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This study examined the relations between problem behaviors and early learning outcomes among 138 children in dual-language pre-K programs who were identified at the beginning of the school year to be at risk for difficulties in early language and literacy development. Children's expressive and receptive vocabulary, listening comprehension, and conceptual thinking skills were assessed at the beginning of pre-K and again at the end of the school year. Their problem behaviors (externalizing, bullying, hyperactivity, and internalizing) were assessed midyear via teacher ratings. With the exception of internalizing problem behaviors, bivariate correlations indicated virtually no associations between children's entry-level academic skills and midyear ratings of problem behaviors. However, multilevel models controlling for student- and teacher-level variables revealed that midyear ratings of problem behaviors were statistically significant predictors of poor outcomes on several vocabulary-related measures administered at the end of pre-K.

The current study examined the incremental validity of the Luria interpretive scheme for the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (KABC-II) for predicting scores on the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-Second Edition (KTEA-II). All participants were children and adolescents (N = 2,025) drawn from the nationally representative KABC-II/KTEA-II linked standardization sample. Consistent with previous studies, the full scale Mental Processing Index (MPI) score accounted for clinically significant portions of KTEA-II score variance in all of the regression models that were assessed. In contrast, the Luria factor scores collectively failed to provide meaningful incremental predictive variance after controlling for the effects of the MPI. Individually, the factor scores consistently accounted for trivial portions of achievement variance. Potential implications of these results for the correct interpretation of the KABC-II within clinical practice are discussed.

Background: The aim of this study was to test the usefulness of the Cognitive and Language scales Bayley-III in the early assessment of cognitive and language functions in the context of an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis. This paper focuses on the application of the Bayley-III and studies the predictive value of the test result in children with ASD with different levels of verbal ability. Method: A sample of 135 children (121 boys, 14 girls) with a confirmed ASD diagnosis at age 4 years were assessed with the Bayley-III before 42 months of age (m = 36.49, s = 4.46) and later with other rating scales of different psychological and psycholinguistic functions as part of a longitudinal study ["McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities" (MSCA) (n = 48, 90% boys), "Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children" (K-ABC) (n = 38, 87% boys) or "Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities" (ITPA) (n = 44, 89% boys)]. Age assessment in months: MSCA (m = 48.80, s = 3.33), K-ABC (m = 51.80, s = 7.17) and ITPA (m = 54.48, s = 3.34). Results: Lower scores on the cognitive and language Bayley-III scales before 3.5 years of age predicted lower cognitive and oral language levels at 4 years of age. A significant correlation was found between the Cognitive Bayley-III Scale and the General Cognitive MSCA Scale, and with the Compound K-ABC Mental Processing. An association between the nonverbal cognitive level and oral language level acquired at 4 years of age was found. Conclusions: The Bayley-III is a useful instrument in cognitive and language assessment of ASD.

This article provides a 24-year update on the 10 standardized tests used most frequently with children and youth by school psychologists. Data were acquired from 64 countries through an international survey, with one respondent from each country. The informants were solicited due to their expertise in the area of assessment. The data from the current 2013 survey are described and discussed as well as contrasted with the 1989 survey data. The 2013 survey data led to the following rank order of tests based on data from the 64 countries: the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Ravens Progressive Matrices, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence, Child Behavior Checklist, Bender-Gestalt Test, Child and Adult Apperception Tests, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Draw-a-Person Test, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales. Survey data from advanced, developing, and emerging counties also are compared and discussed. Results are discussed in the broader context of international test development and use.

This article provides guidelines for an entry-level course that prepares psychology students and practitioners to acquire entry-level skills, abilities, knowledge, and attitudes important to the individual assessment of intellectual abilities of children and youth. The article reviews prominent international, regional, and national policies, guidelines, and standards for test development and use, basic training issues, acquisition of competence in core professional behaviors, the identification of clinical assessment skills; scholarship that supports this entry-level course, and national and institutional issues related to psychological assessment. The guidelines are consistent with the International School Psychology Association and the International Testing Commission's recommendations and provide experiences based on U.S. context. The need to adjust course content and instructional methods in light of local conditions is recognized.

This article briefly reviews the history of intellectual assessment with children and youth in Japan, as well as current practices and future directions. The history of intelligence test use in Japan began in the early 20th century. Since the 21st century, three major intelligence tests, namely, the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, and the Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System, have been standardized in Japan and used as theory-based tests. In school settings in Japan, psychologists and teachers use these intelligence tests for special needs education, particularly for developing individualized teaching plans to help students with learning disabilities (LD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), rather than for their diagnosis and treatment. Excellent collaboration between Nationally Certified Psychologists and teachers is one of the strong points in school psychological practice in Japan. To promote such collaboration further, more research regarding the assessment of human abilities is clearly needed in Japan.

The present paper was written under the auspices of the interdisciplinary research group "Educational Processes, Competence Development, and Selection Decisions at Preschool and Primary School Age (BiKS)" (FOR 543), funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). The surveys were conceptualised and supervised as part of the developmental psychology sub-project (headed by S. Weinert) and the primary education sub-project (headed by H.-G. Roßbach). We would like to thank the German Research Foundation for funding the research group and the participating children, parents, early years educators, teachers, assistants, and members of staff for their commitment and cooperation.

With an age range from 3 to 13 years, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (KABC-II) offers an appealing option for the assessment of cognitive abilities for children. Although independent research has provided evidence of the construct validity of the KABC-II for school-age children, previous studies have rarely included an examination of preschool-age children. This study used confirmatory factor analysis to investigate the structure of the KABC-II in preschool children in relation to the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of intelligence. By examining competing models based on CHC theory, this study found that the constructs measured by the KABC-II subtests matched those specified within the manual, for children ages 4 through 5. In addition, these results suggested that Gf and Gv are in fact distinct broad abilities for this age group. These findings provide support for differentiated cognitive abilities within young children.

A randomized control intervention study was conducted to evaluate the effects of the highly structured Heidelberg Parent-Based Language Intervention (HPLI). The outcomes of 43 children (n = 23 intervention, n = 20 control) who had been identified as late talkers during routine developmental check-ups carried out in pediatric practices at the age of 2 years were examined at 4 years 3 months of age. To address these results, we used standardized instruments to assess language and memory performance. At the age of 4 years, expressive language abilities did not differ as a function of the early language intervention. Results in language comprehension, phonological memory, and episodic buffer were significantly better in the intervention group than in the control group. These findings demonstrate the long-term effectiveness of the parent-based language intervention HPLI, and have practical implications for dealing with children with specific expressive language disorder (SELD).

We examined the impact of television viewing at ages 3 and 4 on vocabulary and at age 5 on executive functioning in the context of home learning environment and parental scaffolding. Children (N = 263) were seen in the lab when they were 3 years old and then again at ages 4 and 5. Parents completed measures assessing child television viewing and the home environment at ages 3 and 4, and mother--child interaction was observed during a problem-solving task. At age 5, children completed measures of vocabulary and executive functioning. Results indicated that although the amount of television viewing was negatively related to vocabulary and executive functioning, this association was no longer significant once background variables, home learning environment, and parental scaffolding were taken into consideration. Parental scaffolding emerged as a primary predictor of vocabulary above demographic covariates. Implications of the research are discussed in terms of recommendations for parents regarding television viewing by preschool children.

Word finding difficulties are often seen in children with language difficulties. Their problem is readily observed and has led to investigations of its nature and encouraged attempts at intervention. Semantic errors in their naming suggest that their knowledge of items is poorly developed and that therapies to strengthen it may be effective. Twelve children between 7 and 11 years of age were offered 3 hours of semantic therapy in two 15-minute sessions per week for 6 weeks. The children had severe and complex speech, language and communication needs and all were in the bottom 5% for their age on a test of word finding. Two categories of items were treated. Each category was divided into sets of items that were directly treated, and items which appeared during therapy but were not specifically targeted. Categories and sets of items were counterbalanced across children. The children were blind assessed on naming the items before and after therapy and at a maintenance assessment 6 weeks after the treatment ceased. The children improved significantly on the treated items and on untreated items from the same category but not on items from the untreated category. Improvement was maintained at the maintenance assessment. Although results were significant, only medium effect sizes were obtained. These results add to the evidence that semantic therapy can help children with word finding difficulties. In assessing their clinical significance, the severity of the children's communication problems should be taken into account.

The present study provides empirical evidence to support the hypothesis that pre-school children's cognitive functions can be developed by virtue of a training tool named COGENT (Cognitive Enhancement Training). We assumed that COGENT (COGEST in Spain) which is embedded in speech and language, will enhance the core cognitive processes that are required for reading acquisition. The participants included 97 students aged four and five, who received COGEST for six months. The two core cognitive processes targeted were simultaneous and successive. These were measured before and after the application of COGEST. Simultaneously, we assessed a control group in the same manner, but it did not receive any COGEST training. Results showed that the COGEST group improved its simultaneous and successive processing performance significantly (p?

Research Findings: The importance of self-regulation for children's successful academic performance has led to greatly increased interest in this topic in recent years. However, less is known about the interrelations among self-regulatory processes across different contexts. The present study investigated the structure of self-regulation in young children across multiple contexts using a confirmatory factor analysis approach. Moreover, the study examined relations between self-regulation observed in different contexts and emergent vocabulary and math skills. Participants were 150 preschool-aged children from Kosovo, a lower middle-income region in southeastern Europe. The study involved a battery of performance-based measures and informant ratings selected to provide information about self-regulatory processes in various contexts. Tests of the relative fit of alternative models supported a multifactor model of self-regulation across different contexts. Furthermore, results indicated moderate interrelations among self-regulatory processes across different contexts. Self-regulation assessed in a structured one-to-one context was most strongly and uniquely related to emerging academic skills when all measures of self-regulation were included in a single model. Practice or Policy: The study adds to current efforts to understand the skill formation of children in low- and middle-income countries and might lay the groundwork for initiating a campaign in Kosovo focusing on the importance of self-regulation for children's learning and development.

This study investigated the longitudinal relation between children's theory of mind and their metacognitive knowledge with a special focus on the impact of language on this relation. Measures of theory-of-mind understanding and metamemory knowledge were assessed in 133 3-year-old children at 4 measurement points separated by half-year intervals. Results revealed a somewhat more pronounced effect of children's early theory of mind on the change in metamemory knowledge than vice versa. This effect was almost independent of the time period under investigation as well as of earlier language and nonverbal competencies and socioeconomic status. Early language competencies had a direct impact on theory-of-mind and metamemory development and moreover indirectly affected metamemory development through children's theory of mind. The results of the study suggest that children's abilities to metarepresent together with their early language competencies are important in the acquisition of metamemory knowledge.

Children born preterm are at risk for developmental deficits across multiple functional domains. As the rate of survival for preterm infants increases due to medical advancements, a greater understanding is needed for how to meet the needs of this growing population in schools. Because approximately 50-70% of children born preterm require additional services in school, evidence-based assessments that appropriately identify children and guide intervention strategies must be conducted. In addition, the education system must be prepared to provide appropriate support when these children encounter developmental, cognitive, and academic difficulties in the school setting. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the research on children born preterm and delineate guidelines for assessment in the areas of cognitive, academic, and psychosocial functioning.

Nowadays, we are surrounded by artifacts that are capable of adaptive behavior, such as electric pots, boiler timers, automatic doors, and robots. The literature concerning human beings' conceptions of "traditional" artifacts is vast, however, little is known about our conceptions of behaving artifacts, nor of the influence of the interaction with such artifacts on cognitive development, especially among children. Since these artifacts are provided with an artificial "mind," it is of interest to assess whether and how children develop a Theory of Artificial Mind (ToAM) which is distinct from their Theory of Mind (ToM). The study examined a new theoretical scheme named ToAM (Theory of Artificial Mind) by means of qualitative and quantitative methodology among twenty four 5-7 year old children from central Israel. It also examined the effects of interacting with behaving artifacts (constructing versus observing the robot's behavior) using the "RoboGan" interface on children's development of ToAM and their ToM and looked for conceptions that evolve among children while interacting with behaving artifacts which are indicative of the acquisition of ToAM. In the quantitative analysis it was found that the interaction with behaving artifacts, whether as observers or constructors and for both age groups, brought into awareness children's ToM as well as influenced their ability to understand that robots can behave independently and based on external and environmental conditions. In the qualitative analysis it was found that participating in the intervention influenced the children's ToAM for both constructors and for the younger observer. Engaging in building the robot's behavior influenced the children's ability to explain several of the robots' behaviors, their understanding of the robot's script-based behavior and rule-based behavior and the children's metacognitive development. The theoretical and practical importance of the study is discussed.

The structural relations between the Cattell-Horn-Carroll abilities and reading achievement outcome variables across child and adolescent development were examined in the "Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition", and the "Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition", co-normed sample. We estimated single-group models using a cross-validation technique and then tested those salient effects using multigroup structural equation models to test the equality of salient effects across stages of development to determine whether those effects were moderated by grade. Nonequivalent models were also used to test the directionality of reading decoding and reading comprehension. The direct effects of long-term retrieval and short-term memory on reading decoding were the same across grade groupings. Findings support moderation by grade for the direct effects of comprehension-knowledge and reading decoding on reading comprehension. In Grades 1-6, the direct effect of comprehension-knowledge on reading decoding was smaller than the direct effect in Grades 7-12. The direct effect of comprehension- knowledge on reading comprehension was much smaller in Grades 1-3 compared with Grades 4-12. The path from reading decoding to reading comprehension was much larger in Grades 1-3 compared with Grades 4-12. The nonequivalent models suggest that the directionality of influence is from reading decoding to reading comprehension and not vice versa. Results from this study support a differentiated view of reading development with increases in comprehension-knowledge and decreases in reading decoding in explaining individual differences in reading comprehension over time.

Despite the importance of written expression to the lives of individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), there is limited research on teaching writing skills to this population. In the current study, we used a multiple probe across behaviors design to evaluate the effects of simultaneous prompting (SP) and computer-assisted instruction (CAI) on the story writing responses of five males with autism, 6 to 10 years of age. The data indicated that SP and CAI were effective in improving the story writing skills of all five participants. In addition, all participants increased non-targeted reading skills, the use of novel response forms, and demonstrated at least partial maintenance and generalization of story writing skills.

This replication study focused on the effectiveness of two different intervention approaches, activity-based intervention and embedded direct instruction, on the acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of phonological awareness, a key area of emergent literacy, by preschool children with language delays. Five male preschool participants with language delay were treated with a modified alternating-treatments design. Embedded direct instruction was more effective and efficient in the acquisition of phonological awareness skills for preschool children with language delays. Embedded direct instruction was also more effective in the generalization of emergent literacy skills to probe generalization sessions, as well as in the percentage of maintained skills. Preschool children who are at risk of acquiring foundational skills necessary for the development of conventional literacy would benefit from an explicit, systematic instructional approach. Embedded direct instruction provided the structure necessary to promote effective and efficient acquisition of skills, as well as generalization and maintenance of learning.

This study applies a diagnostic errors framework to identify and classify mistakes that were made in a psychoeducational assessment of a bilingual student who was misidentified as a person with autism. Findings of diagnostic errors were categorized under four domains--faulty knowledge, faulty data gathering, faulty data processing, and faulty verification. This article contributes to the literature by applying a model to understanding the mistakes that could occur during an assessment of special education eligibility. It concludes with considerations for practice and research.

This replication study examined the effects of a planning and self-regulation strategy on the story writing abilities of young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Three second graders with ASD were taught a strategy for planning and writing a story using the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) approach. After learning the strategy, students' stories included more story elements, were longer, and received higher scores on a holistic scale. In addition, increases in planning time were noted. Results support similar outcomes from Asaro-Saddler and Saddler (2010) and provide further evidence that the SRSD approach can improve the story writing abilities of young students with ASD. This study also extends the findings by demonstrating the special education teachers, rather than trained instructors, can effectively implement the strategy with fidelity.

Introduction: Delays in theory of mind (ToM) of children who are congenitally blind have often been attributed to the absence of visual and social experiences. However, these delays could also be partly due to neural factors. In some children, the blindness itself has neural causes (ocular-plus blindness). Children whose blindness has an ocular-plus cause may be more delayed in ToM than children with blindness due to ocular causes. Methods: In the current study, performances of children with congenital ocular-plus blindness (n = 22) and congenital ocular blindness (n = 9) were compared with sighted children (n = 103) on ToM tasks designed for children with blindness. Results: Compared with sighted children, ToM performance was delayed in children with ocular-plus blindness, but not in children with ocular blindness. Discussion: ToM development in children with congenital blindness could be related to factors other than the loss of a sensory function and the lack of visual social and communicative experiences. Implications for practitioners: The specific ToM deficits in children with ocular-plus blindness may help in developing new research paradigms that consider delays in ToM in children with congenital blindness.

Bullying perpetration at school is a long-term predictor of aggression, delinquency, and violence. Most research concentrates on risk factors for such developments, whereas protective factors have been rarely addressed. Therefore, the present study investigates potentially protective effects of family and child characteristics in a prospective longitudinal design. The sample contained 519 youngsters (253 boys and 266 girls) from the Erlangen-Nuremberg Development and Prevention Study. Bullying perpetration was measured at age 9.0 years, mothers' and children's reports on family and individual characteristics were collected at age 10.6, and outcomes in self-reported aggressive/violent offending and mother-reported aggressive and delinquent behavior were collected at age 13.7. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed main effects and interactions. The latter suggest buffering protective effects of consistent discipline in parenting and children's intelligence, positive attitude to school, prosocial behavior skills, low hyperactivity/inattention, and an anxious/depressive mood. The findings varied across the two outcome measures and with regard to gender. Implications for further research and prevention practice are discussed.

There has been a growing concern about how best to address the needs of dual language learners with language impairments. Most dual language programmes have been evaluated with children with typical language development (TLD) and as a result, very little is known about the effect of these programmes on children with language disabilities. The Vocabulary, Oral Language and Academic Readiness (VOLAR) programme was designed specifically for preschool dual language learners with language impairment. In the last five years, we have completed several federally funded projects aimed at evaluating the feasibility and efficacy of VOLAR testing more than 300 children over time. In the current study, we examined the effect of VOLAR when implemented by teachers within the preschool curriculum. Participants were 40 children receiving the programme and 34 children receiving the "business as usual" preschool curriculum (control group). The comparisons were based on spontaneous language measures obtained at baseline and at two follow-up time points after the programme ended over a period of one year. The results replicated previous research, showing that the VOLAR programme induced significantly more gains than the control curriculum. The children with language impairment also showed greater improvement compared to their peers in the control group. The positive and promising effects on the language skills of children with language impairment support the use of a dual language intervention model with these students.

The present study investigated the role of both cognitive and linguistic predictors in basic arithmetic skills (i.e., addition and subtraction) in 69 first-language (L1) learners and 60 second-language (L2) learners from the second grade of primary schools in the Netherlands. All children were tested on non-verbal intelligence, working memory, phonological awareness, grammatical ability as well as basic arithmetic skills. The L2 learners scored lower than L1 learners on phonological awareness, grammatical ability, and basic arithmetic skills (i.e., addition and subtraction), but not on non-verbal intelligence and working memory. For both groups, the same precursors applied to the variation in basic arithmetic skills. In addition to non-verbal intelligence and working memory, both phonological awareness and grammatical ability predicted basic arithmetic skills, indicating that assessment of arithmetic problems in L1 learners and L2 learners should take into account the cognitive and linguistic abilities that children bring to the classroom.

Recent studies suggest that working memory training may benefit older adults; however, findings regarding training and transfer effects are mixed. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of a process-based training intervention in a diverse sample of older adults and explored possible moderators of training and transfer effects. For that purpose, 80 older adults (65-95 years) were assigned either to a training group that worked on visuospatial, verbal, and executive working memory tasks for 9 sessions over 3 weeks or to a control group. Performance on trained and transfer tasks was assessed in all participants before and after the training period, as well as at a 9-month follow-up. Analyses revealed significant training effects in all 3 training tasks in trained participants relative to controls, as well as near transfer to a verbal working memory task and far transfer to a fluid intelligence task. Encouragingly, all training effects and the transfer effect to verbal working memory were stable at the 9-month follow-up session. Further analyses revealed that training gains were predicted by baseline performance in training tasks and (to a lesser degree) by age. Gains in transfer tasks were predicted by age and by the amount of improvement in the trained tasks. These findings suggest that cognitive plasticity is preserved over a large range of old age and that even a rather short training regime can lead to (partly specific) training and transfer effects. However, baseline performance, age, and training gains moderate the amount of plasticity.

Purpose: This study examined the development and validation of a criterion-referenced Spanish-English Language Proficiency Scale (SELPS) that was designed to assess the oral language skills of sequential bilingual children ages 4-8. This article reports results for the English proficiency portion of the scale. Method: The SELPS assesses syntactic complexity, grammatical accuracy, verbal fluency, and lexical diversity based on 2 story retell tasks. In Study 1, 40 children were given 2 story retell tasks to evaluate the reliability of parallel forms. In Study 2, 76 children participated in the validation of the scale against language sample measures and teacher ratings of language proficiency. Results: Study 1 indicated no significant differences between the SELPS scores on the 2 stories. Study 2 indicated that the SELPS scores correlated significantly with their counterpart language sample measures. Correlations between the SELPS and teacher ratings were moderate. Conclusions: The 2 story retells elicited comparable SELPS scores, providing a valuable tool for test-retest conditions in the assessment of language proficiency. Correlations between the SELPS scores and external variables indicated that these measures assessed the same language skills. Results provided empirical evidence regarding the validity of inferences about language proficiency based on the SELPS score. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two forms of video modeling: video modeling that includes narration (VMN) and video models without narration (VM) on skill acquisition of four adolescent boys with a primary diagnosis of autism enrolled in an Extended School Year (ESY) summer program. An adapted alternating treatment design was used to compare the effectiveness and efficiency of both video modeling interventions with a baseline, comparison, replication, best treatment (when applicable), and maintenance condition (when applicable). Results indicated VMN was more efficient for two out of four participants. Narration was not a critical component of video modeling for the other two participants, although both indicated a preference for VMN over VM.

Intelligence has been defined in multiple ways throughout history. In the last 100 years a psychometric approach to define the concept of intelligence has come to dominate the concept. This Commentary provides a brief overview of the history and concepts of intelligence with an emphasis on intellectual assessment. Particular focus is placed on the last 20 years reflecting substantial improvements in the quality of intellectual measures. An argument is made that although confirmatory factor analysis is one way to interpret and understand the Wechsler Scales, another way is to begin with a clearly articulated theory of intellect and to create an instrument designed and validated to fit that theory. Although application of a confirmatory factor analysis to the Wechsler Scales can generate alternate or additional factors that may be interpreted in light of other theories of intelligence such as Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC), the opinion is offered that the articles in this issue of JPA offer compelling data that Wechsler's vision was and is still vibrant and valuable.

This article investigates the contribution of maternal mediation in storybook reading, socioeconomic status (SES), and home literacy environment (HLE) to children's literacy level in kindergarten and first grade in Israeli Arabic-speaking families. A total of 109 kindergarten children and their mothers participated. Children's literacy level was assessed in kindergarten. Mothers and children were videotaped at home in a book reading activity, and HLE data were gathered from the mothers. One year later, the children's literacy level was assessed in first grade. Results show that mothers often used paraphrasing in the reading activities and dealt less with the written language. Correlations were found between SES and children's literacy measures in oral and written language in kindergarten and in first grade. Significant positive relationships were found between HLE and children's literacy level in kindergarten and first grade. No relationship was found between maternal mediation and children's spoken and written language skills in either age group. Regression analysis showed that HLE was the best contributor variable to children's literacy level, followed by family SES level, with no contribution of maternal mediation. Implications of the relationships between children's literacy development, SES, HLE, and parental mediation in Arabic-speaking families for researchers and educational practitioners are discussed.

Purpose: In this study, the authors evaluated the efficacy of a Spanish-English versus English-only vocabulary intervention for dual-language learners (DLLs) with language impairment compared to mathematics intervention groups and typically developing controls with no intervention. Further, in this study the authors also examined whether the language of instruction affected English, Spanish, and conceptual vocabulary differentially. Method: The authors randomly assigned 202 preschool DLLs with language impairment to 1 of 4 conditions: bilingual vocabulary, English-only vocabulary, bilingual mathematics, or English-only mathematics. Fifty-four DLLs with typical development received no intervention. The vocabulary intervention consisted of a 12-week small-group dialogic reading and hands-on vocabulary instruction of 45 words. Postintervention group differences and linear growth rates were examined in conceptual, English, and Spanish receptive and expressive vocabulary for the 45 treatment words. Results: Results indicate that the bilingual vocabulary intervention facilitated receptive and expressive Spanish and conceptual vocabulary gains in DLLs with language impairment compared with the English vocabulary intervention, mathematics intervention, and no-intervention groups. The English-only vocabulary intervention differed significantly from the mathematics condition and no-intervention groups on all measures but did not differ from the bilingual vocabulary intervention. Vocabulary growth rates postintervention slowed considerably. Results support the idea that bilingual interventions support native- and second-language vocabulary development. Conclusion: English-only intervention supports only English. Use of repeated dialogic reading and hands-on activities facilitates vocabulary acquisition. (Contains 1 figure and 4 tables.)

Background: According to the literature, children with Down syndrome (DS) have difficulties recognising facial expressions. Yet abilities to recognise emotional expressions are often assessed in tasks that imply comprehension of words for emotions. We investigated the development of these abilities in children with DS in a longitudinal study that did not involve lexical knowledge of emotions. Method: Children with DS and nonspecific intellectual disability and typically developing children matched for developmental age (DA) were assessed once a year over 3 years. They were asked to recognise the facial expression of an emotion after hearing a vocalisation. Results: In each annual session, children with DS were not significantly different from others at recognising emotions. Their abilities to discriminate basic emotions improved significantly and to a similar extent to those of other children. Conclusion: The findings indicate that children with DS develop emotion recognition abilities similarly to other children of the same DA.

Dynamic relations during the preschool years across processes of control and understanding in the domains of emotion and cognition were examined. Participants were 263 children (42% non-White) and their mothers who were seen first when the children were 3 years old and again when they were 4. Results indicated dynamic dependence among the processes studied. Specifically, change in cognitive processes of control and understanding were dependent upon initial levels of the other processes. Changes in emotion control and understanding were not predicted by earlier performance in the other processes. Findings are discussed with regard to the constructs of control and understanding and the developmental interrelations among emotion and cognitive processes. (Contains 2 figures and 4 tables.)

Research Findings: Behavior regulation, including paying attention, remembering instructions, and controlling action, contributes to children's successful adaptation to and functioning in preschool and school settings. This study examined the development of behavior regulation in early childhood and its potential contribution to individual differences in children's early knowledge (mathematics and vocabulary). Sixty German preschool children were administered a direct observational measure of behavior regulation, the Head-to-Toes Task, and a standardized test to assess early mathematics and vocabulary. Results revealed significant gains in behavior regulation between of 3 and 4 years of age. Moreover, early gender differences were found, with girls outperforming boys at age 4. Behavior regulation was significantly related to performance on the academic tasks, but the pathways to math and vocabulary knowledge differed. Practice or Policy: Discussion focuses on the role of behavior regulation in early academic achievement. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

15 School-aged high functioning children on the autistic spectrum were compared with a neurotypical cohort on the WISC-III and the KABC-II, to determine the impact of the relatively more strict timing criteria of the former test on the evaluation of nonverbal intelligence. Significant group effects, showing lower performance by the ASD group were found for three of the five sub-tests for the WISC but not for the KABC, peaks and troughs were more evident for the WISC, and the evaluation of intellectual level was also markedly lower for ASD children on the WISC-III as opposed to the KABC-II. The results are discussed in terms of how speed of processing can impact on how children with ASD are "matched" against neurotypical samples.

The study compared the effects of using commercially available and custom-made video prompts on the completion of cooking recipes by four high school age males with a diagnosis of autism. An adapted alternating treatments design with continuous baseline, comparison, final treatment, and best treatment condition was used to compare the two procedures. Gains were made by each participant when using both video procedures. However, results indicate that all students performed more steps independently correct when completing recipes with the custom-made video prompts during the comparison condition. During the best treatment condition, recipes initially prepared using the commercially available video prompts in the comparison condition were performed at criterion levels when completed with the custom-made videos prompts. Implications for use and development of commercial and customized video products with attention to the salient features of video prompts are presented.

Cognitive and biophysical factors have been considered contributors linked to identifiable markers of obsessive compulsive and anxiety disorders. Research demonstrates multiple causes and mixed results for the short-term success of educational programs designed to ameliorate problems that children with obsessive compulsive and anxiety disorders face in the day school setting. The consideration of cognitive and biophysical models of education as related to OCD and anxiety disorder has proven beneficial in determining appropriate treatment for the identified population of students. In this case study cognitive and biophysical factors are considered to address the referral, eligibility, placement, and treatment of a 4th grade student named Ethan. Ethan exhibited OCD tendencies and elevated levels of anxiety. Ethan often responded to everyday situations with increased emotion of anger and worry, which presented an adverse impact on his educational performance. An array of information was collected as part of the special education evaluation conducted through several measures including: educational diagnostics, surveys, questionnaires, and interviews. Ethan was found eligible for services under the primary disability category "Emotional and Behavioral Disorder", related to diagnoses of Obsessive Compulsive and Anxiety Disorder. It was determined that the result of such chronic disorders limited Ethan's ability to access the educational environment, in the absence of specially designed instruction. Interventions considered applicable for implementation were Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), as a form of psychotherapy, and Cognitive Therapy (CT).

We examined the degree to which the conventional notion of g associated with IQ tests and general cognitive ability tests ("COG-g") relate to the general ability that underlies tests of reading, math, and writing achievement ("ACH-g"). Two large, nationally representative data sets and two independent individually-administered set of test batteries were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis procedures: (a) the Kaufman-II sample (N=2520), organized into six age groups between 4-5 and 16-19 years, tested on both the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-2nd ed. (KABC-II) and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-2nd ed. (KTEA-II) Comprehensive Form; and (b) the WJ III sample (N=4969), organized into four age groups between 5-6 and 14-19 years, tested on both the Cognitive and Achievement batteries of the Woodcock-Johnson-3rd ed. (WJ III). Second-order latent factor models were used to model the test scores. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was used to investigate factor loading invariance across the age groups. In general, invariance was tenable, which allowed for valid comparisons of second-order "COG-g" and "ACH-g" factor variance/covariances and correlations across age. Although "COG-g" and "ACH-g" were not isomorphic, they correlated substantially, with an overall mean correlation coefficient of 0.83, and with the correlations generally increasing with age (ranging from 0.77 to 0.94). The nature of the relation between "COG-g" and "ACH-g" was explored and the best measures of "COG-g" were examined. (Contains 9 tables and 2 figures.)

Aim: We assessed motor and intellectual outcome in triplets at school age and investigated the predictive value of perinatal and demographic factors. Methods: Seventy-one live-born newborn infants (24 triplet pregnancies) were prospectively enrolled at birth. At the age of 6 years, 58 children (31 males, 27 females; mean gestational age 31.2wks [SD 2.2wks]; mean birthweight 1622g [SD 440g]) returned for a neurodevelopmental examination. A comparison group for triplets born before 32 gestational weeks comprising 26 gestational age-, birthweight-, and sex-matched singletons was also recruited (mean gestational age 30.1wk [SD 1.5wk]; mean birthweight 1142g [SD 210g]; 12 males, 14 females). The Zurich Neuromotor Assessment was used to examine motor performance, and intellectual abilities were assessed with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC). Results: Motor performance and movement quality in these individuals was significantly reduced compared with the test norms for all motor tasks (p less than 0.001) other than static balance. The mean values on the Mental Processing Composite (95.3, SD 8.4) and the Achievement Scale (90.1, SD 13.8) of the K-ABC were also lower than those in the test reference (p less than 0.05 and p less than 0.01 respectively). Triplets born at less than 32 weeks' gestation showed poorer pure motor and adaptive gross motor performance (both p less than 0.05) than, but similar intellectual performance to, the gestational age-, birthweight- and sex-matched singletons. Poor outcome was predicted by low socio-economic status and by intertriplet birthweight discordance (both p less than 0.01). Interpretation: Triplets were at an increased risk of mild motor and intellectual impairments. This finding is important for tailoring therapeutic interventions for these children and for parental counselling. Very preterm triplets showed similar outcomes to the singleton comparison children, except that they had poorer motor performance. Low socio-economic status was a major risk factor for impaired intellectual development. In addition, birthweight discordance may also be considered a predictor for poor long-term motor and intellectual outcome in triplets.

This study used profile analysis to investigate the interpretability of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II), in terms of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory among ethnically diverse preschool children. Forty-nine African American and 49 Caucasian preschool children from a Midwestern city were included in the study and were matched for age, sex, and level of parental education. The profile analysis examining CHC broad abilities showed that the African American and Caucasian preschool children had similar patterns of highs and lows and performed at the same level with no significant difference between the two groups in their overall mean IQ. Profile analysis of the KABC-II subtests found that although the African American and Caucasian groups performed overall at a similar level, they did not show the same pattern of highs and lows in subtest performance. Specifically, Caucasian preschoolers scored significantly higher than their African American counterparts on the Expressive Vocabulary subtest. Overall, the two groups displayed remarkably similar performance on the KABC-II. (Contains 2 figures and 4 tables.)

Background: Although there is growing awareness about the potential for people with Down syndrome (DS) to become literate, we know little about the characteristics of handwriting within this population. Methods: Thirty-three participants took part in this experiment. Eleven adults with DS and 22 typically developing individuals (11 children matched on mental age and 11 adults matched on chronological age) performed a copy task. A French adaptation of the Concise Evaluation Scale for Children's Handwriting (BHK) was used to assess speed and quality. Results: Handwriting of adults with DS was relatively similar to that of the mental age control group, but comparisons with the chronological age control group showed differences on quality and spatial organisation. Conclusions: Results revealed that adults with DS are capable of producing acceptable writing. Observed differences could be explained by the mode of movement control involved in production. Implications for future research and education are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Background: Socially disadvantaged children with academic difficulties at school entry are at increased risk for poor health and psychosocial outcomes. Our objective is to test the possibility that participation in childcare--at the population level--could attenuate the gap in academic readiness and achievement between children with and without a social disadvantage (indexed by low levels of maternal education). Methods: A cohort of infants born in the Canadian province of Quebec in 1997/1998 was selected through birth registries and followed annually until 7 years of age (n = 1,863). Children receiving formal childcare (i.e., center-based or non-relative out-of-home) were distinguished from those receiving informal childcare (i.e., relative or nanny). Measures from 4 standardized tests that assessed cognitive school readiness (Lollipop Test for School Readiness), receptive vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Revised), mathematics (Number Knowledge Test), and reading performance (Kaufman Assessment Battery for children) were administered at 6 and 7 years. Results: Children of mothers with low levels of education showed a consistent pattern of lower scores on academic readiness and achievement tests at 6 and 7 years than those of highly educated mothers, unless they received formal childcare. Specifically, among children of mothers with low levels of education, those who received formal childcare obtained higher school readiness (d = 0.87), receptive vocabulary (d = 0.36), reading (d = 0.48) and math achievement scores (d = 0.38; although not significant at 5%) in comparison with those who were cared for by their parents. Childcare participation was not associated with cognitive outcomes among children of mothers with higher levels of education. Conclusions: Public investments in early childcare are increasing in many countries with the intention of reducing cognitive inequalities between disadvantaged and advantaged children. Our findings provide further evidence suggesting that formal childcare could represent a preventative means of attenuating effects of disadvantage on children's early academic trajectory. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

In this study, the effects of eliciting positive and negative emotions on various cognitive functions of four- to five-year-old preschool children were examined. Emotions were elicited through presentations of "happy" and "sad" video clips, before the children performed the cognitive tasks. Behavioural (facial expressions) and physiological (heart rate variations) indices of emotions were used to measure the elicited emotions. The impact of emotions on analytical as well as global thinking was examined. Positive emotions were found to generate an overall improvement in children's cognitive functioning. This finding is inconsistent with findings reported in research conducted among adults, suggesting differential effects of emotions on cognitive performance of children and adults. It was also found that children's improved cognitive performance after eliciting positive emotions occurred predominantly on tasks related to subject areas they were familiar with. The findings are discussed within a developmental framework. (Contains 3 tables.)

This article reviews factor-analytic research on individually administered intelligence tests from a Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) perspective. Although most new and revised tests of intelligence are based, at least in part, on CHC theory, earlier versions generally were not. Our review suggests that whether or not they were based on CHC theory, the factors derived from both new and previous versions of most tests are well explained by the theory. Especially useful for understanding the theory and tests are cross-battery analyses using multiple measures from multiple instruments. There are issues that need further explanation, of course, about CHC theory and tests derived from that theory. We address a few of these issues including those related to comprehension-knowledge ("Gc") and memory factors, as well as issues related to factor retention in factor analysis. (Contains 2 figures.)

Spearman's law of diminishing returns (SLODR) posits that at higher levels of general cognitive ability the general factor ("g") performs less well in explaining individual differences in cognitive test performance. Research has generally supported SLODR, but previous research has required the a priori division of respondents into separate ability or IQ groups. The present study sought to obviate this limitation through the use of factor mixture modeling to investigate SLODR in the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (KABC-II). A second-order confirmatory factor model was modeled as a within-class factor structure. The fit and parameter estimates of several models with varying number of classes and factorial invariance restrictions were compared. Given SLODR, a predictable pattern of findings should emerge when factor mixture modeling is applied. Our results were consistent with these SLODR-based predictions, most notably the "g" factor variance was less in higher "g" mean classes. Use of factor mixture modeling was found to provide support for SLODR while improving the model used to investigate SLODR. (Contains 7 tables and 1 figure.)

This article presents a review of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Second Edition (KBIT-2; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004b), which is designed to provide a brief, individualized format for measuring verbal and nonverbal intelligence in children and adults from the ages of 4 years, 0 months through 90 years, 11 months. The test consists of only three subtests. Two are classified as Verbal subtests, and one is classified as a Nonverbal subtest. The KBIT-2 was developed alongside the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004a) and is primarily associated with the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of assessment and interpretation (Carroll, 1997). Kaufman and Kaufman (2004b) recommend that the KBIT-2 be used as a screener for intellectual abilities in situations such as identification of children who are at-risk for academic problems, as part of gifted and talented selection (although full-scale assessment may be necessary to fulfill state guidelines), as part of assessment procedures for job applicants, as part of test batteries where the intellectual profile is not the primary concern, for forensic purposes, for re-evaluations, and for various similar circumstances that do not demand full-scale assessment of cognitive ability. The test authors caution against using the KBIT-2 for the purposes of diagnosis or placement, as more comprehensive assessment would most likely be necessary for these purposes.

Utilizing a developmental-ecological framework, the purpose of this study was to understand the unique impact of multiple maternal risks across time on ethnically diverse, low-income, preschool children's cognitive skills, pro-social behaviors, and behavior problems. Additionally, this study sought to understand the variability of maternal risks within a low-income population. Data from the national impact evaluation of the Comprehensive Child Development Program (CCDP) was used (N = 3,852). Variable-centered analyses demonstrated that maternal education accounted for the most variance in children's cognitive outcomes, whereas chronicity of maternal depression accounted for the most variance in children's pro-social and problem behaviors. Person-centered analyses revealed eight distinct profiles of maternal risks, demonstrating the heterogeneity of this low-income population. Further, these profiles related differentially to children's preschool skills, indicating that different combinations of maternal risks were associated with varying outcomes for young children. Implications of study findings for early childhood practice, policy, and future research are discussed. (Contains 7 tables, 1 figure and 4 footnotes.)