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Climate change can cause significant (un)foreseen changes in the fisheries sector. However, adaptation has the potential to moderate some of the impacts. This paper explores the challenges faced by both freshwater and marine fisheries sector in addressing climate change and teases out intervention measures from 21 African countries. The paper uses document analysis and draws selected analysis parameters from the grounded theory. The data are obtained from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change National Communication reports. Among the key adaptation measures emerging from the analysis are: fish breeding, integrated coastal management, putting in place appropriate policies, water and flood management as well as research and development. The study concludes that adaptation in the African fisheries sector should be prioritised, an aspect that could also apply elsewhere in the world to enhance food security.

Law enforcement for fisheries management violations in East Flores, East Nusa Tenggara province has not been effectively implemented. It is proven in recent years, violation’s cases of fisheries management is significantly high. This study examines how local wisdom values of indigenous society overcome the ineffective law enforcement for fisheries management violations. This paper employs normative juridical approach and was carried out by identifying and collecting customary law principles which govern fishermen’s attitude. The results show that law enforcement has not been effectively implemented to solve fisheries management violations in terms of the structure, substance and culture of law. To overcome this, it requires functionalization of local wisdom values that have been proven to alleviate marine resources damage by fishermen. Functionalization of local wisdom values is conducted by establishing a partnership between law enforcement and traditional authorities to institutionalize and integrate values system, cultural traditions, and customary penalty to have formal mechanisms of law enforcement.Keywords: local wisdom, law enforcement, fisheries

This paper presents the results of action research conducted from 2009 to 2015 on the dynamics of resource conflict concerning fisheries and livelihoods in the Tonle Sap Lake, as well as the institutional context and strategies for institutional adaptation to address such conflicts equitably. Over the past 15 years, Cambodia has made significant advances in building the policy framework, regulations and institutions to support community-based fisheries management and increase the sector's contribution to the rural economy. However, fundamental challenges of increased resource conflict and loss of livelihoods by the most vulnerable remain. Key sources of conflict include destructive and illegal fishing practices, clearing of flooded forests, competing uses of land and water, and overlapping resource claims. Addressing these challenges requires collective action by all key actors: local fishers, the private sector, civil society, development partners, and government from the local to the national level. We identify and elaborate upon four governance priorities: (1) clarify roles and responsibilities in fisheries management; (2) link civil society and government efforts in law enforcement; (3) strengthen partnerships for livelihoods development; and (4) integrate fisheries management into decentralised development planning.

The inland traditional fishers, such as those from riverine, estuarine, reservoirs, and wetlands of India, are primarily dependent on natural waters for their livelihoods. Governments at various levels have made several efforts, including decentralization of management rights, promotion of cooperatives and formation of self-help groups, to develop the fisheries. Despite these efforts, production from most of the culture-based inland fishery waters (particularly adopting fish stock enhancements) is below potential, as a vast gap is observed between the potential and existing fish production. There is immense potential for increasing the fishing effort, production and income. Capture fishery resources, particularly in the riverine fisheries, are declining due to resource degradation and excessive exploitation. The impact of fisheries developmental programmes instituted by government agencies like the National Fisheries Development Board are hardly recognised on fisheries communities due to the multiple-use common pool resource nature of the fishing resource. Comprehensive investigations on the socioeconomic status of riverine fisher communities are rare. The present investigation studies the socioeconomic conditions of riverine fisher communities in different regions of India. The study covered six states of five regions in India: Uttar Pradesh in the North; Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the South; Orissa and West Bengal in the East; Gujarat in the West; Assam in the northeastern region. The overall socioeconomic index results concluded that almost all the regions have achieved only 46% to 52% of the socioeconomic criteria studied. Institutional financial support for alternate income generation activities; organisation under self-help groups, and vocational training for fisherwomen to undertake alternate income-generating activities during the closed/off season are some of the suggestions resulting from the investigation.

“Satoumi” is a Japanese term meaning a seascape where human-ecosystem interaction has resulted in increased biodiversity and productivity, thus improving the health of the environment and its ecosystem services. However, this definition does not do justice to the universality of the concept, and the holistic ideas and related valuable practices promoted by the term, applicable to fisheries science, contributing thus to the neglect of the term in the international stage. This article explores the importance of environmental, commercial, and research activities related to Satoumi, based on actions implemented by Fisheries Cooperative Associations (FCAs) of different prefectures in Japan. The examined case studies are bottom-up initiatives undertaken by Japanese fishermen and constitute effective means towards sustainable and competitive fisheries management. Such initiatives play an important role in disseminating the positive effects of the Satoumi approach in Japan, and promote therefore its adoption in other regions of the world as well.

Fisheries policy and management processes for federal waters off western Alaska currently lack consistent and considered integration of traditional knowledge (TK), TK holders, social science of TK, and subsistence information. The incorporation of these into fisheries work can lead to more informed, equitable and effective policy and management practices. This paper includes information and recommendations derived from previous work by the authors as well as from two community workshops with indigenous TK holders and fisheries experts. Discussions of TK and related concepts, TK research in the Bering Strait and Yukon River regions, and Alaska federal fisheries management-related institutions and processes as pertains to TK are presented. Substantive recommendations are provided for improving processes, increasing tribal representation, capacity building, effective communication, outreach and relationship-building, the incorporation of indigenous concerns and values, and regarding the development of a Fisheries Ecosystem Plan for the Bering Sea.

This case study presented perceived views of surveyed fishers and enforcement officials on the efficacy of the existing enforcement programs of the artisanal fisheries sector of Oman. The criteria for evaluating enforcement efficacy were derived from the classical economic view of regulatory enforcement that emphasizes deterrence through legal sanctions - the actual practice in the fisheries sector of Oman. The consistency (or otherwise) in views expressed by both groups was identified using descriptive statistical measures. While some results were promising, the overall results did not provide strong support in rating the efficacy of the existing enforcement practices. An important caveat may apply to this conclusion due to the small number of respondents - fishers in particular - that may restrict the scientific generalization of the results. Nevertheless, the conclusion drawn from the findings may indeed be credible to an extent as it was based on the perceived views of all local enforcement officials, and more interestingly in most cases the perceived views were found to be similar to fishers. Given the existing operational challenges in relation to human and institutional capacity, and the inadequacy of financial and logistical resources, a hybrid approach to fisheries enforcement program was recommended and suggested for its evaluation. The management authority can move forward in this knowledge-building research of portraying enforcement reality through the replication of this study which may also help ensure validity of the results and thus make unbiased strategic decisions on fisheries law enforcement.

Lake Kariba and its fisheries are international resources shared by Zambia and Zimbabwe. Despite efforts to harmonize the regulatory system, there are still conflicting approaches of managing the f...

Management Strategy Evaluation (MSE) is a process to develop a management strategy that is robust to uncertainties and appropriately reflects the trade-offs among the management objectives of stakeholders. It is widely recognized as best practice to develop a management strategy for fisheries management and has been implemented in a number of domestic fisheries. In contrast, implementation of MSE in the international fisheries management is limited. In this study, the development of MSE in various (five tuna related and eight other) regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) is reviewed and common features among RFMOs that have been either successful or not so successful are studied, mainly from the viewpoint of a decision-maker. Furthermore, challenges specific to RFMOs to implement MSE are discussed. It is found that the complex nature of the governance by RFMOs as an international institute poses unique challenges for implementing MSE, which is not easy even in much simpler domestic fisheries. In addition to further efforts to improve communication with stakeholders to obtain their understanding and commitment to the MSE process, it is suggested that RFMOs take a more practical approach to advance work on MSE, which is to discuss and decide the elements of MSE such as management objectives, their associated performance indicators and the harvest control rules as a package which includes examples of practical options and their differences in performance, rather than having an initial focus on conceptual aspects such as early clarification of objectives, to improve management as soon as practicable.

Many policymakers attribute the success of fisheries management regimes to the design and implementation of particular regulatory tools. While sound design and effective implementation are crucial elements of any successful regulatory action, fisheries policymakers and regulators should also account for the heterogeneous sociocultural institutions of partner communities. The success of fisheries policies relies on compliance and, ideally, cooperation (accepting policies, i.e. not protesting or otherwise strongly agitating against the system) from fisheries stakeholders. Even a policy that is sound in design and flawless in execution is at risk of failure if target stakeholders obstruct or otherwise undermine the system. This paper investigates how institutions, at various levels of scale and formality, play a role in determining the degree of compliance and/or cooperation that a fisheries management regime enjoys. In particular, it will examine the issue of Individual Vessel Quotas (IVQs) in Norway, and the response of fishing communities to the trade liberalization of IVQs.

This paper examines the effectiveness of formal institutions in managing marine fisheries in Vietnam and various factors affecting the effectiveness. This study is based on data collected through a household survey, group discussions, and interviews. This study shows that the formal institutions including the government agencies and the legislative framework have not been effective in managing marine fisheries. The factors affecting the performance of the formal institutions include weak capacity of the government agencies, non-compliance of the fisheries regulations, and the policy failure. The government agencies are not rationally organized and facing shortage of work force, finance, and equipment. Non-compliance is due to enforcement problems, law incompatibility, input costs increase, and population growth. The policy failure is resulted from conflict between the development and conservation objectives and the top-down approach, which ignores the socio-economic context and natural conditions of the fishing community. Understanding how these factors influence the effectiveness of formal institutions are important in improving current fisheries management in Vietnam.

The present paper presents the practical implementation of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM) in Norway. This involves defining management objectives and developing simple and efficient tools to achieve an overview of management needs and prioritise among these, while integrating broader conservation issues and ensuring stakeholder involvement. A new Marine Resources Act entered into force in Norway in 2009. By integrating conservation and sustainable use as basic principles, the law represents a paradigm shift in the management of Norwegian fisheries. The law indicates which concerns should be addressed, but neither how nor how often evaluations should take place. That is for management to decide. A management principle in the Marine Resources Act confers on the Ministry an obligation to evaluate whether continued fishing at the present scale is justifiable, or whether improved management is required to ensure sustainability. A Stock table, and a table of "Catches of data-poor species" constitute a comprehensive system for monitoring the management principle. Along with a Fisheries table, these tables establish a framework for developing an ecosystem-based fisheries management by providing a basis and tools for prioritising the needs of new and/or revised management measures.

Summary As concerns about anthropogenically driven marine resource decline continue, rights-based approaches to fisheries governance have gained attention. Territorial User Rights (TURF) is one example increasingly promoted to enhancing sustainability of small-scale fisheries. Despite rising global interest empirical inquiry into the factors contributing to TURF outcomes remains limited and focus has centered on the ecological and fisheries outcomes, largely neglecting documentation of social consequences and social determinants of success. This paper aims to move the theoretical and empirical work on the role of social capital and leadership in natural resource governance (particularly fisheries) forward by deepening the discussion around the conceptualization and operationalization of social capital. We also extend empirical work on TURF performance by examining multiple social and ecological outcomes. We put forth four theoretically informed propositions about the relationship between key explanatory variables and outcomes. Using empirical data from six Chilean Territorial User Rights areas we provide an early assessment of the validity of these propositions using a case comparative approach, and test their usefulness in operationalizing and analyzing such multifaceted data. Findings show that social capital may not be a useful predictor of success, while the presence of engaged leadership and agreement among members around sanctions appears more closely linked to performance across all social and ecological outcome variables. A key finding is that the use of social capital as a broad term encompassing multiple pro-social variables may not be a fruitful way forward for improving our understanding of the determinants of success in resource management. Instead results indicate that leadership interacts with specific aspects of what is generally referred to as social capital to affect outcomes. To allow theoretical refinement and hypotheses testing regarding determinants of governance outcomes we suggest the social processes measured under the broad umbrella of social capital should be kept separate.

Eco-labeling is a market-driven mechanism to promote sustainable fisheries. The most widely used certification scheme for seafood eco-labeling is issued by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), but the MSC has been criticized for favoring large-scale industrial fisheries. The benefits from eco-labeling can potentially be significant, ranging from price premiums to enriched understanding of fisheries management among fishers; however, anecdotal evidence from MSC-certified fisheries across various countries highlights the struggle of many small-scale fisheries to meet the costs of certification. The lack of environmental awareness in domestic markets can impede the spread of MSC eco-labeling among small-scale fisheries. In the absence of consumer preferences for seafood sustainability, and without subsidies, the certification may not be an appropriate tool for small-scale seafood producers. Examination of the case of an MSC-certified small-scale fishery suggests some efforts to achieve economies of scale; multi-species fisheries can apply for MSC certification as a single unit of assessment, and fisheries can cooperate with neighboring fisheries that target the same fish stock to share assessment costs. In a market where no price premium has been generated, effective face-to-face marketing is pivotal. The MSC will need to be committed to pursuing price premiums in new markets if it is to extend its reach further to small-scale fisheries.

Comments are provided on several points in the 2016 State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture produced by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). It is shown that data assembled by FAO from submissions by countries suggest a “stable” trend mainly because the declining catches of a number of countries with reliable statistics is compensated for by unreliable statistics from countries where reporting increasing catches may be politically expedient, e.g., China, Myanmar. Also, concerns are raised as to why FAO chose to ignore the well-documented data ‘reconstruction’ process, which fills the gaps that exist in data reported by countries to FAO. It is being ignored despite its importance for governance and resource conservation being well known. This process and its findings could be used by FAO to encourage countries to improve their data reporting, including retroactive corrections. This is important in view of successive analyses of the status of fisheries resources undertaken by FAO (published in current and past SOFIAs) and also in modified form by the Sea Around Us. This suggests a degradation of marine fisheries, and, if trends continue, a crisis by mid-century. Finally, comments are presented on the proposition that aquaculture will overtake wild capture fisheries in terms of food production, notably because current aquaculture requires huge quantities of wild-caught fish as feed. Indeed, this emphasis on aquaculture-as-substitute for fisheries raises issues of food security and malnutrition in developing countries, from which much of the fish used as feed originates.

A large gap has been identified between the current and optimal economic performance of wild-capture commercial fisheries in Australia. Economic approaches have the potential to assist fisheries to bridge this gap, such as bio-economic models that combine biology with fishing costs to evaluate the economic performance of a broad range of management measures. Economic objectives are prevalent in overarching Australian fisheries legislation, however economic data is often not collected and economic analyses or instruments not broadly applied. This paper reviews selected Australian fisheries to demonstrate the accrued economic benefits from applying formal bio-economic models and conducting empirical analyses of the impact of supply on product value. Challenges to the implementation and continued use of economic analyses and instruments are discussed including: (i) short-term transition costs and associated trade-offs between ecological, economic, social and political objectives; (ii) scarce logistical and financial capacity to collect and analyse economic data; (iii) a lack of desire among industry to change and transition to economic targets such as maximum economic yield (MEY), particularly when it is associated with lower catches; and (iv) a lack of economic literacy among fisheries managers and industry. It is contended that many of these challenges initially arise from an absence of clearly identified and prioritised objectives within overarching legislation and management plans. Once objectives are prioritised, limited resources can be allocated more efficiently to improve data collection, economic analysis and increase awareness as well as education of managers and industry.

Fisheries learning exchanges (FLE) can be useful for enhancing fisheries management. Reversing the decline of the North Pacific loggerhead turtle is a priority articulated in US, Japanese, and Mexican natural resources policy. However, by 2005, while nesting beach protection was strong in Japan and bycatch reduction had been achieved in U.S. Hawaii-based longline fisheries, bycatch mortality was very high in Mexican artisanal fisheries and believed to be problematic in Japanese coastal fisheries. Efforts to conserve the population were hindered by lack of understanding and cooperation by and between fishers, conservation practitioners, scientists, and managers of all three countries. The authors produced a trinational FLE with participants from Japan, Mexico, and Hawaii to share bycatch challenges and develop solutions. The trinational FLE gave fishers and other participants new, otherwise unattainable knowledge, perspectives, and experiences that empowered them as leaders among their peers, resulting in unexpectedly strong cultural and conservation outcomes that included: a) understanding of the myriad threats to loggerheads throughout their ranges and lifetimes, b) development of a transpacific conservation partnerships to undertake coordinated recovery efforts, c) participatory research to develop and test bycatch reduction technological and practical solutions for Japan and Mexico, and d) hundreds of juvenile loggerheads spared per yr from bycatch mortality via changes in fishing practices by FLE participants. The authors conclude that the reciprocal FLE can serve as a practical tool with potential for broad application for empowering fishers and other fisheries stakeholders to improve fisheries.

Due to the ambiguity of international law in this area, taking action against vessels without nationality on the high seas has been inherently problematic. In recent years, however, a number of legal developments have emerged in the international fisheries sphere, designed to address this uncertainty. This article considers the ambiguity in this area, describes recent legal developments and contemplates their impact on the law, including their potential to contribute to the development of a new customary norm, or represent evidence of an international legal and political consensus on existing law. It considers the likelihood that these recent developments, whatever their precise legal effect, will facilitate the international community’s efforts in combatting illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing into the future.

The contribution by women to fisheries economies globally continues to be overlooked, in part, because “fishing” is often narrowly defined as catching fish at sea, from a vessel, using specialized gears. Both men and women are involved in fisheries, but often in different roles and activities. Fisheries research, management, and policy have traditionally focused on direct, formal, and paid fishing activities—that are often dominated by men, ignoring those that are indirect, informal, and/or unpaid—where women are concentrated. This has led to a situation where men's and women's contributions to fisheries are not equally valued or even recognized and has resulted in women being largely excluded from fisheries decision-making processes. Here, we examine the contributions by women in the fisheries sector of five globally significant marine fishing countries—Mexico, Peru, Senegal, South Africa, and Vietnam. These countries each have strong links between livelihoods and marine capture fisheries, yet re...

Gender inequality and discrimination challenges the social economic and environmental sustainability of the global small-scale fisheries sector critically in achieving inclusive development. The absence of a gender-aware perspective in fisheries research is often justified from the premise that fisheries are a male-dominated sector. Although, millions of women are engaged in small-scale fisheries their work has been systematically discounted and devalued. This paper reviews the gender literature on small-scale fisheries to elaborate on the gender discrimination on; labor division, accessibility, and power relations, which hinder the sustainability and development process in marginalized communities. Ironically, women often contribute to such discriminatory processes in access and control of resources and decision making thus directly affecting on household and community wellbeing. The paper concludes that gender sensitive research can help to ensure that the conditions for achieving the sustainable development goals are met especially in the context of expected global stress on fisheries from climate change and development processes.

[EN] Industrial aquaculture has become one of the main protagonists both on the coasts and in international policy aimed at regulating matters concerning the sea. This new role is reflected in the recently adopted Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union, where the need to promote the sector and the involvement with other local actors, specifically artisanal fishers, is highlighted. However, the official promotion of this activity could be overvaluing its benefits while, at the same time, undervaluing the new barriers that it is introducing in fisheries co-management. Centered in Valencian Community (Spain) and through a qualitative methodology, this paper examines the views and positions of stakeholders directly involved in aquaculture activity (biologists, aquaculture businessmen and policy managers) on the possibilities of joint participation. It is concluded, that eroding the detected mistrust among stakeholders through "hybrid forms of participation" would be a necessary prerequisite to setting up a common framework for involvement leading to an effective co-management., The authors would like to thank the Spanish Economy and Competitiveness Ministry for its support through the Research Project (CSO2013-41972-P).

© 2016 The Authors Spatial boundaries have become an indispensable part of regimes and tools for regulating fisheries, with examples including marine protected areas, regional fisheries management organizations and Exclusive Economic Zones. Yet, it is also widely acknowledged that boundaries are a social construct, which may be resisted by both fishers and fish ecology. The ensuing spatial and institutional mismatches have been shown to frustrate management efforts, exacerbating issues of non-compliance and ultimately leading to conflicts and overfishing. Interestingly, the often static and rigid nature of these boundaries has also led to a concomitant research interest in ‘transboundary’. This paradoxical situation of more boundary-setting entailing more transboundary thinking warrants a deeper understanding about boundaries and the role of transboundary research in fisheries. The aims of this review article are twofold: (1) a theoretical clarification on the meanings and uses of spatial boundaries drawing on geographical “boundary studies” literature; and (2) a construction of a typology that outlines how transboundary research is being articulated and envisioned. Together, the study reveals that transboundary scholarship in fisheries are mostly related to resources, fleets, trade and governance aspects and that dealing with the “boundary paradox” encompasses re-incorporating, re-scaling and re-imagining of boundaries. This article provides a conceptual basis for reflecting upon boundaries in world's fisheries and opens up discussions for a more nuanced boundary application that can better cope with multi-level interactions and dynamicity.

Over recent decades it has become widely accepted that managing fisheries resources means managing human behaviour, and so understanding social and economic dynamics is just as important as understanding species biology and ecology. Until recently, fisheries managers and researchers have struggled to develop effective methods and data for social and economic analysis that can integrate with the predominantly biological approaches to fisheries management. The field is now growing fast, however, and globally, researchers are developing and testing new methods. This paper uses three divergent case studies to demonstrate the value of using qualitative social science approaches to complement more conventional quantitative methods to improve the knowledge base for fisheries management. In all three cases, qualitative interview and document review methods enabled broad surveying to explore the research questions in particular contexts and identified where quantitative tools could be most usefully applied. In the first case (the contribution of commercial fisheries to coastal communities in eastern Australia), a wellbeing analysis identified the social benefits from particular fisheries, which can be used to identify the social impacts of different fisheries management policies. In the second case (a gender analysis of fisheries of small islands in the Pacific), analysis outlined opportunities and constraints along fisheries supply chains, illuminated factors inhibiting community development and identified ecological factors that are typically overlooked in conventional fisheries management. In the third case (sea cucumber fisheries in Papua New Guinea), an interactive governance analysis assessed how well fisheries management tools fit the ecological, social and economic reality of the fishery and the trade in its products, including market influences and stakeholder values. The qualitative approach adopted in these three case studies adds a new dimension to understanding fisheries that is not possible with a focus solely on quantitative data. With the development of new policies on release programs (stock enhancement, restocking) and artificial reefs, and the momentum to use these interventions from recreational fishing groups, the qualitative approach will provide an important contribution to understanding their wider costs and benefits.

Substantial economic opportunities have been identified in many Australian fisheries but may remain unimplemented due to the perception that the role of government is to ensure harvests are biologically sustainable, while economic decisions should be left to the commercial industry. This paper explores the role of government in driving changes that increase revenue and profit from fisheries (termed economic benefit). Australian fisheries resources are managed by eight different jurisdictions. While each have separate legislation, there is invariably a responsibility to manage on behalf of, and to the benefit of the public, who are the owners of the resource. This paper uses case studies to explore how government can struggle to determine the public interest, separate this from private interests and then implement management changes to ensure the public utility is maximised. Common problems were: (i) overarching economic objectives, which define who should benefit, were often ambiguous and open to interpretation; (ii) the public interest was usually abstract and often under-represented in decision-making processes, (in contrast to industry, who have direct representation); (iii) special interest groups were often able to lobby against changes; and (iv) government was often reluctant to seize opportunities to increase economic benefit when there was significant industry opposition to management changes. In drawing attention to these challenges and how they have been overcome historically, it is argued that government has both a role and requirement under their legislative objectives to take the lead in implementing measures that increase the economic benefit from Australian fisheries.

China’s 13th Five-Year Plan, launched in March 2016, provides a sound policy platform for the protection of marine ecosystems and the restoration of capture fisheries within China’s exclusive economic zone. What distinguishes China among many other countries striving for marine fisheries reform is its size—accounting for almost one-fifth of global catch volume—and the unique cultural context of its economic and resource management. In this paper, we trace the history of Chinese government priorities, policies, and outcomes related to marine fisheries since the 1978 Economic Reform, and examine how the current leadership’s agenda for “ecological civilization” could successfully transform marine resource management in the coming years. We show how China, like many other countries, has experienced a decline in the average trophic level of its capture fisheries during the past few decades, and how its policy design, implementation, and enforcement have influenced the status of its wild fish stocks. To reverse the trend in declining fish stocks, the government is introducing a series of new programs for sustainable fisheries and aquaculture, with greater traceability and accountability in marine resource management and area controls on coastal development. As impressive as these new plans are on paper, we conclude that serious institutional reforms will be needed to achieve a true paradigm shift in marine fisheries management in China. In particular, we recommend new institutions for science-based fisheries management, secure fishing access, policy consistency across provinces, educational programs for fisheries managers, and increasing public access to scientific data.

The incorporation of Taiwan into the legal framework of regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) has proven to be challenging. This article reviews RFMO practice in this area in light of the recent experience of the Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA) and outlines some of the legal creativity that has provided solutions. Taiwan's participation in RFMOs is essential to the achievement of effective management outcomes. Accordingly, this article argues that today, with relevant international legal obligations and numerous suitable precedents, political considerations should not represent an obstacle to providing for fair and appropriate involvement of Taiwan in RFMOs.

Unsustainable fishing in marine systems creates fisheries management and conservation challenges, with implications for ecosystem health, livelihoods, economies, and seafood supply. Thus there is a need for management approaches that can support productive fisheries and healthy ecosystems. Property rights, and particularly spatial rights or territorial use rights in fisheries (TURFs), are increasingly proposed as a solution. It has been suggested that TURFs may align fishers' incentives with long-term stewardship, resulting in improved yields and positive conservation outcomes. Here we examined this idea by reviewing existing theoretical and empirical evidence for TURF performance in achieving both fisheries and conservation goals, and find equivocal evidence that TURFs can consistently deliver on this promise. We then explored the potential to improve outcomes by implementing no-take marine reserves with TURFs ("TURF-reserves"). We evaluated theoretical and empirical evidence in the literature and develop a simulation model to examine tradeoffs for achieving conservation and fishery objectives. With our model, we examined different management regimes (e.g., open access vs TURFs), harvest controls within the TURF (e.g., selectivity and harvest rate restrictions), and varying reserve sizes. We found that combining reserves with TURFs does not eliminate the tradeoff between fisheries and conservation goals if the TURF already effectively controls fishing pressure. However, given the results from our literature review, many TURFs may not achieve effective fisheries management. Thus, TURF-reserves may be better able to balance fisheries and conservation goals relative to TURF-only systems, but outcomes will depend on target species mobility, TURF size, and fishing intensity outside the TURF-reserve.

Urgency of the research. The article describes the practical aspects of the fish policy, its impact to public food providing in Ukraine and in the world. The proposals of fisheries regulation are considered in the context of the global food system and functioning of national aquaculture and fish products. Target setting. The article aims at studying the problems of fish policy and fisheries functioning. It promotes the development of methodological foundations for solving the problem of food products market. Actual scientific researches and issues analysis. The analyze of fish and seafood products markets are in the focus of many leading scientists and economists: T. Sigbjorn, F. Asche, B. Belton, S. H. Thilsted, N. M. Vdovenko, Y. Sharylo, K. O. Ribalchenko and many others authors. Uninvestigated parts of general matters defining. The lack of focus on the problems of increasing the competitiveness of the fisheries and aquaculture in Ukraine is an example of untapped opportunities that must be implemented to ensure healthy nutrition and food security. The research objective is to study the markets of fisheries products, identifying deficiencies fishing policy in the context of globalization and the development of proposals on food security of the population. The statement of basic materials. Globally, aquaculture is a young sector of the agricultural sector, which is experiencing a period of growth over the past 50 years. World aquaculture production is divided into categories: aquaculture in inland waters and mariculture. Fisheries is on five levels: a) the access to the markets of non-agricultural goods (NAMA); b) agreement on subsidies and compensation measures (ASCM); c) trade and environment, especially environmental protection agreements (MEA); d) agreement on antidumping (ADA); e) general agreement on trade services (GATS). The regulation of international trade in fisheries and aquacultures are complicated by the fact that fish products are not subject of Agreement on Agriculture of the WTO. The main piece of legislation that defines the priority objectives in the field of fisheries is European Regulation "On the Common Fish Policy". Conclusions. Fisheries and aquaculture in inland waters is often underestimated during fo planning future development, land and water using and in decision-making process at the state level. It is practice advisable to consider the global goals of the World Health Organization to improve nutrition by 2025. To this goal, the future need to develop a mechanism of monitoring of global priorities and sustainable fisheries as food products in all its forms that would find opportunities to solve them in the futur

Understanding self-governance efforts in small-scale coastal fisheries may hold the clue to establishing effective coastal fisheries policies or strengthening existing ones. Here, we explored the diversity and the rationale behind the self-devised control rules implemented by two groups of coastal fishers in Peru, and the pathways to promote compliance under self-governance systems, as a prerequisite to sustain such efforts. We drew on an exploratory methodological approach and used semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire, designed following Ostrom's socio-ecological system (SES) framework, to characterize each experience. A compliance framework was used to identify the pathways and factors driving compliance. Results showed a variety of informal control rules have been set and used by fishers, from catch limits to patrolling activities. Each addresses specific fisheries governance and management issues. Results also showed that setting control rules has not been a one-time event; instead, it is an evolving learning process. Furthermore, both traditional (La Islilla) and non-traditional (Ilo) SES frameworks have built their own ways to promote compliance and sustain self-governance efforts. These two experiences provide insights for understanding self-governance of coastal fisheries, with particular attention to identifying ways to improve the governability of small-scale fisheries through cogovernance type arrangements.

The seas and oceans cover 71 per cent of the surface of the earth but, beyond the horizon, are largely unobserved. Marine areas provide 17 per cent of the global population’s protein intake, and over 3 billion people with 20 per cent of their protein. Following population growth, the oceans are expected to make a significant contribution to food security for over 9 billion people by 2050.1 Aside from nutrition, the seas deliver many other ecosystem benefits, including climate stabilization, molecules used in medicine and engineering, the protection of coastlines through ecosystems, such as corals and mangrove, and they act as a sink for 90 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, its vital importance is often overlooked. The Paris Agreement on Climate Change notes only ‘the importance of ensuring the integrity...

Emerging as an innovation for improving the management of overexploited fisheries around the world, rights-based fisheries management systems are being implemented in the form of either species- or area-based management. While there are numerous reviews on species-based management, there have been none on area-based management. To fill this gap, we undertake a critical review of the literature on area-based management systems known as “Territorial Use Rights for Fisheries” (or TURFs). Following an exhaustive search, seventy-nine peer-reviewed journal papers discussing the evolution, effectiveness, enforcement, and management context of TURFs were identified and selected. Review of these papers reveals that there is a growing interest in investigating the real-world effects of TURFs, both positive and negative. The variability in TURF performance appears to be due to design features, enforcement behavior of fishers, and specific contextual conditions, namely, biological fishery characteristics, socio-economic aspects of fishers, and institutional arrangements. The bulk of the published research has focused on theoretical analysis and empirical evidence based on fishers’ perception and experience. And there has been little research on enforcement issues or how design features and management contexts influence performance. This review emphasizes the need for rigorous empirical analyses of TURF effects, including assessment of the cost-effectiveness of different enforcement schemes and the effects of contextual conditions on TURF performance. Addressing current shortcomings in the literature could improve the design, implementation and performance of TURFs worldwide.

The Sustainable Seafood Movement (movement) arose in reaction to government fisheries managers' inertia and failure to prevent overfishing, overcapacity and impacts on the ecosystem. This movement has successfully developed non-state market-driven governance tools to catalyse improvements in fisheries governance. Non-state market-driven governance is often discussed in the context of certification programs such as the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), but this is just one facet of a diversified, multi-pronged governance regime that has been created to improve the sustainability of fisheries; others include fisheries improvement projects, sustainable seafood sourcing policies, and traceability schemes. Movement actors use these non-state market-driven governance tools to reform fisheries governance through the supply chain. While recognition exists in the literature of the continued importance of fisheries governance reform, the complementary nature and the need for improved coordination between public governance and non-state market-driven governance efforts is insufficiently explored. Few actors in either sector understand fully the work of the other. Using the United Kingdom and the United States as case studies, this paper contrasts public governance mechanisms with non-state market-driven governance mechanisms to highlight where their efforts are complements, substitutes, rivals, or monopolies. Understanding the roles and structures of these governance regimes is necessary to identify impediments to coordination as well as possible solutions.

Acknowledgements Many parties contributed to making this paper a reality. This research was supported by the European Social and Research Council, grant ESRC ES/K006428/1. The author is particularly grateful to the grant’s holder, Professor David Anderson from the Department of Anthropology, University of Aberdeen, for his various support throughout this research. The Barents Center of the Humanities at Kola Science Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Apatity provided important institutional support. Officials from several fisheries management institutions of Arkhangelsk oblast, including Shiriaev Igor Alekseevich from Dvinsko-Pechorskoe Territorial Management Board, Skovorod’ko Artem Aleksandrovich from the Northern Basin Directorate of Fisheries and Water Biological Resources Conservation (Sevrybvod) and Korotenkov Aleksei Anatol’evich from the Fishing Industry Agency of Arkhangelsk oblast were very supportive and shared their knowledge wherever possible. Scholars Studenov Igor Ivanovich and Stasenkov Vladimir Aleksandrovich at Northern branch of the Knipovich Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (SevPINRO) in Arkhangelsk provided their invaluable expertise on marine fisheries. Chairmen of several fishing collective farms – Tuchin Sergei Viktorovich, Samoilov Sergei Nikolaevich and Seliverstova Marina Nikolaevna – offered a great administrative support. Local residents of several villages in Mezen region were extremely generous and hospitable, providing places to stay, warm clothes, food, endless cups of tea, and most valuably, sparing their time. Finally, Natalie Wahnsiedler was a regular companion during fieldwork and a great source of inspiration for this research.

Several regional fisheries and marine conservation organizations in the Coral Triangle (CT) and Southeast Asia have indicated their support for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management (EAFM). It is also likely that science and technology (S&T) innovations will play a role in the region for the purposes of filling gaps in fisheries data, enhancing the coordination of fisheries management efforts, and implementing and operationalizing an EAFM. Here, we outline the methodology and results of an expert-opinion survey designed to elucidate and prioritize the implementation of these S&T innovations. As a first step and case study, the survey presented here was conducted on U.S. government experts. The U.S. market is one of the world's largest importers of seafood, and therefore, in the framework of this study, is considered to be a stakeholder in the seafood supply chain that originates in the CT and Southeast Asia region. Results are discussed in terms of the data needs and principles of an EAFM, as well as current trends and contexts of the CT and Southeast Asia region. Next steps and recommendations are also provided on how S&T innovations can be implemented to enhance the cooperation and coordination of regional marine resource management efforts.

Fisheries management in the United States, the European Union, and other parts of the globe, increasingly reflects a burgeoning realization that fisheries management policies affect not only fishermen, but also the broader communities in which fishermen work and reside. Understanding fishing communities, however, is not a straightforward task. Researchers draw upon many methodologies across diverse disciplines in the attempt to better understand the needs of fishing communities and the ways in which fisheries management programs affect these communities. This special issue draws together international research on fishing communities, highlighting the diverse relationships between people, places and their fish and fisheries. Rather than attempting to consolidate these complex, multifarious relationships into simple metrics, the papers presented in this issue illuminate community needs and wants from a variety of frameworks highlighting the importance of meaningfully understanding local contexts. These papers represent novel frameworks and case studies, adding depth of scholarly knowledge to a relatively understudied segment of fisheries management. Specifically, the goal of this issue is to advance the inclusion of community considerations in fisheries management processes. While approaching the topic of fishing communities from diverse perspectives, the papers in this special issue work together to provide a broad view of the concerns and conflicts existent in these communities. They highlight the need for management endeavors to be flexible, broad, and inclusive, providing potential tools and frameworks to aid in management projects.

Promoting and attaining sustainable use of resources through community participation is a central tenet of the European Union's (EU) 2013 Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy. A systematic review approach was used to identify participatory fisheries management arrangements within the EU. Following this, the participatory arrangements were categorized based on the nature of the decision-making arrangement, influence and empowerment of the fishing industry. The study identified 40 management arrangements distributed through 8 member states, with a variety of fisheries and institutional settings for participation in fisheries management in the EU. The majority of the partnerships identified are “Functional participation”, i.e., the participatory arrangement is based in pre-determined goals encouraged by higher decision-making levels in order to increase efficiency of management decisions. Interactive partnership was the highest level of participation identified in the systematic review, and is usually more conducive with local arrangements in coastal and small-scale fisheries targeting low mobility species.

The three main pillars of the European Common Fisheries Policy, reformed in 2013, consist of minimizing ecological impacts; implementing sustainable exploitation defined by maximum sustainable yield (MSY) for regulated species and introducing landing obligations aimed at reducing the wasteful practice of discarding unwanted catches. These three key elements constitute major challenges for fisheries, their management and fishery scientists whose goal is to provide objective advice. We demonstrate that limiting sustainable catch options may pose rigorous constraints on fishing activities, in particular on so-called mixed fisheries targeting more than one individual stock. In a situation where there are complex restrictions comprising multiple management goals which are sometimes conflicting (e.g. the ‘choke effects’ of reduced catch opportunities due to specific stock conservation needs or market conditions), we propose the application of specific measures for specific fisheries, i.e. deviation from traditional fishery selection patterns, as an option to avert significant losses in yield and economic revenue. Fisheries-specific contributions to general management goals, including unwanted effects, shall be evaluated. Individual fisheries may benefit accordingly through multi-annual management plans with regional-scale reconciliation of sustainable exploitation of living natural resources, food security and socio-economy as potential key elements.

Economists were sensitized to the common property problems of the fishery by H. Scott Gordon’s seminal article that appeared in 1954. The advice from economists on fisheries management tended to focus on various forms of limited entry licensing. The degree of success achieved overall with limited entry schemes has been sufficiently modest for economists to cast about for an alternative approach to fisheries rationalization. The chapter offers a few generalizations regarding the practical applicability of the individual quota. It aims to identify the circumstances under which use of the individual quota should be avoided or approached with particular caution. The purported advantages of management by individual quota allocation lie in the elimination of important external diseconomies, both among those associated with open-access fisheries and those peculiar to fisheries subject to limited entry licensing. For many fisheries, enforcement is likely to be one of the most difficult problems with an individual quota system.

The Barents Sea is one of the world’s most productive oceans, and is home to at least 20 million nesting seabirds during the summer time. The Barents Sea is also inhabited by 21 species of marine mammals and is an important feeding ground for a range of large whales. This ocean is important both as a spawning area for a number of important fish species, and is also a very important harvesting area for the Norwegian and the Russian fishing industry, and the people living by the coast of the two countries. The major commercial fisheries in the Barents Sea target cod, haddock and saithe (ground fisheries) and Norwegian spring- spawning herring, capelin and blue whiting (pelagic fisheries). The harvesting is predominated by Russia and Norway, and the two countries have three main shared stocks, namely: cod, haddock and capelin. The most important of these fish stocks (commercially) is the Arcto- Norwegian Cod stock. A new study by Norwegian marine scientists shows that the Barents Sea is heating up much faster than previously thought. The reason is a rapid climate change that has not been seen since the last ice age. An important part of the Arctic is transitioning to the Atlantic climate. An ice free Barents Sea, also in the north, affects social sectors such as fisheries, management, petroleum, tourism and research. Commercial fish stocks may be more prevalent, and marine scientists have shown that southern fish species such as cod already occupy the northern Barents Sea. But, a completely ice free Barents Sea, without Arctic water, can also have unfortunate consequences. As the southern species of fish come further north, this leads to increased competition for the Arctic species. How this will affect the entire ecosystem including the commercial species is not known. In addition to the climate change effects of the Barents Sea there are other stressors to the marine environment in the area such as fisheries, oil and gas exploitation, pollution, etc. and issues of governance in the Barents Sea involve growing needs for improved mechanisms to address the interplay among various elements of the complex of sectoral regimes applicable to the region and for sharpness in responding to rapid changes in the conditions prevailing in the environment of the Barents Sea. The questions that my thesis rises revolves around is the legal cooperation on shared and straddling fish stocks, biological diversity and climate change impacts in the Barents Sea, and how Russia and Norway is fulfilling their obligations to protect and preserve the marine environment in the Barents Sea. The main question in connection with this is if the cooperation is sufficient enough to handle the challenges the Barents Sea is facing, both now and in the future.

List of figures List of tables List of contributors Preface List of abbreviations Part I. Conceptual Approaches to Smart Mixes: 1. Introduction: the concept of smart mixes for transboundary environmental harm Judith van Erp, Michael Faure, Andre Nollkaemper, Niels Philipsen, Jing Liu and Markos Karavias 2. 'Smart' public-private complementarities in the transnational regulatory and enforcement space Linda Senden 3. Smart mixes and the challenge of complexity: lessons from global climate governance Philipp Pattberg and Oscar Widerberg 4. Smart (and not so smart) mixes of new environmental policy instruments Rudiger Wurzel, Anthony Zito and Andrew Jordan Part II. Fisheries and Forestry: 5. The pursuit of good regulatory design principles in international fisheries law: what possibility of smarter international regulation? Richard Barnes 6. Mixing regional fisheries management and private certification Markos Karavias 7. RFMO-MSC smart regulatory mixes for transboundary tuna fisheries Agnes Yeeting and Simon R. Bush 8. Smart mixes in forest governance Jing Liu 9. Governing forest supply chains: ratcheting up or squeezing out? Constance McDermott 10. Public sector engagement with private governance programs: interactions and evolutionary effects in forest and fisheries certification Lars Gulbrandsen Part III. Climate Change and Oil: 11. Smart mixes, non-state governance and climate change Neil Gunningham 12. Private control of public regulation: a smart mix? The case of greenhouse gas emission reductions in the EU Marjan Peeters and Mathias Muller 13. Smart mixes with respect to civil liability regimes for marine oil pollution Michael Faure and Hui Wang 14. Regulatory mixes in governance arrangements in (offshore) oil production: are they smart? Jan van Tatenhove Part IV. Concluding Remarks: 15. Conclusion: smart mixes in relation to transboundary environmental harm Judith van Erp, Michael Faure, Andre Nollkaemper and Niels Philipsen.

As the development of an implementation agreement on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction gathers pace, it is important to consider how this might impact upon international fisheries law. Although the proposed agreement provides an opportunity to addresses governance gaps both generally and with respect to fisheries, we should not expect too much of it; not least because the inclusion per se of fisheries remains debated by States. Also, positive institutional developments are already occurring beyond this UN process.The proposed implementation agreement should not undermine existing laws, but it is unlikely to leave them untouched. The application of integrated governance principles, and the use of area-based management tools and environmental impact assessment will necessarily influence fisheries regulation in ABNJ. Accordingly, care should be taken to ensure that any innovative governance tools are adapted to existing institutional capacities and circumstances

Counterfactual thinking is used to analyze historical events or the effectiveness of political regimes. It is also used to show the contingency of events. It is seldom applied to international law. This analytical technique helps free analysis from the bias of necessity; of seeing law as it is as somehow pre-determined by historical events. It allows us to explain the workings of law without recourse to abstract theories. Counterfactuals allow us think about how events might have been different with calibrated changes to real world events, thus allowing us to remain true to how law operates in practice. Counterfactual analysis stimulates imaginative thinking. If law is not inevitable, but in part the result of historical contingencies, then by foregrounding these contingencies we can strengthen calls for change to address any shortcomings that are the product of those past, less relevant, contingencies. This Chapter breaks new ground in using counterfactual thinking to analyse international fisheries law and international environmental law. The paper outlines the relationship between international fisheries law and international environmental law so that we have a point of comparison for the counterfactual analysis. It then sets out the main approaches to counterfactual analysis. Given the novelty of a counterfactual approach, it is important to identify and assess its modes of application as far as possible. This is applies to some case studies to show how counterfactual analysis can help evaluate international fisheries regulation. I conclude that the systemic complexity of international fisheries and environmental law make it difficult to posit clear and instructive counterfactuals. As such we have to be very cautious about the lessons that we draw. For example, one should not assume that fisheries management would be more sensitive to environmental concerns.Whilst this is not as positive as we would like, one encouraging lesson is that it is precisely the systemic complexity that inhibits counterfactual thinking that might actually serve us well in developing a stronger environmental dimension to fisheries management in the longer term.