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(1997). A Novel Methodology for Describing Integration Practices. Exceptionality: Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 263-266.

This paper is an examination of the influence Jack Bardon had on school psychology throughout his career from 1952 to 1993. A summary of this influence is presented that is based on a review of his publications and a survey of three groups of school psychologists (certificate-level Nationally Certified School Psychologists, doctoral-level Nationally Certified School Psychologists, and fellows of the American Psychological Association, Division 16). Those areas in which Jack Bardon has made a substantial impact are as follows: role and definition of school psychology; professional organization issues; debate over level of training; and consultation. These are discussed along with a comparison of how Jack Bardon's influence differs across the three groups represented in the sample.

Prereferral intervention is an approach to the prevention of special education problems that, although frequently recommended in recent years, has not received sufficient attention as a research topic. The purpose of this article is to provide data descriptive of the typical procedures and the collaborative problem-solving processes used by the prereferral intervention teams in eight urban schools. In addition to describing the model and its implementation, this article provides data indicating educators' perceptions of the goals of these teams, and their strengths and weaknesses, as well as describing the nature of consultation that is provided to classroom teachers and offering recommendations for improving these teams. The qualitative data sources used in this research included surveys, interviews, and team observations. Surveys were administered to team members and teachers, followed by interviews with these two groups. This resulted in 134 surveys and 91 interviews that were available for analysis. A...

A positive attitude toward mainstreaming or inclusion among general education teachers is necessary, although not sufficient, for the success of the Regular Education Initiative. Previous research assessing general education teacher views is limited by an emphasis on questionnaire methodology and failure to account for teacher experience with integrated programs. This study sought to overcome these limitations by using interviews supplemented by a range of qualitative data to clarify the context in which the data were gathered. In this study, the views of general education teachers participating in integrated pull-in programs were compared to those of colleagues whose students were served by pull-out programs. Support for integrated programs and novel categories of responses emerged in this process, as did group differences. Pull-in teachers stressed that pull-in met student needs and provided benefits to the teacher and the class, whereas pull-out teachers were less positive about pull-in and emphasized ...

(1996). The Role of the Researcher as Change Agent. Exceptionality: Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 125-128.

We study the impact of perturbative reheating on primordial observables in models of multiple-field inflation. By performing a sudden decay calculation, we derive analytic expressions for the local-type non-linearity parameter $f_{\rm NL}^{\rm local}$, the scalar spectral index $n_\zeta$, and the tensor-to-scalar ratio $r_T$ as functions of the decay rates of the inflationary fields. We compare our analytic results to a fully numerical classical field theory simulation, finding excellent agreement. We find that the sensitivity of $f_{\rm NL}$, $n_\zeta$, and $r_T$ to the reheating phase depends heavily on the underlying inflationary model. We quantify this sensitivity, and discuss conditions that must be satisfied if observable predictions are to be insensitive to the dynamics of reheating. We demonstrate that upon completion of reheating, all observable quantities take values within finite ranges, the limits of which are determined completely by the conditions during inflation. Furthermore, fluctuations in both fields play an important role in determining the full dependence of the observables on the dynamics of reheating. By applying our formalism to two concrete examples, we demonstrate that variations in $f_{\rm NL}$, $n_\zeta$, and $r_T$ caused by changes in reheating dynamics are well within the sensitivity of Planck, and as such the impact of reheating must be accounted for when making predictions for models of multiple-field inflation. Our final expressions are very general, encompassing a wide range of two-field inflationary models, including the standard curvaton scenario. Our results allow a much more unified approach to studying two-field inflation including the effects of perturbative reheating. As such, entire classes of models can be studied together, allowing a more systematic approach to gaining insight into the physics of the early universe through observation., Comment: v2: Updated to match published version, references added, typos corrected, appendix moved to main body of text. 26 pages, 7 figures

This article reviews Meyers' 1973 article, 'A Consultation Model for School Psychological Services,' which proposed a model of school-based consultation. Key components from the original article are discussed, including: (a) four variables reflecting the process of interaction between consultant and consultee and (b) a description of the content of consultation based on four different approaches to school-based consultation. Each of these components is discussed by considering how it is used in schools, how it has evolved in the past 20 years, and how it is conceptualized at the present time. Particular focus is given to the influence of current social conditions and to directions for research regarding school-based consultation.

Introduction: This research sought to extend knowledge about bystanders in bullying situations with a focus on the motivations that lead them to different responses. The 2 primary goals of this study were to investigate the reasons for children’s decisions to help or not to help a victim when witnessing bullying, and to generate a grounded theory (or conceptual framework) of bystander motivation in bullying situations. Methods: Thirty students ranging in age from 9 to 15 years (M=11.9; SD=1.7) from an elementary and middle school in the southeastern United States participated in this study. Open- ended, semistructured interviews were used, and sessions ranged from 30 to 45 minutes. We conducted qualitative methodology and analyses to gain an in-depth understanding of children’s perspectives and concerns when witnessing bullying. Results: A key finding was a conceptual framework of bystander motivation to intervene in bullying situations suggesting that deciding whether to help or not help the victim in a bullying situation depends on how bystanders define and evaluate the situation, the social context, and their own agency. Qualitative analysis revealed 5 themes related to bystander motives and included: interpretation of harm in the bullying situation, emotional reactions, social evaluating, moral evaluating, and intervention self-efficacy. Conclusion: Given the themes that emerged surrounding bystanders’ motives to intervene or abstain from intervening, respondents reported 3 key elements that need to be confirmed in future research and that may have implications for future work on bullying prevention. These included: first, the potential importance of clear communication to children that adults expect bystanders to intervene when witnessing bullying; second, the potential of direct education about how bystanders can interveneto increase children’s self-efficacy as defenders of those who are victims of bullying; and third, the assumption that it may be effective to encourage children’s belief that bullying is morally wrong. [West J Emerg Med. 2012;13(3):247–252.]

Extending the analysis of [1011.4934] beyond the bispectrum, we explore the superhorizon generation of local non-gaussianities and their subsequent approach to adiabaticity. Working with a class of two field models of inflation with potentials amenable to treatment with the delta N formalism we find that, as is the case for f_{NL}^{local}, the local trispectrum parameters tau_{NL} and g_{NL} are exponentially driven toward values which are slow roll suppressed if the fluctuations are driven into an adiabatic mode by a phase of effectively single field inflation. We argue that general considerations should ensure that a similar behavior will hold for the local forms of higher point correlations as well., Comment: v3: Updated to match published version, minor corrections throughout, 17 pages; v2: Corrected counting of higher order non-linearity parameters, added references, updated formatting, conclusions unchanged, 16 pages; v1: 16 pages

We explore the superhorizon generation of large fnl of the local form in two field inflation. We calculate the two- and three-point observables in a general class of potentials which allow for an analytic treatment using the delta N formalism. Motivated by the conservation of the curvature perturbation outside the horizon in the adiabatic mode and also by the observed adiabaticity of the power spectrum, we follow the evolution of fnl^{local} until it is driven into the adibatic solution by passing through a phase of effectively single field inflation. We find that although large fnl^{local} may be generated during inflation, such non-gaussianities are transitory and will be exponentially damped as the cosmological fluctuations approach adiabaticity., Comment: v3: Typos corrected, minor changes to match published version, references added, 18 pages, 1 figure. v2: Changed sign of fnl to match WMAP convention, minor changes throughout, references added, 18 pages, 1 figure. v1: 17 pages, 1 figure

Objective: Bullying is a serious public health problem that may include verbal or physical injury as well as social isolation or exclusion. As a result, research is needed to establish a database for policies and interventions designed to prevent bullying and its negative effects. This paper presents a case study that contributes to the literature by describing an intervention for bullies that has implications for practice and related policies regarding bullying. Methods: An individualized intervention for an identified bully was implemented using the Participatory Culture-Specific Intervention Model (PCSIM; Nastasi, Moore, & Varjas, 2004) with a seventh-grade middle school student. Ecological and culture-specific perspectives were used to develop and implement the intervention that included psychoeducational sessions with the student and consultation with the parent and school personnel. A mixed methods intervention design was used with the following informants: the target student, the mother of the student, a teacher and the school counselor. Qualitative data included semi-structured interviews with the parent, teacher and student, narrative classroom observations and evaluation/feedback forms filled out by the student and interventionist. Quantitative data included the following quantitative surveys (i.e., Child Self Report Post Traumatic Stress Reaction Index and the Behavior Assessment Scale for Children). Both qualitative and quantitative data were used to evaluate the acceptability, integrity and efficacy of this intervention. Results: The process of intervention design, implementation and evaluation are described through an illustrative case study. Qualitative and quantitative findings indicated a decrease in internalizing, externalizing and bullying behaviors as reported by the teacher and the mother, and a high degree of acceptability and treatment integrity as reported by multiple stakeholders. Conclusion: This case study makes important contributions by describing an intervention that is targeted to specific needs of the bully by designing culture specific interventions and working with the student’s unique environmental contexts. Contributions also are made by illustrating the use of mixed methods to document acceptability, integrity and efficacy of an intervention with documented positive effects in these areas. In addition, implications for policy and practice related to the treatment of students identified as bullies and future research needs are discussed.

We show how recent data from observations of the cosmic microwave background may suggest the presence of additional radiation density which appeared after big bang nucleosynthesis. We propose a general scheme by which this radiation could be produced from the decay of non-relativistic matter, we place constraints on the properties of such matter, and we give specific examples of scenarios in which this general scheme may be realized., v3: 5 pages, 1 figure. References added, typos corrected, notation changed throughout. v2: 5 pages, 1 figure. Reformatted, references added, acknowledgments updated, effect of radiation on CMB clarified. v1: 11 pages, 1 figure

Objectives: Internet usage has increased in recent years resulting in a growing number of documented reports of cyberbullying. Despite the rise in cyberbullying incidents, there is a dearth of research regarding high school students’ motivations for cyberbullying. The purpose of this study was to investigate high school students’ perceptions of the motivations for cyberbullying. Method: We undertook an exploratory qualitative study with 20 high school students, conducting individual interviews using a semi-structured interview protocol. Data were analyzed using Grounded Theory. Results: The developed coding hierarchy provides a framework to conceptualize motivations, which can be used to facilitate future research about motivations and to develop preventive interventions designed to thwart the negative effects of cyberbullying. The findings revealed that high school students more often identified internally motivated reasons for cyberbullying (e.g., redirect feelings) than externally motivated (no consequences, non-confrontational, target was different). Conclusion: Uncovering the motivations for cyberbullying should promote greater understanding of this phenomenon and potentially reduce the interpersonal violence that can result from it. By providing a framework that begins to clarify the internal and external factors motivating the behavior, there is enhanced potential to develop effective preventive interventions to prevent cyberbullying and its negative effects.

In this study, pull-in and pull-out approaches to delivering reading services to elementary special education and remedial students were compared. Students' reading activities were observed using a revision of the Student-Level Observation of Beginning Reading (SOBR-R), and reading comprehension assessed using the Stanford Achievement Test. Students in pull-in programs did not differ from students in pull-out programs in gains in reading comprehension. Pull-in and pull-out approaches did not differ in total time devoted to reading instruction each week, but there were differences in time spent on non-reading activities. Time spent on reading and non-reading activities did not predict reading achievement. Data are also presented documenting how reading instruction time is spent in six different models of pull-in and pull-out, to illustrate the variability within each approach to service delivery. It is suggested that these differences in how teachers implement pull-in and pull-out need to be considered in ...

This article reports the first study from the School Consultation Research Project, a cooperative group of school psychologists from four universities interested in exploring relationships among processes and outcomes in consultation. Using an interpersonal perspective, statistical relationships between 12 dyadic process variables and 4 consultation outcome variables were examined. The central hypothesis was that the more that consultant and consultee see the process in a similar way, understand their roles, and work together as a team, the more favorable are consultee perceptions of (a) the beneficialness of consultation, (b) consultee competence, (c) client improvement, and (d) consultant effectiveness. Data were collected from 61 consultant-consultee dyads situated in four locations in the northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern U.S. Results supported the hypothesis as well as the value of assuming an interpersonal perspective in future consultation research.

This investigation examined classroom teachers' perceptions of collaborative planning meetings that they engaged in with remedial reading or resource room teachers. A particular focus was whether collaborative planning was perceived differently by teachers whose students were served in pull-out programs, as compared to teachers whose students received "pull-in" reading instruction, whereby the specialist teacher taught in the general classroom. Structured interviews were conducted with 12 classroom teachers participating in the pull-in condition and 11 classroom teachers participating in the pull-out arrangement. Relative to the teachers involved in pull-out programs, the teachers engaged in the pull-in condition reported (1) more frequent collaborative meetings, (2) a greater focus on specific instructional issues rather than on student progress and adjustment, and (3) greater learning of specific instructional techniques. The implications of these findings for the successful implementation of teacher consultation models and for improving communication and coordination among specialist and classroom teachers are considered.

Reading instruction provided by classroom, remedial, and resource teachers in six schools was observed, in order to determine (a) whether remedial and resource teachers provided more proactive instruction than classroom teachers, (b) whether resource and remedial reading teachers engaged individuals more often than classroom teachers, and (c) whether there was congruence in the curriculum used by the three teacher groups. A time sampling procedure used to collect data indicated that, although resource teachers spent the most reading time on other academic subjects, the three groups did not differ in the proportion of time devoted to management, discipline, or proactive teaching techniques such as purpose setting, demonstration, or explaining how to do a reading task. Of the three teacher groups, remedial teachers were found to interact most often with individuals and least often with groups. Congruence in the curriculum used by the three teacher groups was supported by the finding that comparable time was devoted to comprehension, decoding, and indirect reading activities. Several interpretations are proposed for the finding of minimal differences in instruction between teacher groups. It is argued that findings do not provide support for widespread use of pull-out models of supplemental instruction.

The purpose of this study was to assess teachers' views of the strengths and weaknesses of pullout programs and to determine their perceptions of alternatives suggested as improvements to pullout programs. 40 classroom, 9 remedial reading, and 8 resource room teachers were interviewed individually. Teachers reported that the primary advantage to pullout programs was the provision of intensely structured and individualized instruction that can be adapted to the student's individual needs. Some of the most important disadvantages of pullout programs that these teachers noted include the large number of students who miss academic instruction and related difficulties associated with scheduling pullout instruction. This results in frustration for many students who have difficulty keeping up with the work in both settings and reduces classroom teachers' flexibility in planning instruction. Teachers also reported inadequate communication and coordination among classroom teachers and pullout teachers. While this ...

This article describes eight examples of pull‐in reading instruction designed by classroom, remedial, and resource teachers in six schools. Their approaches to pull‐in instruction included two separate programs held side by side, programs that mixed pull‐in and pull‐out service delivery methods, and several team‐teaching methods, including literature‐based programs and cooperative learning. The process of selecting classrooms for pull‐in instruction is described, and strategies for encouraging teacher participation are presented. Advantages and problems associated with pull‐in instruction are described.

This paper criticizes past research in consultee-centered consultation because of the inadequate description of techniques and subjective criteria which are not based on directly observable behavior. A research design based on the use of a small number of subjects is proposed as one way to improve this research. This design is then evaluated in relationship to the internal and external threats to validity discussed by Campbell and Stanley (1963).

(1978). Training School Psychologists for a Consultation Role. School Psychology Review: Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 26-32.

This paper presents the results of a national survey of school psychologists to determine the impact of PL 94-142 on the role of the school psychologist. Data were based on responses to 856 surveys by practicing school psychologists who were selected randomly from the NASP membership list during 1979-80. The results suggested that this legislation has had remarkably little impact on the evaluation procedures used or on the school psychologist's role. The two clear changes that have occurred may have negative implications for psychological services (e.g., an increased focus on handicapped children and increased paperwork). It was found that many school psychologists are involved in evaluation, but do not have time to be involved in the IEP process, or to provide follow-up consultation, or direct intervention for prevention and/or therapeutic purposes. This problem was exacerbated in districts that had ratios of greater than 1,000 to 1. Despite these problems, many respondents view the legislation in positive terms, and feel it has helped to enlarge the scope of practice.

The present investigation was an attempt to examine the possibility of experimentally manipulating the process of consultation. In this instance, the process of consultation was conceived in terms of the Transactional Analysis paradigm. The study employed a small-N analogue to consultee-centered consultation with the experimental treatment consisting of a training session in Transactional Analysis for the consultants. The treatment effect was assessed against three dependent measures: (a) the subjective evaluations of the consultant-consultee pairs; (b) the percent of behavioral change toward goal; and (c) the number of Adult-Adult transactions characterizing the consultation exchange. The data indicate increases in the number of Adult-Adult transactions, the Average Subjective Evaluation, and the Percent of Goal Attainment for two of the four experimental subject pairs. However, the result for only one subject met the requirements of the multiple baseline design, so that it could be concluded that the observed gains for this subject probably could be attributed to the T.A. training session. In addition to suggesting the influence of Adult-Adult transactions on consultation, this study is felt to offer insight to researchers seeking appropriate experimental designs for manipulating relevant process variables in consultation and detecting the effects of these manipulations.

To determine the relations of auditory discrimination and intelligence to reading achievement in first grade the California Test of Mental Maturity, the California Achievement Test (reading), and the Buktenica Modification of the Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test were administered to 78 first grade students. Correlations suggested a stronger relation between auditory discrimination and reading than between IQ and reading as measured here; however, range of reading scores was restricted. Results support Wepman's developmental theory. The methodological approach includes simultaneous consideration of effects of auditory discrimination and intelligence.

Process assessment is offered as an alternative frame of reference for conducting psychoeducational assessment. Underlying issues such as the assessment-intervention link, nondiscriminatory assessment, and the assessment-environment link, provide the basic rationale for an approach that emphasizes the process of generating and testing hypotheses during assessment. The research base is presented, as well as a specific model that focuses assessment on the characteristics of the task, the child, and the setting, as well as the interactions between these three factors.

This article describes in detail an organizational consultation intervention designed to create a more effective learning atmosphere by improving intrastaff communication. Using an informal survey accompanied by feedback sessions, the authors were able to reduce the tense school atmosphere and develop a process for ongoing, cooperative problem solving within the staff of an urban public school. This concrete description with emphasis on practical considerations is offered to stimulate programs of intervention at the organizational level, which, although efficient, are rarely used consultation techniques.

This article uses transactional analysis techniques to analyze the variables of successful consultation. A small-N analogue to Behavior Modification Consultation was employed. The data indicates th...

A national survey of graduating students (N=232) and current practitioners (N=195) was conducted to assess their perceptions about their training for the many roles school psychologists are expecte...

Proposed to: (1) design a model drug training program specifically for graduate student school psychologists, (2) implement the program on a pilot basis, and (3) demonstrate an approach to evaluate the program's effectiveness. A 26-hour drug education workshop was presented to 12 graduate student school psychologists as a model training program including a variety of teaching procedures and extensive evaluation. On prepost questionnaires, improved scores reflected increased understanding of drug-related laws and terminology. While participant's ratings of their knowledge about drugs did not increase, they did rate themselves as more competent regarding drug problems. The workshop's affective climate and many of the teaching techniques were rated positively. The contributions of this workshop were its focus on training techniques and the development of one approach for evaluating training projects for school psychologists.

The purpose of this investigation was to respond to two deficiencies in past consultation research. It described the consultee-centered consultation techniques which were used, and it attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of consultee-centered consultation in changing observable teacher behavior. Evidence was presented to show how consultation was followed by a reduction in the negative verbal behavior of two out of three teachers who participated in the study. An attempt was made to show how this study related to Caplan's (1970) assumptions regarding consultee-centered case-consultation. It was concluded that multiple baseline designs offer a viable approach to experimental research in consultation with small numbers of subjects.

This paper proposes a consultative model for school psychology which includes several techniques that have been independently presented in the past. The primary contribution is the integration of these different methods into a model which is specifically designed for school psychologists. The proposed model is adapted from Caplan (1970), and it includes four levels of functioning: I) Direct Service to the Child; II) Indirect Service to the Child; III) Direct Service to the Teacher; and IV) Service to the School System; a distinction is made between the content and process of consultation, and a shift in emphasis from level I to the remaining levels is suggested.

This paper has pointed out some important goals, techniques, and dilemmas associated with consultation training and it has reviewed some of the relevant literature. A variety of ideas have been presented that should be useful to the trainer devising a workshop, a course, or a series of programmatic training experiences. In addition to describing key goals for training, the training techniques included readings, writing projects, and other didactic exercises, as well as modeling, role-playing with feedback, andin vivo practice with feedback. However, it should be noted that one important issue that has been ignored in the literature on consultation training is theconsultee (Meyers, Note 2). Effective consultation would be more likely if consultees receiving training regarding the knowledge base of consultation and the skills necessary to be an effective consultee.