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The purpose of this paper is to investigate the conditions under which the government of an advanced country should intervene directly in the workings of the labour market. This is a very broad question, and I will concentrate on the potential effects of alternative long-term policies intended to ameliorate problems caused by various structural imperfections in the labour market. These structural imperfections are of two types. First, the wage structure may for a variety of reasons be unable to adjust sufficiently for the effective supplies of and demands for some classes of labour to be equated. Legal or social minimum wage practices can prevent the wage rates of jobs associated with very low levels of human capital from reaching their market-clearing levels; trade union power can do the same for the wage rates for many middle-skill jobs. The second type of imperfection is a secondary consequence of income transfer programmes that provide a subsidy to individuals for periods in which they do not work. Although these programmes transfer income to those who cannot earn an income that is considered sufficient by society, they also reduce the work effort of those eligible for the transfer. One obvious way for society to combat these structural imperfections is to attack them directly: repeal minimum wage laws, bash the unions, and eliminate income transfer programmes. In this paper, however, I assume that the direct approach either is not politically feasible or is socially undesirable. Instead, I take these imperfections as given and investigate the impact of indirect policies to make the labour market work better. There are two major types of labour market programmes that have been pursued by governments in virtually all advanced economies.' The first of these is the payment of subsidies to employers to hire specific categories of workers or to individuals in these categories as a supplement to their earnings. The second is the removal of individuals from "problem" labour markets through the provision of training, relocation allowances and the like. The remainder of the paper is concerned with modelling the effects of various forms of labour market intervention on employment, output and the distribution of net income. I do not attempt to provide the answer to the question of when and how the government should intervene under the alternative specifications of the source of the structural imperfection. In practice social programmes are subject to an almost unbounded set of evaluation criteria. The representatives of the groups that decide whether or not programmes will be introduced, continued, modified or cancelled first ask: "How much do we get from this programme?" If faced with the constraint of introducing some combination of policies that will achieve a certain objective (like reducing the non-inflationary unemployment rate by a specified amount, or increasing the average real income of a specific segment of the population to some target level), each special interest group pushes for those programmes that it perceives will hurt it the least (gain for it the most). As a consequence of this view of the way governments work,2 it is useful to derive benefit-cost ratios for individual programmes from the point of view of each of the

It is hypothesized that persons who are more able and who enter the profession earlier in life purchase, through foregone earnings, more training options upon receipt of the Ph.D. and hence have more precipitous earnings profiles than those who are less able and who enter later. By using National Science Foundation Register data from 1964 to 1970, earnings of economists and other academics are compared by age cohort both cross-sectionally and over time. Defining junior and senior faculty as the two inputs producing instructional services and assuming a homothetic production function, a substitution elasticity of about five is estimated.

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Presents a study that aimed to estimate the impact of unionism on the relative wages of blue-collar workers for different ages and levels of educational attainment. Conceptual framework used in the study; Effect of unions on wage differentials by race; Implications of the study findings. (Abstract copyright EBSCO.)

H RIBERNATION is often referred to as "winter-sleep" in English, "Winterschlaf" in German and "sommeilhivernal" in French. It is also called "'torpor," "lethargy," and, in Italian, "letargo." These terms may be considered essentially synonymous. They involve an inactive state in which the metabolism is so greatly lowered that the body temperature is only a little higher than that of the surroundings. A limitation of the term hibernation to this condition and not applying it in the older more literary sense of "spending the winter" would make the meaning of the word clearer. It should be stressed that hibernation is not ordinary sleep occurring in the winter. This was recognized long ago by Horvath (i88i), who repeated a statement of the botanist, Ferd. Cohn, that "Winterschlaf" is not sleep and has nothing to do with winter. In this way he emphasized that hibernation may occur even in the summer and that the insensibility is far deeper than in ordinary sleep. If such a meaning can be given "Winterschlaf" there should be little difficulty in limiting the term "hibernation" to actual states of torpor and also in having it include all such states, not excepting those that occur in summer in the field or laboratory. There is no evidence that mammals ever become insensitive or partly torpid because of warm surroundings, all reported cases of lowered metabolism apparently having occurred when the surrounding temperature was considerably below that of the normal animal. For this reason the term "aestivation" appears inappropriate for summer torpor in mammals, although it may be proper for inactivity actually produced by surrounding high temperatures. Aestivation might be used for the denning up of the animals following a drying of the vegetation by the heat in the summer, but since any known cases of semi-torpor at this season are produced by cold such conditions should, it would seem, be called partial hibernation.

(1901). Children's Games in the Andover Public Schools, as Means for Avoiding Over-Pressure. American Physical Education Review: Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 160-169.

Purpose: To evaluate the management and outcome of chronic atherosclerotic infrarenal aortic occlusion (IRAO), a review of 48 patients who were treated for angiographically documented IRAO between January 1980 and December 1994 was undertaken. Mean follow-up was 45 months. Mean age was 57 years (range, 33 to 88 years). Forty-seven patients were heavy smokers. Symptoms included claudication in 81%, rest pain in 25%, and tissue loss in 15%. Impotence was documented in 73% of men. Associated arterial disease included inferior mesenteric artery occlusion in 31 patients, renal artery stenosis or occlusion in 12, superior mesenteric artery stenosis in two, and celiac artery stenosis in one.Methods: Forty inflow procedures were performed, including 17 thoracobifemoral bypass (TBF) procedures, 15 aortobifemoral/iliac bypass (ABFI) procedures, and eight axillo-bifemoral bypass (AXBF) procedures. Eight patients were managed without surgery. The thoracic aorta was chosen as the inflow source in 17 patients because of previous abdominal aortic surgery in eight, poor status of the abdominal aorta in eight, and horseshoe kidney in one. Results: The overall operative mortality rate was 5%, and the perioperative morbidity rate was 18%. There was no statistical difference in perioperative mortality and morbidity rates among the operative groups. The five-year survival rate (life-table) for all IRAO patients was 67%. TBF and ABFI revascularization procedures yielded 5-year patency rates of 71% and 79%, respectively ( p < 0.05). All eight patients who underwent AXBF died or had occluded grafts at 3 years after surgery. Two-year patency rates (life-table) for TBF, ABFI, and AXBF were 92%, 92%, and 44%, respectively. The AXBF patency rate was significantly inferior to those of TBF and ABFI ( p < 0.05). Changes in ankle-brachial indexes after TBF or ABFI were similar, but were significantly greater than changes after AXBF ( p < 0.05). Three patients in the nonoperative group died, and two underwent major amputation. Acute renal failure did not occur in our study population. Follow-up creatinine levels >2.0 mg/dl were documented in three operative patients and in one nonoperative patient, and none required dialysis.Conclusions: In patients who have IRAO, aorta-based inflow procedures are superior to AXBF both in hemodynamic outcome and in patency rates. Treatment of IRAO with TBF or ABFI yields similar long-term results; the descending thoracic aorta represents an excellent inflow alternative to the abdominal aorta. Clinically significant renal impairment is rarely associated with IRAO. Nonoperative management of IRAO is associated with an increased mortality rate and a high rate of limb loss. (J Vasc Surg 1996;24:394-405.)

The increased interest among labor economists during the 1970s in trade unionism has yielded several estimates of the union-nonunion wage differential. This differential is defined as the percentage wage advantage of a worker represented by a union over a worker with comparable skills and non-pecuniary job attributes but not represented by a union. This question is an interesting and important one in the United States because, unlike most European countries, about a quarter of all workers and about half of production workers are represented by unions. Thus, a large union relative wage effect may cause significant distortions in both labor and product markets, especially if there is queue unemployment caused by the existence of the differential.1

The importance of trade unions in any useful analysis of the behavior of aggregate economic variables in most O.E.C.D. countries has recently come to be widely recognized. If unions represent most workers (as in Scandinavia) or even workers in a significant minority of industries (as in the United States), their existence cannot simply be ignored. Any plausible economic theory of what trade unions attempt and are able to do would suggest that they will have a major impact on the general level and/or structure of real wages, and any sensible theory of employment determination would imply that wage rates will have an impact on the equilibrium unemployment rate. Thus, public policy toward trade unions may be an important component of macroeconomic policy. There is, therefore, a great deal of incentive to build good microeconomic models of trade union behavior, for these might provide useful insights into the way the aggregate economy operates.

During the 1980's, a period in which the average level of real wage rates was roughly stagnant, there were large changes in the structure of relative wages, most notably a huge increase in the relative wages of highly educated workers. This paper attempts to assess the power of several alternative explanations of the observed relative wage changes in the context of a theoretical framework that nests all of these explanations. Our conclusion is that their major cause was a shift in the skill structure of labor demand brought about by biased technological change.

The recent literature on the economic behavior of unions is dominated by a controversy over whether or not bargaining is Pareto optimal. If unions care about employment as well as wages, efficient bargains between unions and management "should" involve both these variables rather than only wages. In fact, explicit bargaining over employment levels is virtually unknown. There is, however, implicit bargaining over employment in the form of rules concerning the labor/capital ratio, job assignment, work speeds, and the like.This paper examines a model of "semi-efficient" bargaining in which the unionand the firm bargain over wages and various types of work rules. The results are compared to the outcomes that are associated with fully efficient bargaining (i.e, over wages and the level of employment) and bargaining solely over wages. Of particular interest is the case in which the union and the firm mutually consent to "feather bedding" agreements (requiring the hiring of workers with zero marginal product). The major conclusion of the paper is that the outcome of collective bargaining is different in the case of negotiations over work rules and wages than in both the cases of fully efficient bargaining and of bargaining solely over wages. In general, however, the outcome of this "partially efficient" bargaining process is closer to the outcome of bargaining solely over wages than to that associated with fully efficient bargaining over both wages and employment.

Civil rights legislation of the 1960s made it illegal foran employer to pay men and women on different bases for the same work or to discriminate against women in hiring, job assignment, or promotion. Two decades later, however, the ratio of women's to men's earnings has shown little upward movement. Furthermore, major sex differences in occupational distribution persist with predominantly female jobs typically paying less than predominantly male jobs. This negative relationship between wage rates and femaleness of occupatiop has stimulated efforts, in both the judicial and political arenas, to establish "comparable worth" procedures for setting wage rates.This paper etimates the relationship between wages and femaleness of occupation and finds that it is indeed negative even after controlling for relevant worker and job characteristics. The magnitude of the relationship, however, implies a surprisingly small effect for a comprehensive comparable worth policy. The estimates indicate that, even if comparable worth succeeded in eliminating this negative relationship, the disparity between mean male and female wages would be reduced by well under ten percent of its current magnitude.

The use of manual microscopy for the scoring of chromosome damage in the in vitro micronucleus assay is often associated with user subjectivity. This level of subjectivity can be reduced by using automated platforms, which have added value of faster with high-throughput and multi-endpoint capabilities. However, there is a need to assess the reproducibility and sensitivity of these automated platforms compared with the gold standard of the manual scoring. The automated flow cytometry-based MicroFlow® and image analysis-based Metafer™ were used for dose response analyses in human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells exposed to the model clastogen, methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), aneugen, carbendazim, and the weak genotoxic carcinogen, ochratoxin A (OTA). Cells were treated for 4 or 30 h, with a 26- or 0-h recovery. Flow cytometry scoring parameters and the Metafer™ image classifier were investigated, to assess any potential differences in the micronucleus (MN) dose responses. Dose response data were assessed using the benchmark dose approach with chemical and scoring system set as covariate to assess reproducibility between endpoints. A clear increase in MN frequency was observed using the MicroFlow® approach on TK6 cells treated for 30 h with MMS, carbendazim and OTA. The MicroFlow®-based MN frequencies were comparable to those derived by using the Metafer™ and manual scoring platforms. However, there was a potential overscoring of MN with the MicroFlow® due to the cell lysis step and an underscoring with the Metafer™ system based on current image classifier settings. The findings clearly demonstrate that the MicroFlow® and Metafer™ MN scoring platforms are powerful tools for automated high-throughput MN scoring and dose response analysis.

A comprehensive evaluation of the genotoxic potential of chemicals requires the assessment of the ability to induce gene mutations and structural chromosome (clastogenic activity) and numerical chromosome (aneugenic activity) aberrations. Aneuploidy is a major cause of human reproductive failure and an important contributor to cancer and it is therefore important that any increase in its frequency due to chemical exposures should be recognized and controlled. The in vitro binucleate cell micronucleus assay provides a powerful tool to determine the ability of a chemical to induce chromosome damage. The application of an anti-kinetochore antibody to micronuclei allows their classification into kinetochore-positive and kinetochore-negative, indicating their origin by aneugenic or clastogenic mechanisms, respectively. The availability of chromosome-specific centromere probes allows the analysis of the segregation of chromosomes into the daughter nuclei of binucleate cells to evaluate chromosome non-disjunction. Quantitative relationships between the two major causes of aneuploidy, chromosome loss and non-disjunction, can be determined. The mechanisms leading to chromosome loss and non-disjunction can be investigated by the analysis of morphological and structural changes in the cell division apparatus by the application of specific stains and antibodies for various cell division components. We illustrate such analyses by the demonstration of the interaction of the monomer bisphenol-A with the centrosome of the mitotic spindle and the folic acid antagonist pyrimethamine with the centromeres of chromosomes. Both types of modifications lead to the induction of aneuploidy in exposed cells. Our studies also implicate the products of the p53 and XPD genes in the regulation of the fidelity of chromosome segregation at mitosis.

Comments on an article about the significance of labor economics research to policy decisions. Issues surrounding labor economics; Relationship between inflation and unemployment; Information on human capital theory; Factors that influence academic labor economics. (Abstract copyright EBSCO.)

While substantial attention has been paid to the determinants of academics' earnings [5; 7; 8; 14; 15], this literature has by implication suggested that the mere fact of having spent more time in the profession, and the publication of more scholarly articles and books, are the major determinants of salary differences. Our purpose here is to introduce a new determinant-the "quality" of one's scholarly research, measured by the frequency of references to that work-as an additional, objective measure of productivity. We expect that this proxy for the extent of a scholar's influence on the work of other researchers is rewarded by the market. In addition to giving a more complete picture of the determination of salaries in academic labor markets, our approach should be useful in establishing a better framework for the evaluation of issues of discrimination in such markets than has been presented before [2; 9].

The size of the fiscal substitution effect is important in evaluating public service employment as either a counter-cyclical policy or as revenuesharing. Empirically, the effect appears to be very small for one or two quarters, but rises to about 100 percent after five quarters. From an antipoverty perspective, however, composition effects are most important. Although PSE program employees appear representative of the total labor force, the proportion of the disadvantaged among PSE participants is greater than the proportion of them in state and local government employ

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential impact on the distribution of labor income of a policy that requires that, in each firm in the economy, minority workers (1) receive the same wage as majority workers given the same job classifications and (2) are employed in the same proportion as majority workers in all job classifications. This Affirmative Action Program (AAP) obviously exceeds the scope of current policies in this regard, for O.F.C.C. activities only apply to firms that do business with the federal government. This analysis is thus directed to the question of the maximum potential impact of affirmative action policies.

This paper is a theoretical examination of the probable effects on the U.S. labor market of a continued high rate of illegal immigration. The author constructs a model to estimate the impact each additional immigrant has on the employment of the domestic population, on GNP, and on the distribution of income. The model suggests that in non-recessionary periods the most important effect of a high rate of immigration is on the wage rates of low-skilled labor rather than on the employment of low-skilled native workers, but immigration also increases the earnings of high-skilled workers and the owners of capital. In the very long run, the author concludes, this redistribution of income will be offset to some extent by increases in the supplies of skilled labor and capital.

The year 1932 witnessed the second extensive outbreak of epidemic poliomyelitis in Philadelphia, the first being in 1916. In the intervening years no definite outbreaks occurred, although the years 1921, 1927 and 1929 to 1931 inclusive exhibited, as graphically represented in chart 1, an unusual number of cases. In the 1916 epidemic there were reported 1,006 cases and 307 deaths, a case death rate of 30.4 per cent. In the 1932 epidemic there were 728 cases and eighty-four deaths, a rate of 11.5 per cent. The respective death rates, however, are hardly comparable, since in 1916 the diagnostic criterion was paralysis whereas in 1932 many cases in the preparalytic stage were included. Not only was the fatality rate lower in the 1932 epidemic but the type of disease was less severe, resulting in relatively less permanent crippling. SEASONAL AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION The peak in both epidemics was reached in the

on the demand for different types of labor and, in fact, on their supplies,1 and this paper is an attempt to shed some light on the problem. In the first section of the paper various theoretical aspects of the problem are explored. In particular, the hiring decision of the individual profit-maximizing (and, in some cases, utility-maximizing) firm is examined to derive implications concerning the conditions under which relatively highly educated employees will be preferred to employees with relatively low educational attainment. This model is then combined with an aggregative model of individual educational choice to determine both the equilibrium distributions of educational attainment and the structure of rates of return to education. The second section

In connection with a study of hibernation of the thirteen-lined ground squirrel, large numbers of the variety found in western Kansas, Citellus tridecemlineatj,s pallidus (Allen), have been procured each spring. Many of the females have been pregnant and have given birth to litters in the laboratory. In only a few cases have the animals bred in the laboratory (Johnson and Wade, 1931, Johnson and Foster, unpublished) although both sexes were present in nearly all of the cages. One case observed in 1926 was followed by the birth of a litter (Y3, Figs. 2, 9-12) between 27 and 28 days later, confirm ng the observation of Drips (1919) and 0. Wade (1926) as to the length of the gestation period.

The almost complete lack of reproduction by the several hundred ground squirrels, Citellus tridecemlineatus, in our laboratory led to experiments to promote such reproduction (Johnson and Wade, 1931). Anterior pituitary implants, ultra-violet light, a diet rich in vitamin E, and ovarian extracts and implants did not increase reproduction. During this study it became evident that the sexual development of different individuals varied greatly, and that very little was known of the sexual cycle in captivity.

Probably the most important activity of an Academy is the stimulation of interest in science by the holding of at least one annual meeting for the presentation of a program of scientific papers. Of second importance is publication. The knowledge that good material may be publishea not only is a strong stimulus for the preparation of papers for the Academy program but does much to assre the Academy of a large and active membership.