learning. Qualitative data were collected among chemistry students by focus-group interviews (n=21). The data showed that the students’ experienced competence and sufficiency of guidance, through either social or physical modalities, were strongly related to their sense of safety. This, in turn, may affect cognitive resources available for learning, which should be addressed in pedagogical design.

Two studies examine the conceptions of learning held by people at varying levels of expertise. In Study 1, we compared the conceptions of participants who ranged in expertise in educational psychology. Laypeople, novices, teachers, and experts answered open-ended questions, in which they were asked to definelearningand to give a solution to an applied problem. Results indicate that a constructivist approach to learning was associated with expertise in this domain, as assessed by participants’ definitions of learning. However, only experts produced solutions to the applied problem that were consistent with their definitions. In Study 2, we examined changes in conceptions that occurred in novice students over a 6-week period, as they completed their first course in educational psychology in a teacher training program. The results of Study 2 are consistent with those of Study 1 and support the idea that formal education in educational psychology has a significant impact on students’ expressed conceptions of central concepts in the domain. However, even after a 6-week course, students’ solutions to an applied problem did not change. Results are discussed in terms of the changes in conceptual knowledge that develop with increasing expertise in psychology. There appear to be both domain-general and domain-specific aspects in conceptions of learning: an active epistemology seems to develop during academic studies in general, whereas a constructivist epistemology is typical of those having formal training in psychology.

This study focuses on differences between multiple-choice science tests and a learning-from-text (LFT) test, and how these tests predict success in basic medical studies. The subjects (N = 503) were applicants to the Helsinki University Medical Faculty. All of them had to take an entrance examination in order to be considered for admission to a 6-year study programme combining medical school and graduate studies. The entrance examination consisted of three traditional multiple-choice science tests and one LFT test, the latter designed to measure deep-level processing of text. A follow-up study was conducted in order to see how the different tasks were related to the grades and pace of studying of those who were accepted onto the programme. As hypothesized, there were very high correlations among the three multiple-choice tests, but no correlations between the LFT subtasks and the multiple-choice tests. LISREL analyses showed that the LFT Synthesis Task, designed to measure the ability to pull together the essentials of a text, was the best predictor of academic progress during basic science studies.

New instructional procedures have been developed and applied at the University of Helsinki, Department of Psychology since 1986. The aim of these procedures has been to enhance effective study skills. The idea is to stimulate active learning in students by so called activating instruction, which is theoretically based on a combination of Vygotsky’s ideas, applied cognitive science, and process-oriented instruction. In many courses, students have been able to choose a preferred form of instruction among the new and the traditional methods. A six-year longitudinal study was conducted in order to see, what kinds of choices psychology students (N=114) made and how these choices were connected with their academic progress. On the basis of student’s evaluations, the new methods differed significantly from traditional methods. Students associated the development of study skills and understanding more often with activating instruction than with traditional courses. The number of activating courses taken was related to success in final exam and thesis writing. Those who participated in activating instruction studied slower during the first three years of their studying, but were more successful in the long term.

Successful studying in Ph. D. education is a complex matter. Although Ph. D. students are a highly select group, some never finish. This paper explores the problems that doctoral candidates face during their doctoral studies as well as students' well-being in relation to their studying engagement. The study is part of a larger research project on doctoral education. Altogether 669 doctoral students from the Faculties of Arts, Medicine, and Behavioural Sciences responded to the survey. Doctoral students' perceptions of the problems they encountered during their studies varied. The problems reported were related to general working processes, domain-specific expertise, supervision, the scholarly community, and resources. Doctoral students' well-being and study engagement showed a clear relationship. More effective means are needed to foster students' ability to overcome problems encountered during their Ph. D. studies.

This paper investigates engagement and active learn ing in university mass education. It presents the results of an empirical study on the level of interest and the academic emotions that were experienced during an engaging lecture course, and how such variables were related to flow experience, self-study time, and study success. The participants (n=107) were Finnish first-year teacher students in an educational psychology lecture course. The data were collected by using a ques tionnaire that measured interest, academic emotions, sense of competence, challenge experienced, and self-study time five days before the final examina tion. Correlations among variables were measured, a step-wise cluster analysis and two ANOVA tests conducted. The participants were highly engaged and interest ed during the course. Interest, enthusiasm, sense of competence, and self-study time correlated positively with the grade awarded for the course. Three clusters (emotional profiles) were identified: engaged (36 %), unstressed (25 %), and anxious (39 %) student groups. Engaged students spent the most hours in self-study and received the best grades. Unstressed students were the least active in self-study and also achieved the lowest grades. Interest and sense of competence were decisive variables in successful studying during an engaging lecture course. Opportunities to develop blended learning environments that foster active learning in lectures were further discussed.

This study focuses on study strategies used spontaneously by high-school graduates when learning from text in a medical school entrance examination. The effectiveness of these strategies was assessed in terms of success in qualitatively different essay-type tasks. All subjects (N = 503) were given a short questionnaire about the strategies they used when learning from text, and their test results were analyzed. In addition, notes of a sample of 200 subjects were analyzed. The first hypothesis was that any strategy aimed at learning a minor detail enhances its learning, whereas a central idea is learned regardless of strategies. The second hypothesis was that underlining is related to success in a task requiring synthesis of the text. Third, concept mapping was hypothesized to be successful in a task which calls for critical review of the learned materials. The results supported all hypotheses.

Background: Health care professionals are supposed to work in teams. Students in health care need to learn how to collaborate during their undergraduate education. Interprofessional learning environments, where collaboration is necessary, may be differently accepted by students depending on their approach to learning. Aim: We investigated health care students’ evaluations of interprofessional clinical training in relation to their study orientations. Methods: The participants were 369 students (40 occupational therapy-, 85 medical-, 52 physiotherapy-, and 192 nursing students) attending an IPE course at a Swedish University Hospital. Data were collected by questionnaires measuring orientations to studying and attitudes towards the clinical training and the IPE concept before and after the training. The response rate was 77 %. Study groups were formed by a cluster analysis on the basis of the students’ learning orientations. Results: Three clusters were found: Low collaboration-, Collaborative Constructivist-, and Cookbook groups. These clusters were related to different professions and how students perceived their interprofessional learning environment. Conclusions: Study orientations appear to play a role in the way students evaluate interprofessional training. This should be taken into account in instruction. Students with a ‘Cookbook’ approach to learning showed an increased understanding of interprofessional collaboration after the course.

Yliopistopedagogisella tutkimuksella on merkittävä rooli yliopisto-opetuksen kehittämisessä ja opiskelijoiden oppimisen laadun edistämisessä. Yliopisto-opettajan käsikirjassa esitellään uusinta yliopistopedagogista tutkimustietoa ja käytännönläheisiä esimerkkejä muun muassa opetuksen suunnittelusta, uusista opetusmenetelmistä, vaihtoehtoisista tenttikäytännöistä ja opintojen ja opinnäytetöiden ohjauksesta. Käsikirja tukee opettajan pedagogisen ajattelun kehittymistä. Kirjoittajat toimivat Helsingin yliopistossa yliopisto-oppimisen ja -opettamisen asiantuntijoina, ja kirjan aiheet perustuvat heidän opetus- ja koulutuskokemuksiinsa sekä tutkimuksiinsa.

Interprofessional learning activities in health care are being gradually introduced on an international basis and therefore cross-cultural and internationally collaborative research into the outcomes of these activities is needed. Hence, it is necessary not only to translate research instruments into the language of the culture in which they are to be used, but also to adapt them culturally if they are to fulfil the testing purposes for which they are intended. It is also necessary to test a translated instrument in order to ensure that it retains its intended psychometric properties.In the present study, the Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale (RIPLS) was adapted for use in a Swedish student population. Cross-cultural adaptation was performed according to recommended guidelines. The Swedish version was tested on a group of students from various health care professions (n = 214). Cronbach's alpha coefficient was adopted to ensure internal consistency.Minor discrepancies during the different translation processes were identified and corrected. Confirmatory factor analysis suggests that the model had an acceptable fit, implying that the factor structure of the scale did not undergo any significant changes by being subjected to translation. The psychometric qualities of the instrument were comparable with those of the English-language version.This study presents the cross-cultural adaptation of the RIPLS and demonstrates that its subscale Teamwork and Collaboration is the only reliable subscale. The other 2 subscales (Professional Identity, and Roles and Responsibilities) probably require further scrutiny and development, at least in the Swedish population.

To obtain an understanding of basic science medical teachers' conceptions of learning and their ideas for facilitation of learning.Teaching staff at a biomedical centre (n = 62) were asked to describe their definitions of learning, their suggestions for how to solve an applied educational problem and their intended activities when teaching students. The research was carried out using a questionnaire consisting of open-ended and fixed-choice questions.Although 1 in 4 teachers endorsed constructivist conceptions of learning, only 1 in 8 actually reported using activating teaching strategies. Conceptions of learning did not co-vary with teaching practice.The assumption that conceptions of learning and teaching practice are aligned was challenged. The current questionnaire could be used as an intervention tool for educational development to map whether or not there is a match between teachers' conceptions and their practice.

The Contextual Activity Sampling System (CASS) methodology and CASS-Query tools have been developed for the investigation of learning and working practices. The CASS-methods and tools provide contextualized data that allow the analyzing and modeling of within-person changes across time. This paper describes a pilot study with 3G mobiles used by eight engineering students. Students answered questionnaires concerning their ongoing study projects, academic emotions, and collaboration, with a mobile phone five times a day for a period of two weeks (70 queries per person). Variation in their emotions were examined by time-series analysis. Students were also interviewed before and after the CASS-query period. Interview and query data were used to form a picture of the variation of daily routines, challenges, and reflections of one's own activities related to engagement in academic tasks or leisure. The study reports results regarding students' experiences of the CASS-methodology, emotional experiences during the two-week follow-up, their objects and activities related to personal study projects they undertook during this period.

Background In medical education, feedback from students is helpful in course evaluation. However, the impact of medical students' feedback on long-term course development is seldom reported. In this project we studied the correspondence between medical students' descriptive evaluations and key features of course development over five years. Methods Qualitative content analysis was used. The context was consultation skills courses in the middle of the Göteborg undergraduate curriculum during five years. An analysis of 158 students' descriptive evaluations was brought together with an analysis of key features of course development; learning objectives, course records, protocols from teachers' evaluations and field notes. Credibility of data was tested by two colleagues and by presenting themes at seminars and conferences. Authors' experiences of evaluating the course over many years were also used. Results A corresponding pattern was found in students' descriptive evaluations and key features of course development, indicating the impact of students' open-ended feed-back. Support to facilitators and a curriculum reform also contributed. Students' descriptive feedback was both initiating and validating longitudinal course implementation. During five years, students' descriptive evaluations and teachers' course records were crucial sources in a learner-centred knowledge-building process of course development. Conclusion Students' descriptive evaluations and course records can be seen as important instruments in developing both courses and students' learning. Continuity and endurance in the evaluation process must be emphasized for achieving relevant and useful results.