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Škoda, povzročena na domačih živalih, je ena glavnih težav pri ohranitvenem upravljanju z volkom (Canis lupus). Škodo se pogosto poskuša zmanjšati z odstrelom volkov. V pričujoči raziskavi smo analizirali učinke legalnega odstrela volkov na obseg škode v Sloveniji ter pripravili pregled podobnih raziskav iz tujine. V letih 1995-2009 je bilo legalno odstreljenih 51 volkov in zabeleženih 2221 primerov napadov volkov na domače živali. S statističnimi analizami nismo ugotovili nobenih vplivov odstrela volkov na višino škode. Učinkov odstrela ni bilo zaslediti niti tedaj, ko smo med seboj primerjali najbolj ekstremna leta. Naši rezultati se ujemajo z izsledki tujih raziskav, ki prav tako opozarjajo, da (v nasprotju s splošnim prepričanjem!) trajnostni lov volkov ni učinkovit ukrep za zmanjšanje škode. Odstrel postane učinkovit šele, če z njim iztrebimo celo populacijo ali odstranimo večino volkov iz večjega območja. Ker je škoda na drobnici v Sloveniji resen problem in ker odstrel volkov očitno nima želenega učinka, priporočamo, da se v prihodnje napori in sredstva osredotočijo v bolj učinkovite ukrepe. Livestock depredations are one of the main challenges in the management of thegrey wolf (Canis lupus) and culling of the wolves is a measure often used in an attempt to reduce damages. In the present study we analyzed effects of the legal wolf culling on livestock depredations in Slovenia and made a reviewof similar studies from other regions. 51 wolves were legally culled and2,221 attacks on livestock were recorded in Slovenia in 1995-2009. Our analysis did not show any effects of the culling on the number of depredationsduring the study period. No effects were detected even when the most extreme years were compared. Our results are in agreement with those fromother studies that showed that sustainable hunting of wolves is not an effective measure to reduce live-stock depredations. Wolf removal becomes efficient only when wolves are completely exterminated or when the majority ofwolves are removed from a large area. Because depredation of small live-stock in Slovenia presents a serious problem and since wolf culling does not seem to be efficient, we recommend that more attention and resources should be focused on more effective measures.

In most mammalian species, body mass is one of the key factors affecting an individual's fitness. It is therefore important to know the causes of its variability. The present paper analyses the influences of habitat structure and other environmental factors on body mass in red deer. The research is based on data sets concerning 3,920 culled red deer from the entire Slovenia, which are geo-referenced within a kilometer spatial accuracy, and on 28 spatially explicit raster layers of population density, habitat structure variables (e.g. topography, land use, forest structure, roads) and other environmental variables (e.g. air temperature, precipitation, supplementary feeding). After controlling for sex and age of the individual and its date of culling, body weight significantly differs between population areas, most likely as a result of genotype differences and genotype impact on the phenotype, and is also negatively dependent upon population density and the percentage of conifers and positively dependent upon annual mean air temperature and forest/meadow edge density. The stated environmental factors probably influence the achieved energy balance and, therefore, the body mass of red deer by conditioning the quantity and quality of food and energy expenditure of deer. Telesna masa je pri večini vrst sesalcev eden najpomembnejših faktorjev, ki vpliva na vitalnost osebka. Zato je pomembno poznati vzroke njene variabilnosti. V raziskavi smo celostno preučili vplive okoljskih dejavnikov na telesno maso jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus). Raziskava temelji na podatkih o 3.920 uplenjenih osebkih jelenjadi iz vse Slovenije, ki so georeferencirani s kilometrsko natančnostjo, in na 28 prostorsko-eksplicitnih rastrskih GIS-plasteh, ki podajajo populacijsko gostoto, zgradbo prostora (npr. topografija, raba tal, vegetacija, ceste) ter vrednosti drugih okoljskih spremenljivk (npr. temperatura zraka, padavine, dopolnilno krmljenje). Telesnamasa se po kontroliranju vplivov spola in starosti osebka ter datuma njegovega odvzema značilno razlikuje med populacijskimi območji, kar je verjetno posledica vplivov genotipa na fenotip; poleg tega je negativno odvisna od populacijske gostote in deleža iglavcev ter pozitivno od povprečne celoletne temperature zraka in gostote gozdnega roba. Naštete okoljske spremenljivke verjetno vplivajo na doseženo energijsko bilanco in torej tudi na telesno maso jelenjadi s pogojevanjem količine in kakovosti hrane ter porabe energije.

Poznavanje številčnosti in lokalnih gostot populacij rastlinojedih parkljarjevje pomembno pri reševanju številnih upravljavskih in temeljno-bioloških vprašanj. Po svetu se za ocenjevanje številčnosti parkljarjev pogosto uporabljajo metode štetja kupčkov iztrebkov, ki pa so pri nas ostale več ali manj prezrte. Z namenom spodbujanja njihove rabe smo pripravili celosten pregled metod s priporočili za Slovenijo. Uveljavljena stadva načina izvedbe, t.j. s predhodnim čiščenjem in brez čiščenja kupčkov iztrebkov pri slednjem moramo oceniti tudi čas razgradnje iztrebkov, ki se lahko med mikrohabitati in letnimi časi močno spreminja, zato tega načina ne priporočamo. Vzorčenje lahko poteka na vzorčnih ploskvah različnih oblik in velikosti ali z metodo linijskega transekta izbira konkretne metode je odvisna od pričakovane gostote parkljarjev in preglednosti terena, ki pogojujemožnost zaznavanja iztrebkov. Zaradi heterogenosti habitatov je raziskovalno območje priporočljivo predhodno stratificirati po habitatni primernosti glede na pričakovane gostote parkljarjev. Stopnje iztrebljanja (t.j. število izločenih kupčkov iztrebkov / dan) se znotraj vrst spreminjajo glede na letni čas, spol in starost živali, vendar zaradi primerljivosti rezultatov svetujemo uporabo konstantnih stopenj (za jelenjad 25 in za srnjad 20 kupčkov iztrebkov) ter večkratno ponovitev vzorčenja v različnih letnih časih, s čimer pokrijemo sezonske razlike v rabi prostora. Na natančnost rezultatov vplivata predvsem priprava in izvedba vzorčenja, zato je treba tej fazi dela posvetiti veliko pozornost. Knowledge of abundance and local densities of deer populations is important inmanagement as well as in biological context. Faecal pellet-group count method, widely used around the world for estimating deer numbers, has been almost neglected in our country. Therefore, we have prepared a comprehensive overview of the method with recommendations for Slovenia to enhance its use. In principle, there are two ways to perform the faecal pellet-group count method, i.e. clearance plot and standing crop method. The latter is not recommended in a daily management practice, as it requires faecal pellet-groupdecay rate estimation, which is rather season and microhabitat specific. Sampling can be done on sampling plots of different shapes and sizesor with the line transect method. Sampling design depends on expected deer densities and ground cover dependent pellet-group detectability. Since distinct habitats are used differentially by the deer, study area stratification on specific habitat types regarding the expected deer densitiesis recommended. Within the species, defecation rates (i.e. number of pellet-groups per day) vary according to season, animal age and gender nevertheless, due to comparative reasons we recommend the use of constant defecation rates (i.e. 25 for the red deer, 20 for the roe deer, respectively). Moreover, multiple samplings are needed to cover seasonal variety in habitat use. Sampling design is of a major importance for the success of the method and has the biggest impact on the precision of deer numbers/densities estimates, therefore much effort should be devoted to this stage.

Population size and range of wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) have increased significantly during the past decades in Slovenia, as well as in other European countries. Simultaneously, this has caused an increase in agricultural damages. In this study, we examined the influence of various environmental factors on wild boar spatial distribution, and identified its current and potential population distribution range for Slovenia. The researchis based on a large sample (N = 5.977) of georeferenced locations of boar harvested from the entire country and on GIS data layers (25 environmental variables). Analyses revealed that wild boar densities are highest in areas: (a) with outstanding availability of energy-rich food items (i.e. adult deciduous forests with high hard mast production and supplemental feeding places) and good cover accessibility (i.e. agricultural areas near forests and early successional areas); (b) where the temperatures are high andwinters are mild with low snowfall (the probability of use increases with temperature and decreases with quantity of precipitation). Spatial distribution of wild boar also depends on the percentage of forests and the level of forest fragmentation (i.e. size of forest fragments). Currently, boars inhabit 55% of Slovenia, yet the potential habitat extends up to 67% of the country. The wild boar population size and range are therefore likely to increase, especially if the current trends of environmental changes continue, such as rising temperatures, increased forested area, and a decrease in coniferous trees. Številčnost in območje razširjenosti divjega prašiča (Sus scrofa L.) sta se v Sloveniji in drugih evropskih državah v zadnjih desetletjih občutno povečala; posledično so narasle tudi škode, ki jih povzroča v kmetijstvu. V raziskavi smo preučili, kateri okoljski dejavniki ključno vplivajo na prostorsko razporeditev divjega prašiča, in za Slovenijo ugotovili njegovo sedanje in potencialno območje razširjenosti. Raziskava temelji na velikem vzorcu (N = 5.977) georeferenciranih lokacij odvzema prašiča iz vse Slovenije in GIS-podatkovnih plasteh (25 okoljskih spremenljivk). Analize kažejo, da so gostote divjega prašiča največje v območjih: (a) z večjo razpoložljivosti energijsko bogate hrane (odrasli sestoji listavcev, krmišča) in dostopnostjo kritja (kmetijske površine blizu gozda, sukcesijske površine); (b) kjer so temperature visoke, zime mile, z malo snega (verjetnost rabe narašča s temperaturo in upada s količino padavin). Njegova prostorska razporeditev je odvisna tudi od gozdnatosti in stopnje fragmentacije gozda. Zdaj poseljuje 55 % Slovenije, njegov potencialni habitat pa obsega 67 % države. Razširjenost inštevilčnost divjega prašiča se bosta zato verjetno še povečevala, zlasti če se bodo nadaljevali sedanji trendi okoljskih sprememb (naraščanje temperature,povečevanje gozdnatosti, izginjanje iglavcev).

Forest damages caused by red deer and some other large herbivore species occasionally feeding on tree bark, are a grave ecological and economic problem in many parts of the world. Winter supplemental feeding is commonly used to mitigate the problem, but its effects are poorly known. This study, carried out at Pohorje (Slovenia) and including over 2,300 trees, used binary logistic regression to analyse the effects of supplemental feeding and many other factors on the probability of bark stripping on spruce. The probability of bark stripping depends on distance from the forest edge, density, age and tree species diversity of stands, slope and aspect of terrain, and red deer density contrary to expectations, it is not related to distance from feeding places. As much as 35% of spruce trees were damaged. The damage was the highest in younger, denser pure spruce stands, whose favourable protective and microclimatic conditions (thinner snow cover, higher effective temperatures) make them a preferred winter habitat for red deer. They contain,however, little other food but bark. To prevent / diminish bark stripping we propose a stronger thinning of such stands. Supplemental feeding may reduce damage only in exceptional cases, when animals are lured and concentrated in less sensitive areas, but in general we advise against the use of this measure due to its other negative effects. Poškodbe gozdov, ki jih zaradi hranjenja z drevesno skorjo povzročajo jelenjad in nekatere druge vrste velikih rastlinojedov, so v mnogih delih sveta resen ekološki in ekonomski problem. Pogosto se ga skuša reševati z zimskim dopolnilnim krmljenjem, katerega učinki pa niso preučeni. V raziskavi,ki je potekala na Pohorju in je zajemala prek 2.300 dreves, smo z logistično regresijo analizirali vplive krmljenja in številnih drugih dejavnikov na pojavljanje poškodb smreke zaradi lupljenja. Pojavljanje poškodb je odvisno od oddaljenosti od gozdnega roba, gostote, starosti in vrstne pestrosti sestojev, nagiba in ekspozicije terena in gostote jelenjadi, proti pričakovanjem pa ne od oddaljenosti od krmišč poškodovanih je bilo kar 35 % smrek. Zlasti so poškodovani mlajši, čisti, gosti smrekovi sestoji, saj so zaradi ugodnih varovalnih in mikro-klimatskih razmer (plitvejša snežna odeja, višje efektivne temperature) priljubljen zimski habitat jelenjadi, v katerem pa razen skorje skoraj ni hrane. Za preprečevanje poškodb zato svetujemo močnejša redčenja takih sestojev. S krmljenjem je verjetno škode mogoče zmanjšati le izjemoma, kadar z njim živali odtegnemo na manj občutljiva območja, sicer pa rabo tega ukrepa zaradi drugih negativnih učinkov v splošnem odsvetujemo.

For successful large carnivore conservation it is important to understand mechanisms how large carnivores adapt to human presence, including anthropogenic environmental modifications. Widespread Holarctic distribution throughout various levels of human-use makes the brown bear (Ursus arctos) an appropriate model species for studying response to anthropogenic effects in large carnivores. We reviewed the literature throughout entire species% range to examine how bears modify their habitat use in response to the intensity of anthropogenic modifications of their environment. Results indicate that bears in general avoid human structures, with strongest avoidance observed for permanently inhabited areas and high-traffic roads. We observed their stronger avoidance of human structures in areas with higher human population densities. Comparison between Europe and North America indicate stronger avoidance of urban areas among European bears, while no obvious differences were observed for other types of anthropogenic infrastructure. We suggest caution when comparing responses among study areas, because most bear habitat-use studies reported only relative habitat selection (i.e. use relative to the availability) and there is lack of reported data on absolute habitat use. Therefore we recommend analysis of original data across the s Za dolgoročno varstvo velikih zveri je pomembno razumevanje mehanizmov njihovega prilagajanja na prisotnost človeka, vključno z antropogenimi spremembami prostora. Rjavi medved (Ursus arctos) je za tovrstne raziskave zaradi holarktične razširjenosti in pojavljanja v različnih okoljih dobra modelna vrsta. S pregledom raziskav s celotnega območja razširjenosti vrste v svetu smo preučevali, kako medvedi prilagajajo rabo prostora intenziteti človekovih posegov v prostor. Medved se v splošnem antropogenim strukturam izogiba, še posebej stalno poseljenim območjem in močneje obremenjenim prometnicam. Zaznali smo tudi trend, da se medvedi na območjih z večjo gostoto prebivalstva pogosteje izogibajo antropogenim strukturam. Primerjava med Evropo in Severno Ameriko je nakazala večje izogibanje medvedov urbanim površinam v Evropi, pri drugih tipih antropogenih struktur pa so bile razlike med kontinentoma majhne. Pri primerjavi študij je vendarle potrebna previdnost, saj je večina obravnavanih raziskav temeljila na ugotavljanju relativne rabe prostora (t.j. raba glede na razpoložljivo), statistike absolutne rabe pa niso dovolj pogosto podane. Za ovrednotenje dejanske razlike v rabi prostora posameznih populacij medvedov iz okolij z različno stopnjo antropogenih motenj zato predlagamo analizo surovih podatkov.

Velike prostoživeče rastlinojede uvrščamo med ključne vrste kopenskih ekosistemov, saj neposredno in posredno vplivajo na številne druge skupine organizmov in na zgradbo ter delovanje celotnih ekosistemov. Veliki rastlinojedi s prehranjevanjem, teptanjem, uriniranjem in iztrebljanjem prerazporejajo hranila, vplivajo na zbitje, prezračenost in erozijo tal, razširjajo rastlinska semena ter pogosto povečujejo raznovrstnost travniških ekosistemov, še zlasti v produktivnih travniških ekosistemih, na primer v zmernem podnebju Evrope. Številčnost in prostorska razširjenost večine vrst prostoživečih prežvekovalcev narašča v večjem delu Evrope, vključno s Slovenijo. Na posameznih, prostorsko omejenih lokacijah se povečujejo težave (npr. izgube travniške krme na travinju) predvsem zaradi paše jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus L.). Deli Notranjske in Kočevske se hitro zaraščajo, hkrati so to območja z največjimi gostotami jelenjadi, kar povečuje njene pritiske na preostale travnike in pašnike, zlasti tiste, ki so intenzivneje gnojeni. Slednje se zlasti med oškodovanci (kmetovalci) pogosto poudarja kot pomembna škoda zaradi izgube v pridelavi travniške krme. Vendar lahko parkljarji vplivajo na gospodarsko donosnost travinja tudi posredno, in sicer z oblikovanjem vrstne sestave travišč ter spreminjanjem produktivnosti tal. Za celostno upravljanje je treba poznati tudi njihove neposredne in posredne ekološke vplive in pomene. V članku smo zato pripravili pregled domačih in tujih raziskav neposrednih in posrednih vplivov prostoživečih velikih rastlinojedov na travniške ekosisteme. Free-ranging large herbivores are keystone species in terrestrial ecosystems, and have an important ecological role by affecting both the structure and the function of plant communities and other groups of organisms. Large herbivores often increase plant diversity especially in more productive grasslands such as temperate grasslands in Europe. Additionally, other important effects of ruminants are redistribution of nutrients by feeding and subsequent excretion of urine and dung, soil compaction and erosion via trampling and dispersal of seeds, respectively. In Europe, populations of several ruminants species are increasing both in number and geographical distribution, and problems connected with effects of grazing of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on grassland in some locations in Slovenia have been increasing as well. Several areas of the Inner Carniola and Kočevje regions have been overgrown with forest, and these areas have the highest density of red deer. Therefore, the pressure of red deer on the remaining grasslands is increasing and may cause important economic loss for land owners. Ungulates can affect the economic profitability of grasslands also indirectly, through the impact on species composition of grasslands and by altering the overall productivity of soil. For proper management of their populations both direct and indirect ecological impacts and value of free-ranging ungulates have to be known. Therefore, an overview of foreign and Slovene studies related to the impacts of free-ranging ruminants on grassland ecosystems is presented in the paper.

The Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) is a species of caprid (goat-antelope) native to Atlas Mountains of North Africa from Mauritania in the west to the Red Sea in the east. During 2002, five Barbary sheep (three females and two males) of unknown origin have been illegally released in the southern Dinaric region (Mosor Mountain ; 1.339 m a.s.l.) of Croatia. In order to better understand the ecology of the Barbary sheep, especially its general activity pattern, habitat selection, and potential for further spatial expansion, we captured and tracked six animals with the use of GPS-GSM collars. Animals cumulatively moved 1.63 km per day and their circadian activity had two pronounced peaks in the morning and in the evening. Peak activity changed in accordance to seasonal dynamics of the photoperiod. Generally, the tracked animals moved mainly along the mountain ridges of Mosor Mt. and several times moved along the entire range (approx. 25 km) in relatively short time (2-4 days). On the other hand, movements perpendicular to the main mountain range were short and usually stopped at the mountain foothills with higher vegetation cover and less extreme terrain. Monthly home-range size ranged from 0.6 to 17.0 km2. For one animal we were also able to estimate its annual home-range size: 26.0 km2. Also, camera-trapping was conducted over a 12-month period, using 10 cameras randomly distributed over the study area. Over the study period, a total of 3, 519 JPEG images and six species were recorded: Barbary sheep, wild boar, grey wolf, red fox, badger and wild cat. Current data suggest that Barbary sheep in the study area are limited to the Mosor Mt. range and are unlikely to expand their range.

Tijekom 2002.godine pet jedinki grivastog skakača (tri ženke i dva mužjaka) ilegalno su ispušteni u južnoj dinaridskoj regiji (planina Mosor: 1339 m nadmorske visine) u Hrvatskoj, a trenutna populacija procjenjuje se na 210 životinja sa tendencijom povećanja. Na dnevni ritam kretanja papkara snažno utječu razni biotički i abiotički faktori. Tijekom toplih perioda planinski papkari koji žive na otvorenim područjima tipično pokazuju bimodalni uzorak ritma aktivnosti, najviše u zoru i sumrak. Ali, do danas, jako malo se zna o uzorcima aktivnosti slobodnih alohtonih grivastih skakača u područjima gdje je prisutan veliki predator (vuk). Koristeći deset senzornih kamera kroz period od dva mjeseca, ispitali smo uzorke kretanja grivastih skakača na raznim lokacijama i nadmorskim visinama, te u tri vrste staništa (šuma, kamenjar i makija). Dnevna dinamika je bila najveća u dva perioda, ujutro između 5:00 i 7:00, te navečer između 19:00 i 21:00 (s prosjekom 1, 8 jedinki po snimci). Postotak uspješnosti u snimanju sa senzornim kamerama ukazala je na znatne razlike u uzorku aktivnosti grivastog skakača ovisno u kojem su staništu snimani, najveća aktivnost bila je na nadmorskoj visini od 679 m u kamenjaru, dok aktivnosti nije bilo pri nadmorskoj visini od 357 m u grmovitom staništu. Također, 11 Ožujka 2015. dvije jedinke uhvaćene su mrežom i označene GPS-GSM ogrlicama. Ogrlice su namještene da snimaju lokaciju svakog punog sata, 24 sata na dan. Ženku (4 godine starosti) zaklali su vukovi tijekom noći 22 Ožujka 2015 u 23:45 sati, svega 11 dana nakon što je ogrlica postavljena. Iz tog razloga njene podatke nismo analizirali. Prosječna suma dnevne prijeđene udaljenosti mužjaka (3 godine starosti) iznosila je samo 1, 61 km. Mužjakova dnevna razina aktivnosti je tipično najviše izražena u dva intervala, prvi ujutro (oko 6:00), a drugi navečer (20:00 – 22:00). Grivasti skakač tipično iskazuje bimodalni uzorak (sa dva vrha) aktivnosti koji je prethodno već opisan kod divokoze. Iako se naša studija bazira na malom uzorku životinja, jedna je od prvih GPS studija na slobodno živućim grivastim skakačima te zato zahtijeva daljnje istraživanje kako bi se detaljnije razradila ova tema.

The Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) is a species of caprid (goat-antelope) native to Rocky Mountains of North Africa. During 2002 five Barbary sheep (three females and two males) of unknown origin have been illegally released in the southern Dinaric region (Mosor Mountain ; 1.339 m a.s.l.) of Croatia. The current population size is estimated at around 210 animals. Study area is also home to grey wolves, which regularly predate the Barbary sheep. Wild boars are occasionally recorded at the periphery ; otherwise no other large mammals occur in the area, except for domestic sheep and goat. Illegal introduction of Barbary sheep has caused much controversy between hunters and environmental community since first animals were released. Hunters perceive the introduced animals as attractive game species and potential source of income, while environmentalists stress possible negative effects of introduced alien species on native flora and fauna and call for application of existing laws that prescribes complete removal of the introduced animals. In order to better understand ecology of the Barbary sheep, especially its general activity, habitat selection, potential for further spatial expansion and interactions with wolves, we captured and tracked six animals (two females and four males aged 2-4 years) with the use of GPS-GSM collars (Vectronic Aerospace GmbH). GPS collars were set to record a position every full hour, 24-hours per day over one year and then automatically drop-off. One 4-year female was killed by wolves 11 days after capture (predation event occurred at night at 23:45), and one of the collars failed immediately after tagging. Other four animals cumulatively moved 1.63 km per day and their circadian activity has two pronounced peaks at morning and evening. Peak activity changed in accordance to seasonal dynamics of the photoperiod. Generally, the tracked animals moved mainly along the mountain ridges of Mt. Mosor and several times moved along entire range (approx. 25 km) in relatively short time (2-4 days). On the other hand, movements perpendicular to the main mountain range were short and usually stopped at the mountain foothills with higher vegetation cover and less extreme terrain. Monthly home-range size ranged from 0.6 to 17.0 km2 (mean: 5.9 km2). For one animal we were also able to estimate annual home-range size: 26.0 km2. Current data suggest that Barbary sheep in the study area are limited to the Mosor M. range and are unlikely to expand their range. This could be connected with characteristics of surrounding habitat, which makes them vulnerable to wolf predation, as well as with illegal hunting in the surrounding hunting grounds.

Ljudje že od nekdaj prihajamo v konflikte z medvedi in v Sloveniji se v zadnjih letih število konfliktov povečuje. Pogoj za učinkovito preprečevanje problemov z medvedi je dobro razumevanje vzrokov njihovega nastanka. V prispevku predstavljava pregled dosedanjega znanja o konfliktih med medvedi in ljudmi ter izkušnje z različnimi upravljavskimi ukrepi za njihovo preprečevanje iz tujine in Slovenije. Na podlagi pregleda sva pripravila priporočila (upravljavske ukrepe) za zmanjševanje konfliktov, ki so med medvedi in ljudmi zelo raznovrstni večinoma so posledica medvedovega oportunističnega iskanja in pridobivanja hrane ter strahu ljudi pred medvedi. Na verjetnost pojavljanja konfliktov vplivajo številni dejavniki, med katerimije, kot kaže, najpomembnejši dostopnost do hrane človeškega izvora (klavniški odpadki, smeti itn.). Po drugi strani pa številčnost medvedov bistveno ne vpliva na število konfliktov. Precej pomembnejše je število konfliktnih osebkov, ki, čeprav so le majhen del populacije, pogosto povzročijo velik del vseh težav, medtem ko večina medvedov prihaja v konfliktele poredko ali sploh nikoli. Izkušnje iz zadnjih desetletij po vsem svetu kažejo, da je eden najpomembnejših ukrepov za učinkovito zmanjševanje konfliktov preprečevanje dostopa do hrane človeškega izvora. Pri nas doslej temu nismo namenjali zadostne pozornosti, zato sva pripravila seznam prioritetnih ukrepov za Slovenijo, ki so se v tujini že izkazali za zelo učinkovite in ki bi lahko bistveno zmanjšali težave z medvedi. Poleg ureditve problematike hrane človeškega izvora je pomemben kratkoročni ukrep tudi odstranjevanje konfliktnih osebkov, če to ne ogroža populacije medvedov. Throughout the history people have always been coming into conflicts with bears and number of conflicts in Slovenia is increasing in recent years. Good understanding of causes for human-bear conflicts is the first step for their effective resolution. In this paper we present a review of the existing knowledge of human-bear conflicts and experiences with different conflict mitigation measures from Slovenia and other countries. Based on this review we prepared recommendations for future management of human-bear conflicts in Slovenia. Human-bear conflicts are very diverse and are mainly connected with bear's opportunistic foraging and consumption of food and with people's fear of bear attack on humans. Several factors affect probability of human-bear conflict and the most important is probably access to anthropogenic food (slaughter remains, garbage etc.). On the other hand, it seems that bear density is not significantly connected with number of conflicts. Much more important is the number of problematic bears. Although such bears represent only a small part of bear population, they usually cause majority of all human-bear conflicts, while majority of other bears get involved in conflict only rarely or never. Experiences from last decades worldwide indicate that one of the most effective conflict prevention measures is to prevent bears' access to anthropogenic food sources. In Slovenia very little attention has been given to this management measures so far. We prepared a list of priority conflict prevention measures that proved to be very effective in other countries and could considerably decrease number of conflicts in Slovenia. In addition to prevention of access to anthropogenic food, also removal of conflict bears is important short-term conflict resolution measure, given that such intervention doesnʼt threaten the bear population.

Poznavanje območij razširjenosti in gostot populacij prostoživečih živali je pomembno s temeljno-bioloških pa tudi upravljavskih vidikov. To zlasti velja za parkljarje, saj imajo pomembno ekosistemsko vlogo (npr. vplivi na obnovo indinamiko razvoja gozda, prehranska baza velikim zverem) in gospodarski pomen(škoda na kmetijskih in gozdnih zemljiščih, lovstvo). Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti in prikazati območja razširjenosti in lokalne gostote srnjadi (Capreolus capreolus L.), jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus L.), divjega prašiča (Sus scrofa L.) in gamsa (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) za območje celotne Slovenije. V ta namen smo uporabili podatke o odvzemu (199.050 osebkov srnjadi, 22.960 jelenjadi, 31.777 divjega prašiča in 11.758 gamsa) iz baze Osrednji slovenski register velike lovne divjadi in velikih zveri za obdobje 2004-2008, ki so prostorsko opredeljeni s kilometrsko natančnostjo. S pomočjo fiksne kernelske metode smo za vse štiri vrste izdelali karte območij razširjenosti, ki ločujejo tri range gostot (kjer je bilo odvzetih 95, 65 oz. 35 % osebkov). Populacijska območja srnjadi pokrivajo 79,2 %, jelenjadi 35,8 %, divjega prašiča 46,0 % in gamsa 21,9 % površine države. V prispevku razglabljamo, kateri dejavniki vplivajo oz. so vplivali na razširjenost in gostote obravnavanih vrst. The knowledge of distribution and population densities of wild animals is important from both basic biological and management aspects. This is especially important for ungulates because of their ecosystem role (e.g. impacts on forest regeneration and forest dynamics, prey basis for large carnivores) and economic implications (damages in forestry and agriculture, hunting). The aim of this study was to determine and to present distribution and local densities of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), wild boar (Sus scrofa L.), and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) for whole Slovenia. We used data of recorded mortality (199 050 roe deer, 22 960 red deer, 31 777 wild boar, and 11 758 chamois) from the database of the "Central Slovenian register of game species and large carnivores" for the period 2004 - 2008, which are georeferenced with 1 km accuracy. We used fixed kernel method to present distribution maps for all four ungulate species with three ranks of their relative densities (95, 65, and 35 % of recorded dead animals). Distribution areas cover 79.2 %, 35.8 %, 46.0 %, and 21.9 % of territory of Slovenia for roe deer, red deer, wild boar, and chamois. We discuss the factors that affect or have affected distribution and densities of these species.

Free-ranging large herbivores are keystone species in terrestrial ecosystems, and have an important ecological role by affecting both the structure and the function of plant communities and other groups of organisms. Large herbivores often increase plant diversity especially in more productive grasslands such as temperate grasslands in Europe. Additionally, other important effects of ruminants are redistribution of nutrients by feeding and subsequent excretion of urine and dung, soil compaction and erosion via trampling and dispersal of seeds, respectively. In Europe, populations of several ruminants species are increasing both in number and geographical distribution, and problems connected with effects of grazing of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on grassland in some locations in Slovenia have been increasing as well. Several areas of the Inner Carniola and Kočevje regions have been overgrown with forest, and these areas have the highest density of red deer. Therefore, the pressure of red deer on the remaining grasslands is increasing and may cause important economic loss for land owners. Ungulates can affect the economic profitability of grasslands also indirectly, through the impact on species composition of grasslands and by altering the overall productivity of soil. For proper management of their populations both direct and indirect ecological impacts and value of free-ranging ungulates have to be known. Therefore, an overview of foreign and Slovene studies related to the impacts of free-ranging ruminants on grassland ecosystems is presented in the paper.

During year 2002 five Barbary sheep (three females and two males) of unknown origin have been illegally released in the southern Dinaric region (Mosor Mountain ; 1.339 m a.s.l.) of Croatia. To date, however, little is known about the activity patterns of free range nonnative Barbary sheep. Therefore, on 11 of March 2015 two individuals (one male and one female) were caught in the net and tagged with GPS-GSM collars as a part of the larger ongoing GPS telemetry study. GPS collars were set to record a position every full hour, 24- hours per day. Female (4 years old) was killed by the wolves at night (23:45) on 22 of March 2015, just 11 days after GPS-tagging. Therefore we did not analyze its GPS data. Male (3 years old) abandoned vicinity of capture-release location 18 days after the release, moved approximately 15 km toward the south-east along mountain ridge of Mosor and settled down. His average daily sum of traveled distances was only 1.64 km. His circadiurnal locomotion activity typically exhibits two pronounced peaks, first one in the morning (6:00 am) and second one in the evening (20:00 pm), and two periods of low activity, first one lasting from 2:00-4:00 am, and second one during midday (11:00-14:00). Results of daily activity of Barbary sheep can be described as a bimodal which is typical pattern described in chamois populations. Our study was based on a small number of animals but still is one of the first GPS studies on free range Barbary sheep.

Free-ranging large herbivores are keystone species in terrestrial ecosystems, and have an important ecological role by affecting both the structure and the function of plant communities and other groups of organisms. Large herbivores often increase plant diversity especially in more productive grasslands such as temperate grasslands in Europe. Additionally, other important effects of ruminants are redistribution of nutrients by feeding and subsequent excretion of urine and dung, soil compaction and erosion via trampling and dispersal of seeds, respectively. In Europe, populations of several ruminants species are increasing both in number and geographical distribution, and problems connected with effects of grazing of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on grassland in some locations in Slovenia have been increasing as well. Several areas of the Inner Carniola and Kočevje regions have been overgrown with forest, and these areas have the highest density of red deer. Therefore, the pressure of red deer on the remaining grasslands is increasing and may cause important economic loss for land owners. Ungulates can affect the economic profitability of grasslands also indirectly, through the impact on species composition of grasslands and by altering the overall productivity of soil. For proper management of their populations both direct and indirect ecological impacts and value of free-ranging ungulates have to be known. Therefore, an overview of foreign and Slovene studies related to the impacts of free-ranging ruminants on grassland ecosystems is presented in the paper. Velike prostoživeče rastlinojede uvrščamo med ključne vrste kopenskih ekosistemov, saj neposredno in posredno vplivajo na številne druge skupine organizmov in na zgradbo ter delovanje celotnih ekosistemov. Veliki rastlinojedi s prehranjevanjem, teptanjem, uriniranjem in iztrebljanjem prerazporejajo hranila, vplivajo na zbitje, prezračenost in erozijo tal, razširjajo rastlinska semena ter pogosto povečujejo raznovrstnost travniških ekosistemov, še zlasti v produktivnih travniških ekosistemih, na primer v zmernem podnebju Evrope. Številčnost in prostorska razširjenost večine vrst prostoživečih prežvekovalcev narašča v večjem delu Evrope, vključno s Slovenijo. Na posameznih, prostorsko omejenih lokacijah se povečujejo težave (npr. izgube travniške krme na travinju) predvsem zaradi paše jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus L.). Deli Notranjske in Kočevske se hitro zaraščajo, hkrati so to območja z največjimi gostotami jelenjadi, kar povečuje njene pritiske na preostale travnike in pašnike, zlasti tiste, ki so intenzivneje gnojeni. Slednje se zlasti med oškodovanci (kmetovalci) pogosto poudarja kot pomembna škoda zaradi izgube v pridelavi travniške krme. Vendar lahko parkljarji vplivajo na gospodarsko donosnost travinja tudi posredno, in sicer z oblikovanjem vrstne sestave travišč ter spreminjanjem produktivnosti tal. Za celostno upravljanje je treba poznati tudi njihove neposredne in posredne ekološke vplive in pomene. V članku smo zato pripravili pregled domačih in tujih raziskav neposrednih in posrednih vplivov prostoživečih velikih rastlinojedov na travniške ekosisteme.

During year 2002 five Barbary sheep (three females and two males) of unknown origin have been illegally released in the southern Dinaric region (Mosor Mountain ; 1.339 m a.s.l.) of Croatia and the current population size is estimated to be at around 210 animals with an increasing tendency. Daily activity rhythms of ungulates are strongly affected by a range of biotic and abiotic factors. During warm periods, mountain ungulates living in open areas typically show a bimodal pattern of activity rhythms, with peaks at dawn and dusk. To date, however, little is known about the activity patterns of free range nonnative Barbary sheep in areas where large predator (wolves) is present. Using ten camera-traps over a 2-month period between mid-May and mid-July of 2015, we investigated the activity patterns of Barbary sheep in different locations and altitudes, in three types of habitats (forest, rock and bush). Daily dynamics were highest in two periods, in the morning between 5:00 am and 7:00 am and also in the evening between 7:00 pm and 9:00 pm (with an average of 1.8 individuals per photo). The success rates in camera-trapping suggested significant differences in Barbary sheep activity patterns between habitat types, the highest activity was at elevation of 679 m in rock habitat while the no activity was at elevation 357 m in bush habitat. Also, on 11 of March 2015 two individuals (one male and one female) were caught in the net and tagged with GPS-GSM collars. GPS collars were set to record a position every full hour, 24-hours per day. Female (4 years old) was killed by the wolves at night (23:45) on 22 of March 2015, just 11 days after GPS-tagging. Therefore we did not analyze its GPS data. The male (3 years old) average daily sum of traveled distances was only 1, 61 km. His circa diurnal locomotion activity typically exhibits two pronounced peaks, first one in the morning (around 6:00 am) and second one in the evening (20:00-20:00 pm). Barbary sheep exhibits typical bimodal pattern (with two peaks) of activity that has been previously also described in chamois. Our study were based on a small number of animals but still is one of the first GPS studies on free range Barbary sheep, though further investigations is necessary to better illuminate this issue.

Poznavanje številčnosti in lokalnih gostot populacij rastlinojedih parkljarjevje pomembno pri reševanju številnih upravljavskih in temeljno-bioloških vprašanj. Po svetu se za ocenjevanje številčnosti parkljarjev pogosto uporabljajo metode štetja kupčkov iztrebkov, ki pa so pri nas ostale več ali manj prezrte. Z namenom spodbujanja njihove rabe smo pripravili celosten pregled metod s priporočili za Slovenijo. Uveljavljena stadva načina izvedbe, t.j. s predhodnim čiščenjem in brez čiščenja kupčkov iztrebkov pri slednjem moramo oceniti tudi čas razgradnje iztrebkov, ki se lahko med mikrohabitati in letnimi časi močno spreminja, zato tega načina ne priporočamo. Vzorčenje lahko poteka na vzorčnih ploskvah različnih oblik in velikosti ali z metodo linijskega transekta izbira konkretne metode je odvisna od pričakovane gostote parkljarjev in preglednosti terena, ki pogojujemožnost zaznavanja iztrebkov. Zaradi heterogenosti habitatov je raziskovalno območje priporočljivo predhodno stratificirati po habitatni primernosti glede na pričakovane gostote parkljarjev. Stopnje iztrebljanja (t.j. število izločenih kupčkov iztrebkov / dan) se znotraj vrst spreminjajo glede na letni čas, spol in starost živali, vendar zaradi primerljivosti rezultatov svetujemo uporabo konstantnih stopenj (za jelenjad 25 in za srnjad 20 kupčkov iztrebkov) ter večkratno ponovitev vzorčenja v različnih letnih časih, s čimer pokrijemo sezonske razlike v rabi prostora. Na natančnost rezultatov vplivata predvsem priprava in izvedba vzorčenja, zato je treba tej fazi dela posvetiti veliko pozornost. Knowledge of abundance and local densities of deer populations is important inmanagement as well as in biological context. Faecal pellet-group count method, widely used around the world for estimating deer numbers, has been almost neglected in our country. Therefore, we have prepared a comprehensive overview of the method with recommendations for Slovenia to enhance its use. In principle, there are two ways to perform the faecal pellet-group count method, i.e. clearance plot and standing crop method. The latter is not recommended in a daily management practice, as it requires faecal pellet-groupdecay rate estimation, which is rather season and microhabitat specific. Sampling can be done on sampling plots of different shapes and sizesor with the line transect method. Sampling design depends on expected deer densities and ground cover dependent pellet-group detectability. Since distinct habitats are used differentially by the deer, study area stratification on specific habitat types regarding the expected deer densitiesis recommended. Within the species, defecation rates (i.e. number of pellet-groups per day) vary according to season, animal age and gender nevertheless, due to comparative reasons we recommend the use of constant defecation rates (i.e. 25 for the red deer, 20 for the roe deer, respectively). Moreover, multiple samplings are needed to cover seasonal variety in habitat use. Sampling design is of a major importance for the success of the method and has the biggest impact on the precision of deer numbers/densities estimates, therefore much effort should be devoted to this stage.

Številčnost in območje razširjenosti divjega prašiča (Sus scrofa L.) sta se v Sloveniji in drugih evropskih državah v zadnjih desetletjih občutno povečala posledično so narasle tudi škode, ki jih povzroča v kmetijstvu. V raziskavi smo preučili, kateri okoljski dejavniki ključno vplivajo na prostorsko razporeditev divjega prašiča, in za Slovenijo ugotovili njegovo sedanje in potencialno območje razširjenosti. Raziskava temelji na velikem vzorcu (N = 5.977) georeferenciranih lokacij odvzema prašiča iz vse Slovenije in GIS-podatkovnih plasteh (25 okoljskih spremenljivk). Analize kažejo, da so gostote divjega prašiča največje v območjih: (a) z večjo razpoložljivosti energijsko bogate hrane (odrasli sestoji listavcev, krmišča) in dostopnostjo kritja (kmetijske površine blizu gozda, sukcesijske površine) (b) kjer so temperature visoke, zime mile, z malo snega (verjetnost rabe narašča s temperaturo in upada s količino padavin). Njegova prostorska razporeditev je odvisna tudi od gozdnatosti in stopnje fragmentacije gozda. Zdaj poseljuje 55 % Slovenije, njegov potencialni habitat pa obsega 67 % države. Razširjenost inštevilčnost divjega prašiča se bosta zato verjetno še povečevala, zlasti če se bodo nadaljevali sedanji trendi okoljskih sprememb (naraščanje temperature,povečevanje gozdnatosti, izginjanje iglavcev). Population size and range of wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) have increased significantly during the past decades in Slovenia, as well as in other European countries. Simultaneously, this has caused an increase in agricultural damages. In this study, we examined the influence of various environmental factors on wild boar spatial distribution, and identified its current and potential population distribution range for Slovenia. The researchis based on a large sample (N = 5.977) of georeferenced locations of boar harvested from the entire country and on GIS data layers (25 environmental variables). Analyses revealed that wild boar densities are highest in areas: (a) with outstanding availability of energy-rich food items (i.e. adult deciduous forests with high hard mast production and supplemental feeding places) and good cover accessibility (i.e. agricultural areas near forests and early successional areas) (b) where the temperatures are high andwinters are mild with low snowfall (the probability of use increases with temperature and decreases with quantity of precipitation). Spatial distribution of wild boar also depends on the percentage of forests and the level of forest fragmentation (i.e. size of forest fragments). Currently, boars inhabit 55% of Slovenia, yet the potential habitat extends up to 67% of the country. The wild boar population size and range are therefore likely to increase, especially if the current trends of environmental changes continue, such as rising temperatures, increased forested area, and a decrease in coniferous trees.

Telesna masa je pri večini vrst sesalcev eden najpomembnejših faktorjev, ki vpliva na vitalnost osebka. Zato je pomembno poznati vzroke njene variabilnosti. V raziskavi smo celostno preučili vplive okoljskih dejavnikov na telesno maso jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus). Raziskava temelji na podatkih o 3.920 uplenjenih osebkih jelenjadi iz vse Slovenije, ki so georeferencirani s kilometrsko natančnostjo, in na 28 prostorsko-eksplicitnih rastrskih GIS-plasteh, ki podajajo populacijsko gostoto, zgradbo prostora (npr. topografija, raba tal, vegetacija, ceste) ter vrednosti drugih okoljskih spremenljivk (npr. temperatura zraka, padavine, dopolnilno krmljenje). Telesnamasa se po kontroliranju vplivov spola in starosti osebka ter datuma njegovega odvzema značilno razlikuje med populacijskimi območji, kar je verjetno posledica vplivov genotipa na fenotip poleg tega je negativno odvisna od populacijske gostote in deleža iglavcev ter pozitivno od povprečne celoletne temperature zraka in gostote gozdnega roba. Naštete okoljske spremenljivke verjetno vplivajo na doseženo energijsko bilanco in torej tudi na telesno maso jelenjadi s pogojevanjem količine in kakovosti hrane ter porabe energije. In most mammalian species, body mass is one of the key factors affecting an individual's fitness. It is therefore important to know the causes of its variability. The present paper analyses the influences of habitat structure and other environmental factors on body mass in red deer. The research is based on data sets concerning 3,920 culled red deer from the entire Slovenia, which are geo-referenced within a kilometer spatial accuracy, and on 28 spatially explicit raster layers of population density, habitat structure variables (e.g. topography, land use, forest structure, roads) and other environmental variables (e.g. air temperature, precipitation, supplementary feeding). After controlling for sex and age of the individual and its date of culling, body weight significantly differs between population areas, most likely as a result of genotype differences and genotype impact on the phenotype, and is also negatively dependent upon population density and the percentage of conifers and positively dependent upon annual mean air temperature and forest/meadow edge density. The stated environmental factors probably influence the achieved energy balance and, therefore, the body mass of red deer by conditioning the quantity and quality of food and energy expenditure of deer.

Poškodbe gozdov, ki jih zaradi hranjenja z drevesno skorjo povzročajo jelenjad in nekatere druge vrste velikih rastlinojedov, so v mnogih delih sveta resen ekološki in ekonomski problem. Pogosto se ga skuša reševati z zimskim dopolnilnim krmljenjem, katerega učinki pa niso preučeni. V raziskavi,ki je potekala na Pohorju in je zajemala prek 2.300 dreves, smo z logistično regresijo analizirali vplive krmljenja in številnih drugih dejavnikov na pojavljanje poškodb smreke zaradi lupljenja. Pojavljanje poškodb je odvisno od oddaljenosti od gozdnega roba, gostote, starosti in vrstne pestrosti sestojev, nagiba in ekspozicije terena in gostote jelenjadi, proti pričakovanjem pa ne od oddaljenosti od krmišč poškodovanih je bilo kar 35 % smrek. Zlasti so poškodovani mlajši, čisti, gosti smrekovi sestoji, saj so zaradi ugodnih varovalnih in mikro-klimatskih razmer (plitvejša snežna odeja, višje efektivne temperature) priljubljen zimski habitat jelenjadi, v katerem pa razen skorje skoraj ni hrane. Za preprečevanje poškodb zato svetujemo močnejša redčenja takih sestojev. S krmljenjem je verjetno škode mogoče zmanjšati le izjemoma, kadar z njim živali odtegnemo na manj občutljiva območja, sicer pa rabo tega ukrepa zaradi drugih negativnih učinkov v splošnem odsvetujemo. Forest damages caused by red deer and some other large herbivore species occasionally feeding on tree bark, are a grave ecological and economic problem in many parts of the world. Winter supplemental feeding is commonly used to mitigate the problem, but its effects are poorly known. This study, carried out at Pohorje (Slovenia) and including over 2,300 trees, used binary logistic regression to analyse the effects of supplemental feeding and many other factors on the probability of bark stripping on spruce. The probability of bark stripping depends on distance from the forest edge, density, age and tree species diversity of stands, slope and aspect of terrain, and red deer density contrary to expectations, it is not related to distance from feeding places. As much as 35% of spruce trees were damaged. The damage was the highest in younger, denser pure spruce stands, whose favourable protective and microclimatic conditions (thinner snow cover, higher effective temperatures) make them a preferred winter habitat for red deer. They contain,however, little other food but bark. To prevent / diminish bark stripping we propose a stronger thinning of such stands. Supplemental feeding may reduce damage only in exceptional cases, when animals are lured and concentrated in less sensitive areas, but in general we advise against the use of this measure due to its other negative effects.

Effective population size (Ne) is arguably one of the most elegant concepts in biology, conveniently summarizing both evolutionary potential of a population and its sensitivity to genetic stochasticity in a single parameter. While this parameter used to be very difficult to estimate in a natural population, new methodological developments over the recent years made it possible not only to estimate, but also to monitor effective population size as it changes through time. We collected tissue samples of brown bear mortality in Slovenia and Croatia from late 1990s until 2013 (n=1, 527 individuals), genotyped them using 20 polymorphic microsatellite loci, and determined the age of each animal using tooth cementum rings. We applied several methods for estimating Ne and estimated this parameter for each year with a large enough sample size, from 2000 until 2013. Slovenia and Croatia used to be a part of the same country, share the same brown bear population and used to share similar management objectives. However, we observed that local Ne estimates started to diverge as the bear management in both countries started drifting apart. The differences can be explained by differences in brown bear management objectives and its effects on age/sex structure of mortality, demonstrating both the utility of Ne estimation for monitoring wild bear populations, as well as the effect that local management decisions can have on a bear population at the most fundamental, molecular level.

Croatia and Slovenia share the same brown bear population which is part of the larger Dinara-Pindos population. The species is strictly protected with harvest regulated through "derogations" from Habitat Directive in Slovenia while in Croatia it is still managed as a game. The objective of the study was to contrast the effects of different management systems on demographic characteristics and the long-term sustainability of population. Bear mortality (2005-2010 ; n=614, n=535) and census data (2004-2011) for Slovenia and Croatia, respectively, were used. The largest proportion in the total reported mortality was legally hunted animals, 68% in Croatia and 64% in Slovenia. Test for equality of proportions indicated the proportion of intervention removals in Slovenia (16, 6%) was significantly higher than in Croatia (5, 2% ; ?-sq.= 35.8, df=1, p

Crlaoragteiar aDnidnaSrlao- vPeinndiaosshpaorpeutlhaetisoanm. Tehberoswpencbieesar ispsotpriucltalytiopnrowtehcitcehd iws iptharht aorfvtehset regulated through "derogations" from Habitat Directive in Slovenia while in Croatia it is still managed as a game. The objective of the study was to contrast the effects of different management systems on demographic characteristics and the long-term sustainability of population. Bear mortality (2005-2010 ; n=614, n=535) and census data (2004-2011) for Slovenia and Croatia, respectively, were used. The largest proportion in the total reported mortality was legally hunted animals, 68% in Croatia and 64% in Slovenia. Test for equality of proportions indicated the proportion of intervention removals in Slovenia (16, 6%) was significantly higher than in Croatia (5, 2% ; ?-sq.= 35.8, df=1, p

To check the reliability of macroscopic (ocular) assessment of the age of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) obtained by ocular inspection of teeth eruption and wear (done by hunters or hunter commissions), a validation of the precision of these assessments was carried out on a representative sample set, i.e. a total 2008-annual cull of red deer in the entire Slovenia. The reliability of ocular age assessment test was performed by cutting/grinding of the first mandibular molar (M1) and counting the incremental layers of dental cementum on 821 samples of adults (aged from two to twenty-two years). The ocular age assessment of adult red deer (regardless of sex) was biased with a large error (maximum deviation between both assessments: nine years). With both methods, the same animal age was established in 24.5% of cases, and with the age of the animals the reliability of ocular assessment declined. Ages of hinds and younger stags were both under-assessed and over-assessed; however, ages of older stags were generally over-assessed. Out of 426 analysed stags, 142 (33.3%) were categorized in another age category as found by counting annuli in tooth cementum. This raises doubts about the reliability of the current categorization of adult red deer stags into three age categories (2–4 years old, 5–9 years old, and 10+ years old, respectively); indeed, precise (on a yearly basis) ages of adult stags are impossible to be identified by routine age assessment, such as the inspection of teeth wear

Slovenia and Croatia share the same brown bear population. The species is formally strictly protected with culling regulated through “derogations” in Slovenia while in Croatia it is still managed as a game species. The aim of our study was to gain insight into the long-term sustainability of different management regimes. We used bear mortality data for Slovenia from 1998 to 2008 (n=922) and for Croatia from 2005 to 2009 (n=422). A two-sample test for equality of proportions indicated that, in the total reported mortality, the share of animals killed in quota hunting in Slovenia (59, 4%) was significantly lower (χ-sq.=7.1, df=1, p