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The notion that civil society and democracy go hand in hand has been a cornerstone of modernization theory. The formation of civil society, so the argument went, contributed to the democratization of society and provided the backbone of democracy. If one follows such an interpretation of modernization and of modern society, monarchic systems should be void of civil society. And yet, the case of Germany shows that civil society developed and even flourished within a monarchic society. The Kingdom of Prussia in 1865 was the home to an extensive network of civil society organizations that included associations, endowments, and foundations. These organizations provided services in the fields of education, social welfare, and supported all kinds of cultural institutions. These organizations were essential for the functioning of Prussia's public institutions. Donors who created these institutions had a voice in the shaping of monarchic society, and the visions of donors often coincided with the visions put forward by monarchical rulers. The number of Prussians involved in giving, the number of organizations created, and the amount of money given were truly astonishing. Between 2 and 3% of Prussia's population was involved in civil society organizations. The funds provided by these organizations accounted for 20–30% of public-school funding. And the number of organizations created a tight network that spanned across the entire country. Nineteenth-century monarchic Prussia was not void of civil society as it should have been if American social scientists are correct. Instead, Prussia provided the home to a vibrant civil society. Civil society emerges when societies move from an agrarian and organized system of social hierarchies to an industrial, and traditional social hierarchies destroying system. The destruction of established social hierarchies, the creation and accumulation of wealth, and the emergence of social inequality provided powerful incentives for the formation of civil society. Since this economic modernization and transformation occurred not only within democratic societies such as the USA but also within monarchic societies such as Prussia, civil society developed in both types of political system [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dielectric function, reflectivity and Raman spectra of several epitaxial transition metal nitride films (TiN, ZrN, NbN, TaN, MoN, WN) on MgO substrates are reported. Apart from WN, the studied films exhibit a negative real part of the dielectric function, and thus may sustain plasmonic resonances with varying quality factors and at diverse spectral regions. Epitaxial TiN and ZrN outperform the rest of the studied nitrides in terms of the plasmonic figures of merit. TiN and ZrN colloidal nanoparticles in water and ethanol are predicted to support localized surface plasmon resonances at 596 and 496 nm, respectively. Surprisingly, the reported epitaxial films are not superior to their previously reported polycrystalline counterparts due to the existence of point defects (mostly metal vacancies for group Vb nitrides and both metal and nitrogen vacancies for group VIb nitrides) as revealed by the Raman spectra. Raman spectroscopy emerges as a sensitive tool for the detection of point defects in epitaxial transition metal nitrides via the recording of the otherwise forbidden first order acoustic modes. The role of the various structural defects in the optical and plasmonic performance of the films is discussed. Unlike the traditional plasmonic metals (Ag and Au), the point defects are revealed to be of paramount importance for the optical response of the reported alternative plasmonic materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated temporal adjustment of children with autism spectrum disorder under a differential‐reinforcement‐of‐low‐rates (DRL) schedule. Sixteen participants, aged 3.2 to 7 years, were exposed to two conditions, DRL 5 s and DRL 20 s. Children participated in 7 sessions in each condition, except for 1 participant who attained the adjustment criteria in the DRL 5‐s schedule. Temporal adjustment was measured with the proportion of reinforced interresponse times (IRTs) and the mean IRT. The operant response was a press on a touch screen and the reinforcers were cartoons. IQ and receptive language were measured prior to the DRL sessions. Results showed that the mean proportion of reinforced IRTs was slightly higher in the DRL 5‐s schedule. The mean IRT was above the IRT requirement in both conditions. However, substantial individual variability was observed. Children with higher IQ and receptive language scores presented a greater proportion of reinforced IRTs in both conditions. Moreover, participants who adjusted their responses to the DRL 5‐s schedule were more likely to adjust responding to the DRL 20‐s schedule. This suggests that some children might be more sensitive to reinforcement contingencies than others. This study points at future research in the field of timing in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While development of the Utica/Point Pleasant Shale (UPP) is extensive in Ohio (U.S.) and increasing in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, few studies report the chemistry of produced waters from UPP wells. These data have important implications for developing best management practices for handling and waste disposal, or identifying the fluid in the event of accidental spill events. Here, we evaluated the elemental and isotope chemistry of UPP produced waters from 26 wells throughout Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia to determine any unique fluid chemistries that could be used for forensic studies. Compared to the Marcellus, UPP produced waters contain higher activities of total radium (226Ra + 228Ra) and higher 228Ra/226Ra ratios. As with the Marcellus Shale, elemental ratios (Sr/Ca) and isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) can distinguish UPP produced waters from many conventional oil and gas formations. Sr/Ca and 87Sr/86Sr ratios can fingerprint small fractions (∼0.1%) of UPP produced water in freshwater. However, because Marcellus and UPP produced waters display similar major elemental chemistry (i.e., Na, Ca, and Cl) and overlapping ratios of Sr/Ca and 87Sr/86Sr, 228Ra/226Ra ratios may be the best tracer to distinguish these waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Produced water generated during unconventional oil and gas extractions contains a complex milieu of natural and anthropogenic potentially toxic chemical constituents including arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), and cadmium (Cd), naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) including U and Ra, and a myriad of organic compounds. The human-ecological health risks and challenges associated with the disposal of produced water may be alleviated by understanding geochemical controls on processes responsible for the solubilization of potentially hazardous natural shale constituents to produced water. Here, we investigated, through a series of batch treatments, the leaching behavior of As, Se, Cu, Fe, Ba, Cr, Cd, and radioactive nuclides U, Ra from shale to produced water. Specifically, the effect of four major controls on element mobility was studied: (1) solution pH, (2) ionic strength of the solution, (3) oxic–anoxic conditions, and (4) an additive used in fracking fluid. The mobilization of metals and metalloids from shale was greatest in treatments containing sodium persulfate, an oxidant and a commonly used additive in fracture fluid. In the high ionic strength treatments, dissolved Ba concentrations increased 5-fold compared to low ionic strength treatments. Overall, anoxic conditions superimposed with low pH resulted in the largest increase of dissolved metals and radionuclides such as Ra. Overall, our results suggest that (1) limiting pore water acidification by injection of alkaline fluid in carbonate-low shale and (2) minimizing strong oxidizing conditions in shale formations may result in cost-effective in situ retention of produced water contaminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roughly one-third of the human lifetime is spent in sleep, yet the reason for sleep remains unclear. Understanding the physiologic function of sleep is crucial toward establishing optimal health. Several proposed concepts address different aspects of sleep physiology, including humoral and circuit-based theories of sleep-wake regulation, the homeostatic two-process model of sleep regulation, the theory of sleep as a state of adaptive inactivity, and observations that arousal state and sleep homeostasis can be dissociated in pathologic disorders. Currently, there is no model that places the regulation of arousal and sleep homeostasis in a unified conceptual framework. Adenosine is well known as a somnogenic substance that affects normal sleep-wake patterns through several mechanisms in various brain locations via A1 or A2A receptors (A1Rs or A2ARs). Many cells and processes appear to play a role in modulating the extracellular concentration of adenosine at neuronal A1R or A2AR sites. Emerging evidence suggests that A1Rs and A2ARs have different roles in the regulation of sleep. In this review, we propose a model in which A2ARs allow the brain to sleep, i.e., these receptors provide sleep gating, whereas A1Rs modulate the function of sleep, i.e., these receptors are essential for the expression and resolution of sleep need. In this model, sleep is considered a brain state established in the absence of arousing inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unconventional oil and gas (UOG) development has increased dramatically in the Marcellus Shale region over the past decade, and there is widespread public concern about the potential effects that UOG development may have on water quality. The goal of this study was to assess whether a suite of stream water quality constituents was related to the intensity of UOG development in corresponding catchments. Nineteen streams in southwestern Pennsylvania, where UOG development is prevalent, and 10 streams in western Maryland, where no UOG development has occurred, were sampled in summer 2013. Dissolved metals, radium isotopes, radon, specific conductance, stream discharge, and pH were measured. Principal component analysis revealed that samples tended to cluster by state, but some overlap in water quality existed between Maryland and Pennsylvania. Linear models were used to assess how response variables were related to UOG, other extractive activities, and landscape characteristics. These models showed that an index of oil and gas development had significant explanatory power for specific conductance, As, Ca, K, Mg, Na, and Sr. Other land use and land cover variables, such as forest, urban development, and coal mining, as well as stream discharge and pH, also were significantly associated with response variables. These results suggest that, in the Marcellus Shale region, UOG may elevate specific conductance and dissolved element concentrations in streams, but it should be considered in the context of broader patterns of land use and human activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High concentrations of barium (Ba), strontium (Sr) and radium (Ra) are present in both the liquid and suspended solid portions of wastewater produced from hydraulic fracturing. These high concentrations often require special treatment in which the solid and liquid portions are separated and then independently treated prior to disposal. The solids are typically disposed in landfills while the liquids are further treated, recycled for future hydraulic fracturing, or disposed via injection wells. Finding optimal treatment methods of both the solid and the liquid fractions requires a thorough understanding of potential Ra mobility from both the raw suspended solids and mineral precipitates formed during treatment. Using a sequential extraction procedure, we found that, without treatment, more than 50% of Ra-226 in the suspended solids was associated with soluble salts and readily exchangeable fractions. When the liquid portion of the wastewater was treated by mixing with acid mine drainage (AMD), which contained high sulfate concentrations, approximately 80–97% of the total Ra-226 in the mixture solution is found in the insoluble sulfate fraction of the precipitate. The activity of Ra-226 sequestered in the precipitated solid sulfate fractions is positively correlated with the Sr/Ba ratio of the wastewater-AMD solution. We discuss implications of these findings for effective long-term management of elevated radium in both solid and liquid wastes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Confining particles to distances below their de Broglie wavelength discretizes their motional state. This fundamental effect is observed in many physical systems, ranging from electrons confined in atoms or quantum dots 1,2 to ultracold atoms trapped in optical tweezers 3,4 . In solid-state photonics, a long-standing goal has been to achieve fully tunable quantum confinement of optically active electron-hole pairs, known as excitons. To confine excitons, existing approaches mainly rely on material modulation 5 , which suffers from poor control over the energy and position of trapping potentials. This has severely impeded the engineering of large-scale quantum photonic systems. Here we demonstrate electrically controlled quantum confinement of neutral excitons in 2D semiconductors. By combining gate-defined in-plane electric fields with inherent interactions between excitons and free charges in a lateral p-i-n junction, we achieve exciton confinement below 10 nm. Quantization of excitonic motion manifests in the measured optical response as a ladder of discrete voltage-dependent states below the continuum. Furthermore, we observe that our confining potentials lead to a strong modification of the relative wave function of excitons. Our technique provides an experimental route towards creating scalable arrays of identical single-photon sources and has wide-ranging implications for realizing strongly correlated photonic phases 6,7 and on-chip optical quantum information processors 8,9 ., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

Pollutants and microbiota present in the residual sludge of hydraulic fracturing were determined and characterized physicochemically. Analyses included determination of pH, electric conductivity, organic matter percentage, as well as total carbonates, inorganic nitrogen and extractable phosphorous. In addition, presence of hydrocarbons by gas chromatography, potentially toxic elements (PTEs) by atomic absorption and presence of radioactive isotopes by gamma spectrometry were determined. Moreover, fungi and bacteria present in the residual sludge were classified taxonomically to the level of genus. Medium and heavy hydrocarbon fractions were found in concentrations above the maximum limits permitted (MLP) by Mexican environmental norms. Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe and Mg, however, were below the MLP. Likewise, gamma spectrometry analysis revealed naturally occurring Ac228, Ra226 and K40. The microbiological analysis found presence of the bacteria Bacillus spp., Micrococcus sp., Diplococcus sp. and Staphylococcus sp. and the fungi Trichoderma sp., Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exciton system in double quantum wells is considered under the condition that the ground state is the spatially indirect exciton. At high pumping the growth of the exciton concentration can lead to such a significant increase of the indirect exciton energy that it becomes equal to the direct exciton energy. Then further increase of pumping leads to the formation of a mixed direct-indirect exciton phase. A rough estimate of the exciton energy in the mixed phase explains puzzling features of some recent exciton measurements. An experiment that would reveal the main characteristic features of the mixed phase is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dichotic presentation of two almost equivalent pure tones with slightly different frequencies leads to virtual beat perception by the brain. In this phenomenon, the so-called binaural beat has a frequency equaling the difference of the frequencies of the two pure tones. The binaural beat can entrain neural activities to synchronize with the beat frequency and induce behavioral states related to the neural activities. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a 3-Hz binaural beat on sleep stages, which is considered a behavioral state. Twenty-four participants were allocated to experimental and control groups. The experimental period was three consecutive nights consisting of an adaptation night, a baseline night, and an experimental night. Participants in both groups underwent the same procedures, but only the experimental group was exposed to the 3-Hz binaural beat on the experimental night. The stimulus was initiated when the first epoch of the N2 sleep stage was detected and stopped when the first epoch of the N3 sleep stage detected. For the control group, a silent sham stimulus was used. However, the participants were blinded to their stimulus group. The results showed that the N3 duration of the experimental group was longer than that of the control group, and the N2 duration of the experimental group was shorter than that of the control group. Moreover, the N3 latency of the experimental group was shorter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Findings: What is the central question of this study? What is the nature of slow wave‐driven contraction frequency gradients in the small intestine? What is the main finding and its importance? Frequency plateaux are composed of discrete waves of increased interval, each wave associated with a contraction dislocation. Smooth frequency gradients are generated by localized neural modulation of wave frequency, leading to functionally important wave turbulence. Both patterns are emergent properties of a network of coupled oscillators, the interstitial cells of Cajal. Abstract: A gut‐wide network of interstitial cells of Cajal generates electrical oscillations (slow waves) that orchestrate waves of muscle contraction. In the small intestine there is a gradient in slow wave frequency from high at the duodenum to low at the terminal ileum. Time‐averaged measurements of frequency have suggested either a smooth or a stepped (plateaued) gradient. We measured individual contraction intervals from diameter maps of the mouse small intestine to create interval maps (IMaps). The IMaps showed that each frequency plateau was composed of discrete waves of increased interval. Each interval wave originated at a terminating contraction wave, a ‘dislocation’, at the proximal boundary of the plateau. In a model chain of coupled phase oscillators, interval wave frequency increased as coupling decreased or as the natural frequency gradient or noise increased. Injuring the intestine at a proximal point, to destroy coupling, suppressed distal steps, which then reappeared with gap junction block by carbenoxolone. This lent further support to our previous hypothesis that lines of dislocations were fixed by points of low coupling strength. Dislocations, induced by electrical field pulses in the intestine and by equivalent phase shift in the model, were associated with interval waves. When the enteric nervous system was active, IMaps showed a chaotic, turbulent pattern of interval change, with no frequency steps or plateaux. This probably resulted from local, stochastic release of neurotransmitters. Plateaux, dislocations, interval waves and wave turbulence arise from a dynamic interplay between natural frequency and coupling in the network of interstitial cells of Cajal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data obtained in 3D direct numerical simulations of statistically planar, 1D weakly turbulent flames characterised by different density ratios σ are analysed to study the influence of thermal expansion on flame surface area and burning rate. Results show that, on the one hand, the pressure gradient induced within a flame brush owing to heat release in flamelets significantly accelerates the unburned gas that deeply intrudes into the combustion products in the form of an unburned mixture finger, thus causing large-scale oscillations of the burning rate and flame brush thickness. Under the conditions of the present simulations, the contribution of this mechanism to the creation of the flame surface area is substantial and is increased by σ, thus implying an increase in the burning rate by σ. On the other hand, the total flame surface areas simulated at σ = 7.53 and 2.5 are approximately equal. The apparent inconsistency between these results implies the existence of another thermal expansion effect that reduces the influence of σ on the flame surface area and burning rate. Investigation of the issue shows that the flow acceleration by the combustion-induced pressure gradient not only creates the flame surface area by pushing the finger tip into the products, but also mitigates wrinkling of the flame surface (the side surface of the finger) by turbulent eddies. The latter effect is attributed to the high-speed (at σ = 7.53) axial flow of the unburned gas, which is induced by the axial pressure gradient within the flame brush (and the finger). This axial flow acceleration reduces the residence time of a turbulent eddy in an unburned zone of the flame brush (e.g. within the finger). Therefore, the capability of the eddy for wrinkling the flamelet surface (e.g. the side finger surface) is weakened owing to a shorter residence time. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

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Produced water (PW), which could be a complex mixture of different organic and inorganic compounds (mostly salts, minerals, and oils), is a major wastewater generated during oil/gas production due to increased oil and gas production, particularly with usability of shale oil/ gas reserves, the volume of this effluent is increasing around the world, and as a consequence, its discharge to the environment is one of the global concerns. There are various physical and chemical methods to treat the PW. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages when used for offshore or onshore units. However, comprehensive and deep-understanding of each issue can provide a guideline for better and more practical solutions. In this work, various physical and chemical treatment methods as well as membrane separation technology are reviewed based on the recent literature. Moreover, challenges and opportunities of each method applied to PW treatment are comprehensively discussed. Furthermore, alternatives for reuse of treated PW are suggested and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impulsiveness is the tendency to shift preference from a better, later option to a poorer, earlier option as the two get closer. Explanations have extrapolated from five piecemeal elements of psychology – failure of cognitive rationality, Pavlovian conditioning, force of habit, incentive salience, and long chains of secondary reward – but in doing so have created models that stretch the properties of these elements as observed in the laboratory. The models are hard to integrate with each other, much less with the utility-maximizing structure of microeconomics. The increasing prominence of addictions, particularly addictions that do not involve a substance, have confronted behavioral science with these shortcomings. I suggest that the roles of all five phenomena follow from the hyperbolic discounting of expected reward: rationality can be seen as maximizing expected discounted reward as seen at a distance, which can be approximated by making choices in bundles; Pavlovian conditioning reduces to reward learning when a very short-term rewarding effect of conditioning stimuli is factored in; ‘habit’ subsumes various kinds of reward-seeking, especially that which has been narrowed by failures of self-control; incentive salience is a kind of short-term reward; self-reward is possible – and probably common – without being secondary to inborn turnkeys, limited rather by not being occasioned so often that the appetite(s) for it fail to build up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) uses a laser to heat the magnetic media above its Curie temperature to enable magnetic writing when the write field is limited. However, there are thermal transients caused by the thermal-mechanical response of the head and media when HAMR writing starts. Understanding this transient and compensating for it are critical to successfully implement the HAMR system. In this letter, some possible contributions to the write start transient are discussed. Methods are demonstrated for achieving more uniform recording. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Energy and conversion efficiencies of the carbon dioxide (CO2) dissociation process at atmospheric-pressure conditions are investigated using a direct-coupled continuous microwave plasma system (MPS). Gas chromatography and mass spectrometer measurements were performed on the gas mixture postplasma treatment, over a range of specific energy inputs (SEIs) (0.06–0.6 eV mol ^-1) , in order to determine species mass fractions of CO2, carbon monoxide, and oxygen. In this region of SEI, energy efficiency is maximized at the cost of conversion efficiency. The corresponding maximum observed quantities for conversion efficiency and energy conversion efficiency (ECE) occurred at conditions close to the end of the test range and are, respectively, 9% and 0.0048 L min ^-1\textW^-1 . The maximum throughput of CO2 converted was 0.59 L min ^-1 , at an SEI of 0.1 eV mol ^-1 and an ECE of 0.004 L min ^-1\textW^-1 . Optical emission spectroscopy was used to approximate the rotational and vibrational temperatures of the plasma system to be in the range of 7000–8000 K. This paper suggests that an MPS is the most energy efficient method in dissociating CO2 under atmospheric pressure and, therefore, most suitable to be used in a CO2 recycling setup, which can further increase conversion rates. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Naturally-occurring radioactive materials (NORM) associated with unconventional drilling produced fluids from the Marcellus Shale have raised environmental concerns. However, few investigations into the fundamental chemistry of NORM in Marcellus Shale produced fluids have been performed. Thus, we performed radiochemical experiments with Marcellus Shale produced fluids to understand the partitioning behavior of major radioelements of environmental health concern (uranium (U), thorium (Th), radium (Ra), lead (Pb), and polonium (Po)). We applied a novel radiotracer, 203Pb, to understand the behavior of trace-levels of 210Pb in these fluids. Ultrafiltration experiments indicated U, Th, and Po are particle reactive in Marcellus Shale produced fluids and Ra and Pb are soluble. Sediment partitioning experiments revealed that ＞99% of Ra does not adsorb to sediments in the presence of Marcellus Shale produced fluids. Further experiments indicated that although Ra adsorption is related to ionic strength, the concentrations of heavier alkaline earth metals (Ba, Sr) are stronger predictors of Ra solubility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of continuous volumetric direct-coupled nonequilibrium atmospheric microwave plasma discharge on swirl-stabilized premixed methane–air flames was investigated using quantitative OH planar laser-induced fluorescence and spectrally resolved emission. The plasma discharge was found to influence the dynamics of flame stabilization, i.e., plasma-assisted flames stabilized in the quiescent center body wake were relatively stable while swirl flames stabilized in the active inner shear layer were prone to local extinction due to aerodynamic shear. At coupled plasma powers corresponding to less than 3% of the thermal power output, in addition to the improved flame stability, significant improvement in the lean blow-out limit ( $\sim 43$ %) and OH number density ( $\sim 150$ %) was observed. The enhancements are shown to be nonequilibrium plasma effects and not predominantly ohmic heating as significant equivalence ratio dependence of OH number density in plasma-assisted flames was observed. Spectrographic measurements indicated nitrogen vibrational temperatures as high as 6100 K, suggesting both vibrational and electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules in the presence of a plasma discharge. The activation of highly reactive species through vibrational–vibrational relaxation and direct impact dissociation accelerates the combustion chemistry. It is demonstrated that microwave direct plasma coupling can drastically enhance the dynamic flame stability of swirl-stabilized flames, especially at very lean operating conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A detailed analysis on all-optical passive transistor has been carried out in this paper. The transistor has been investigated for (i) different values of Interaction coefficient, (ii) different separations between two SMFs, and (iii) different power of the input beams. The paper is intended to give an intuitive idea of the performance of the transistor in different situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theoretical model is developed for treating superconductive Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) effects for excitons in planar systems, under the condition that many excitons are included in a surface area, with the dimensions of the exciton center of mass de Broglie (dB) wavelength, and under the condition that attractive forces are introduced between different excitons. The total internal energy of the excitonic system is found to be composed of the separate exciton-positive energies and negative energy due to scattering between different excitons. We assume that for high density of excitons, and corresponding attractive interactions, excitons in internal mode k are annihilated and in the same time excitons in internal mode k are created, where these scattering effects are integrated for all k and k values. It is assumed that the internal momenta of the excited excitons remain in a quasi-stationary state, with approximately Bose distribution. Self-consistent equations for BEC of electron-hole pairs and corresponding phase transition temperature are developed as a function of electromagnetic interactions, experimental conditions, and parameters. Possible applications by the use of the present theory are described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optical properties of colloidal plasmonic titanium nitride nanoparticles are examined with an eye on their photothermal and photocatalytic applications via transmission electron microscopy and optical transmittance measurements. Single crystal titanium nitride cubic nanoparticles with an average size of 50 nm, which was found to be the optimum size for cellular uptake with gold nanoparticles [1], exhibit plasmon resonance in the biological transparency window and demonstrate a high absorption efficiency. A self-passivating native oxide at the surface of the nanoparticles provides an additional degree of freedom for surface functionalization. The titanium oxide shell surrounding the plasmonic core can create new opportunities for photocatalytic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to reorient developmental psychologists' view of 'ethnicity' and align them more closely with disciplines such as sociology and anthropology. Developmental psychologists mostly treat ethnicity as apolitical, ahistorical and limited to mutually exclusive, homogeneous categories measured by decontextualized self-report questionnaires. Moreover, self-report 'ethnicity' scales typically fail to integrate a full perspective on ethnicity, such as power, inequality, class, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age, and generation. I take issue with the position that ethnic groups constitute fixed natural entities based on ethnic identities. In my view, ethnicity emerges in social interaction in specific social and political contexts. Hence, 'ethnicity' is primarily a theory of social relations; it is intensified or abated when individuals engage in mutual interaction. I argue that no reference to ethnicity is politically impartial. Finally, I present a set of recommendations that might have useful theoretical and methodological implications for ethnicity research in developmental psychology. © 2014 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unconventional shale gas development promises to significantly alter energy portfolios and economies around the world. It also poses a variety of environmental risks, particularly with respect to the management of water resources. We review current scientific understanding of risks associated with the following: water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing; wastewater treatment, discharge and disposal; methane and fluid migration in the subsurface; and spills and erosion at the surface. Some of these risks are relatively unique to shale gas development, while others are variations of risks that we already face from a variety of industries and activities. All of these risks depend largely on the pace and scale of development that occurs within a particular region. We focus on the United States, where the shale gas boom has been on-going for several years, paying particular attention to the Marcellus Shale, where a majority of peer-reviewed study has taken place. Governments, regulatory agencies, industry, and other stakeholders are challenged with responding to these risks, and we discuss policies and practices that have been adopted or considered by these various groups. Adaptive Management, a structured framework for addressing complex environmental issues, is discussed as a way to reduce polarization of important discussions on risk, and to more formally engage science in policy-making, along with other economic, social and value considerations. Data suggests that some risks can be substantially reduced through policy and best practice, but also that significant uncertainty persists regarding other risks. We suggest that monitoring and data collection related to water resource risks be established as part of planning for shale gas development before activity begins, and that resources are allocated to provide for appropriate oversight at various levels of governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report a spatially resolved photoluminescence mapping of InGaAs quantum wells. The photoluminescence was collected on top of the quantum well, with a HeNe laser pumping horizontally or vertically. In the horizontal configuration, at temperature of 68 K, the spectral linewidth narrows from 2.8 to 2.2 meV with the peak shifting from 1.4425 to 1.4415 eV, while at 3.8 K these changes were not observed. This demonstrates that photo-generated carriers can diffuse away from the laser spot and relax to the lower energy states in the case when the charge carriers are thermally activated. The spectra narrowing in the vertical configuration, which could not be observed, is due to the fact that the emitted light was always collected from the same spot of the pumping laser without diffusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the structure of microwave (MW)-enhanced flames through 10-kHz imaging. High repetition rate laser diagnostic methods are used to simultaneously record 2-D images of OH laser-induced fluorescence and chemiluminescence within an atmospheric plasma-enhanced flame. Collecting both OH planar laser-induced fluorescence and chemiluminescence allows for observation of OH radicals in the plane of the thin laser sheet as well as volume-integrated excited state emission. A tunable, MW waveguide plasma source—operating at 2.45 GHz and delivering 90–130 W to the flowfield—ignites and sustains a CH4/air flame, whereas laser-induced fluorescence and chemiluminescence are acquired at a sustained framing rate of 10 kHz, using two intensified CMOS cameras and a synchronized laser. Multiple geometries and flames (premixed and nonpremixed) are studied by adjusting gas flow compositions and the plasma applicator nozzle components. A stoichiometric premixed flame configuration produces a divergent flame with large-scale fluctuations and vortex shedding into ambient air and is capable of feedstock flow velocities >20~m/s for combustion-to-plasma power ratios >10:1. Another arrangement produces plasma along the initial mixing layer of a nonpremixed flame, yielding a thin cylindrical reaction zone of coincident chemiluminescence and fluorescence. Replacing the fuel with rich premixed gases produces a narrow conical flame anchored by the circular plasma discharge with a little flamefront fluctuation. The high-speed diagnostics capture OH signals in cinematic sequences, providing new understanding of the plasma-assisted flame holding mechanism and allowing for the tracking of individual flow feature development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In the present study relations between the level of impulse sounds and the observed proportion of behaviorally confirmed awakening reactions were determined. The sounds (shooting sounds, bangs produced by door slamming or by container transshipment, aircraft landings) were presented by means of loudspeakers in the bedrooms of 50 volunteers. The fragments for the impulse sounds consisted of single or multiple events. The sounds were presented during a 6-h period that started 75 min after the subjects wanted to sleep. In order to take account of habituation, each subject participated during 18 nights. At equal indoor A-weighted sound exposure levels, the proportion of awakening for the single impulse sounds was equal to that for the aircraft sounds. The proportion of awakening induced by the multiple impulse sounds, however, was significantly higher. For obtaining the same rate of awakening, the sound level of each of the successive impulses in a fragment had to be about 15-25 dB lower than the level of one single impulse. This level difference was largely independent of the degree of habituation. Various explanations for the enhanced awakening probability are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural isotope tracers, such as strontium (Sr), can facilitate the tracking of brine migration caused by CO2 injection in carbon storage sites and assist in identifying the origin of formation waters associated with oil and gas exploration. However, it might be necessary to analyze tens of samples with complex chemical compositions over a short period to identify subsurface reactions and respond to unexpected fluid movement in the host formation. These conditions require streamlined Sr separation chemistry for samples ranging from pristine groundwaters to those containing high total dissolved solids, followed by rapid measurement of isotope ratios with high analytical precision. Here we describe a method useful for the separation of Sr from energy related geofluids and the rapid measurements of Sr isotopic ratios by MC-ICP-MS. Existing vacuum-assisted Sr separation procedures were modified by using inexpensive disposable parts that also eliminate cross contamination. These improvements will allow an operator to independently prepare samples for Sr isotope analysis using fast, low cost separation procedures and commercially available components. We optimized the elution chemistry by adjusting acid normality and elution rates to provide better separation of Sr from problematic matrices (e.g. Rb, Ca, Ba, K) associated with oilfield brines and formation waters. The separation procedure is designed for high sample throughputs that are ready for immediate Sr isotope measurements by MC-ICP-MS. Precise Sr isotope results can be achieved by MC-ICP-MS with a throughput of 4 to 5 samples per hour. Fluids from a range of geologic environments analyzed by this method yielded results within the analytical uncertainty of 87Sr/86Sr ratios previously determined by standard column separation and TIMS. This method provides a fast and effective way to use isolate Sr in a variety of geologic fluids for isotopic analysis by MC-ICP-MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study in three dimensions a diatomic homo-nuclear molecule with many bound states incident upon a potential barrier. We consider different initial states for the molecule and take into account transitions between rotational states of the molecule during the process in which the entire molecule tunnels past or is reflected by the external potential barrier. We show the manner in which the transmission resonances are affected by having many bound states. We find that the transmission probability profile in three dimensions is markedly different from that for two bound states in three dimensions, and for many bound states in one dimension. We find important new results. One result is that resonant or near resonant tunnelling and resonant or near resonant reflection can both occur within a small energy range of the molecule. We also find that tunnelling with transmission probability close to unity can occur over a wide energy range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A plasma-coupled methane–air flame is produced at atmospheric pressure by a microwave plasma source utilizing a tunable waveguide. Laser diagnostics are used to examine the direct-coupled, plasma-ignited, and sustained flame, for multiple flame types and nozzle geometries. OH radical number densities are quantified using planar laser-induced fluorescence and temperature measured by Rayleigh scattering thermometry. Premixed and nonpremixed flames are studied using both solid and hollow inner conductors in the plasma-applicating nozzle. The plasma source is powered by a continuous 2.45-GHz magnetron producing 360 W of power. Plasma power is controlled by adjusting the reflected microwave power, measured at a dummy load attached to a circulator. Maximum OH radical number densities were quantified as approximately (3 - 5) \times 10^16\ \cm^-3 for plasma powers around 100 W, with small variation between configurations. The maximum temperatures occurred in the nonpremixed flame, where the plasma is generated in air, reaching values of 3500 K. Temperatures are lower, peaking at 2000 K, when the plasma is generated at the air–fuel boundary or the air-premixed boundary through use of the hollow inner conductor. Additional parameters are adjusted, including flow rates, power level, and equivalence ratio, and the effects are discussed. Nonpremixed configurations are ill suited for flame enhancement, whereas a premixed flow through the hollow electrode best demonstrates nonthermal plasma-assisted combustion. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A review of literature published in 2011 on analytical methods for pesticides are presented here in six sections: extraction methods, chromatographic or mass spectrometric techniques, spectrophotometric techniques, fluorescence methods, biochemical assays and immunoassays, and review articles. Because many of the research studies in the cited publications utilized more than one analytical method, the different sections should not be thought of as being mutually exclusive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water-dispersible, polymer-wrapped nanocrystals are highly sought after for use in biology and chemistry, from nanomedicine to catalysis. The hydrophobicity of their native ligand shell, however, is a significant barrier to their aqueous transfer as single particles. Ligand exchange with hydrophilic small molecules or, alternatively, wrapping over native ligands with amphiphilic polymers is widely employed for aqueous transfer; however, purification can be quite cumbersome. We report here a general two-step method whereby reactive stripping of native ligands is first carried out using trialkyloxonium salts to reveal a bare nanocrystal surface. This is followed by chemically directed immobilization of a hydrophilic polymer coating. Polyacrylic acids, with side-chain grafts or functional end groups, were found to be extremely versatile in this regard. The resulting polymer-wrapped nanocrystal dispersions retained much of the compact size of their bare nanocrystal precursors, highlighting the unique role of monomer side-chain functionality to serve as effective, conformal ligation motifs. As such, they are well poised for applications where tailored chemical functionality at the nanocrystal's periphery or improved access to their surfaces is desirable. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2012 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coulomb drag is a process whereby the repulsive interactions between electrons in spatially separated conductors enable a current flowing in one of the conductors to induce a voltage drop in the other. If the second conductor is part of a closed circuit, a net current will flow in that circuit. The drag current is typically much smaller than the drive current owing to the heavy screening of the Coulomb interaction. There are, however, rare situations in which strong electronic correlations exist between the two conductors. For example, double quantum well systems can support exciton condensates, which consist of electrons in one well tightly bound to holes in the other. 'Perfect' drag is therefore expected; a steady transport current of electrons driven through one quantum well should be accompanied by an equal current of holes in the other. Here we demonstrate this effect, taking care to ensure that the electron-hole pairs dominate the transport and that tunnelling of charge between the quantum wells, which can readily compromise drag measurements, is negligible. We note that, from an electrical engineering perspective, perfect Coulomb drag is analogous to an electrical transformer that functions at zero frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We theoretically investigate how to control the Rabi oscillation of excitons of the coupling quantum dots by manipulating static electric fields. Our results show that, for a single-photon process, when direct excitons change into indirect excitons with a bias applied on the sample, the Rabi oscillation rarely alters. However, for the two-photon process, a pronounced enhancement of Rabi oscillation is observed, which can be utilized as the logic gate in quantum information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, researchers have never quite been able to agree as to the role of emotions, if any, when behavior is selected by its consequences. A brief review of findings from several fields suggests that in contingency-shaped behavior, motivating events, often unconscious, seem needed for reinforcement to select behavior. In rule- governed behavior, on the other hand, conscious feelings may be necessary for reinforcement to affect behavior. I conclude that the relevant literature broadly supports Skinner's (1986) claim that reinforcing stimuli have both a "pleasing" and a "strengthening" effect, and that pleasure resulting from a reinforcer does not necessarily reinforce behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) is an environmentally harmful and persistent substance, and thus, effluent controls have been applied. The decomposition of PFOS in water using plasma attached to the water surface has been successfully performed, and the resulting energy efficiency is relatively high compared to that of other methods such as sonochemical processes. The estimation of the amount of PFOS adsorbing to the plasma–water interface showed much higher mole fraction of PFOS (6.0 \times 10^-4) than that in bulk water (1.8 \times 10^-6) at a PFOS bulk concentration of 50 mg/L. Thus, the plasma can effectively react with PFOS at the water surface and exhibits high energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]