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Objective— To determine a hand-tied ligature knot configuration, suture size, and suture type that would be an acceptable substitute to commercially available ligature knots for use in equine laparoscopic surgery. Study Design— Three-factor ANOVA with the fixed effects being suture type, suture size, and knot type. The dependent variable was ligature security (load to failure). Methods— Commercially available Endoloop® and 4 hand-tied slipknot ligatures were compared with a 4-layer square knot. The hand tied ligature knots tested were the 4S modified Roeder knot, the Brooks knot, the modified Roeder knot, and the Weston knot. Two suture sizes (0, 2) of each of 2 suture types (polydioxanone, polyglactin 910) were tested with each hand tied knot. Two types (polydioxanone, polyglactin 910) of size 0 Endoloop® were tested. Twenty repetitions of each knot suture type were tested for force to yield on a materials testing machine. Statistical analysis consisted of a 3-way ANOVA with individual comparisons made using the Bonferroni method. Significance was P≤.05. Results— Only the 4S modified Roeder knot in 2 polydioxanone (103 N) was comparable with the breaking strength of the square knots (157 N). All other knot suture combinations tested were significantly weaker than the square knot (range, 2–18 N). Conclusion— For equine laparoscopy, a 2 polydioxanone 4S modified Roeder knot would be an acceptable alternative to the commercially available Endoloop.® Clinical Relevance— Laparoscopic slip knots are commonly used in equine laparoscopic surgery. Various knot configuration and suture size and type combinations will affect the security of the slip knot.

Objective To evaluate outcome after laparoscopic closure of the nephrosplenic space in horses that had previous nephrosplenic entrapment of ascending colon (left dorsal displacement of the left colon; LDDLC). Study Design Retrospective study. Sample Population Horses that had previous LDDLC. Methods Medical records of horses that had LDDLC and subsequent laparoscopic nephrosplenic space closure between 2002 and 2004 were retrieved. Follow-up information was obtained by telephone interview of owners. Preoperative versus postoperative comparisons were: incidence of LDDLC, incidence of colic signs, and incidence of ventral celiotomy. Data were analyzed using a χ2-square test with significance set at P

Objective—To compare intraoperative pain responses following intraovarian versus mesovarian injection of lidocaine in mares undergoing laparoscopic ovariectomy. Design—Randomized controlled trial. Animals—15 mares between 4 and 20 years old. Procedure—Standard bilateral laparoscopic ovariectomy was performed. Prior to manipulation of the ovary, 2% lidocaine (10 mL) was injected into the ovary and saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (10 mL) was injected into the mesovarium on 1 side, with saline solution (10 mL) injected into the ovary and 2% lidocaine (10 mL) injected into the mesovarium on the other side. Presence (yes vs no) and severity (visual analogue scale) of pain were scored at 5 times (grasping of the ovary, dissection of the mesosalpinx, tightening of the first loop ligature, tightening of the second loop ligature, and transection of the ovarian pedicle) by 2 individuals blinded to treatment and each other's observations. Results—During 4 of the 5 observation periods, significantly fewer mares had signs of pain following mesovarian injection of lidocaine, and during 2 of the 5 observation periods, visual analogue scale score was significantly lower. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results suggest that mesovarian injection of lidocaine is associated with significantly lower pain responses, compared with intraovarian injection, in horses undergoing laparoscopic ovariectomy. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;227:593–596)

A recent survey of benthic macroinvertebrates of the Cuatro Cienegas basin found 118 species in the 21 sites collected. Four exotic macroinvertebrates that could threaten the native biota were found within or near the basin.

The rate and outcome of wound healing are determined by many factors,some of which are already in effect when the horse is first presented to the veterinarian. A thorough understanding of wound healing principles,coupled with clear client communication, should enable the practitioner to minimize the number of additional factors that may exacerbate the initial situation.

Though adults and older juveniles of some species are commonly encountered in freshwater reaches of coastal streams and rivers, pipefishes in general are believed to be either amphidromous or marine. In 1992, Gulf pipefish (Syngnathus scovelli) were reported in Lake Texana, a reservoir on the Navidad River near Edna, Jackson County, Texas. In June 2011, we collected an adult male with embryos and a juvenile from the same lake. This strongly suggests reproduction and persistence of the population at Lake Texana, which does not have access to saline waters. Though presence of a viable, reproducing population was not absolutely confirmed this appears likely to be the first known landlocked, freshwater population of any species of pipefish.

Nymphophilus minckleyi is a hydrobiid snail endemic to the freshwater spring ecosystem of Cuatro Cienegas, Mexico. We used seven allozyme loci to examine the genetic substructure of N. minckleyi from 14 sites (subpopulations) in the basin and to test the hypothesis that spring pools in Cuatro Cienegas are separated into seven hydrologically distinct drainages. Hierarchical F-statistics suggest significant population structure exists among the fourteen populations but not among the seven proposed drainages. Cluster analysis of Nei’s genetic distance did not show populations grouping according to drainages, although it did reveal alternative clusters. We found two distinct morphotypes that were supported as genetically distinct groups by the allozyme data. Genetic studies of vagile species in desert spring ecosystems can be used to reveal hydrologic connections and identify genetically unique sub-populations.

The Mexican Neovolcanic Plateau sharply divides the vertebrate fauna of Mesoamerica where the climate of both the neotropics and temperate North America gradually blend. Only a few vertebrate groups such as the Heroine cichlids, distributed from South America to the Rio Grande in North America, are found both north and south of the Neovolcanic Plateau. To better understand the geography and temporal diversification of cichlids at this geologic boundary, we used mitochondrial DNA sequences of the cytochrome b (cyt b) gene to reconstruct the relationships of 52 of the approximately 80 species of Heroine cichlids in Mesoamerica. Our analysis suggests several cichlids in South America should be considered as part of the Mesoamerican Heroine clade because they and the cichlids north of the Isthmus of Panama are clearly supported as monophyletic with respect to all other Neotropical cichlids. We also recovered a group containing species in Paratheraps + Paraneetroplus + Vieja as the sister clade to Herichthys. Herichthys is the only cichlid clade north of the Mexican Plateau and it is monophyletic. Non-parametric rate smoothing of cichlid cyt b sequence resulted in an estimated divergence time of approximately 6 million years for Herichthys. This temporal diversification is concordant with divergence times estimated for anurans in the genus Bufo, a group that exhibits a similar geographic distribution. Our results indicate the 5-million-year-old extension of the Mexican Neovolcanic Plateau to the Gulf Coast of Mexico has strongly influenced the current transition between the vertebrate faunas of the Neotropics and Nearctic.

Two horses were examined for large head wounds suspected to be the result of trauma and characterized by extensive necrosis of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, with abundant purulent exudate. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis was isolated from the facial wounds in both horses. Histopathologic examination revealed severe suppurative cellulitis and panniculitis with fistulous tracts and granulation tissue in 1 horse. Both horses were treated with local wound care, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and administration of antimicrobials. The concept of moist wound care was used in the second horse, with products that have recently become available for veterinary wound management. Outcome in both horses was good.

Resource polymorphisms, or morphological variations related to resource use, are common in fishes and are thought to be a possible step in speciation. This study experimentally tests the hypothesis that fitness (as estimated by growth rates) is increased by the presence of multiple trophic morphotypes (or morphs) within a population. Cage experiments were used to quantify the intraspecific competitive interactions between morphs of the polymorphic cichlid Herichthys minckleyi in Cuatro Cienegas, Mexico. Results sug- gest that competition is reduced between morphs in mixed-morph treatments relative to equal-density single-morph treatments. Field studies revealed that the morphs feed in dif- ferent microhabitats and use different feeding behaviors within these microhabitats. These results suggest that the polymorphism is maintained in the population because it decreases competition between the morphs, and that differences in feeding behavior facilitate resource partitioning.

Pain management is an extremely vital part of equine orthopedic surgery. Providing optimum analgesia for the patient will decrease recovery time, decrease physiologic stress on the animal, and provide maximum comfort during the post-operative period. The major analgesic drug categories and routes covered are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, local anesthetics, intra-articular drugs, and epidurals.

Equine standing surgery and laparoscopy are becoming increasingly important aspects of equine surgery. Laparoscopic advancements lag behind the human medical field, mainly due to decreased access to appropriate training and instrumentation. It is nearly impossible to cover the topic of equine standing surgery without discussing advances in laparoscopy, because without such advances, equine standing surgery lacks potential for forward progress. Although novel standing techniques continue to be published, the addition of minimally invasive laparoscopic techniques adds an entirely new dimension and provides a plethora of procedures to surgeons practicing equine standing surgery.

Significant advances in veterinary diagnostic and surgical techniques have been made over the past several decades. Many of these advances, however, have not reached the field of marine mammal medicine. A number of limitations exist: risks of anesthesia, anatomical challenges, difficulties with wound closure, environmental constraints, equipment limitations, and perceived risks. Despite these limitations, surgical treatments have been successfully utilized in marine mammals. While surgery is performed in pinnipeds more frequently than in cetaceans, studies conducted in the 1960s and 1970s on dolphin sleep and hearing demonstrated that general anesthesia can be successfully induced in cetaceans. Since this pioneering work, a small number of successful surgeries have been performed in dolphins under both general anesthesia and heavy sedation. While these surgical procedures in pinnipeds and cetaceans have typically been limited to wound management, dentistry, ophthalmic procedures, fracture repair, and superficial biopsy, a number of abdominal surgeries have also been performed. Recently there have been pioneering successes in the application of minimally invasive surgery in marine mammals. Many of the anatomical challenges that almost prohibit traditional laparotomies in cetacean species and present challenges in pinnipeds can be overcome through the use of laparoscopic techniques. Due to the limited number of pinnipeds and cetaceans in captivity and, thus, the limited case load for veterinarians serving marine mammal species, it is vital for knowledge of surgical procedures to be shared among those in the field. This paper reviews case reports of surgical procedures, both traditional and laparoscopic, in pinnipeds and cetaceans. Limitations to performing surgical procedures in marine mammals are discussed and surgical case reports analyzed in an effort to determine challenges that must be overcome in order to make surgery a more feasible diagnostic and treatment option in the field of marine mammal medicine.

Several small, enclosed reserves in southern Africa are experiencing significant elephant population growth, which has resulted in associated environmental damage and changes in biodiversity. Although several techniques exist to control elephant populations, e.g., culling, relocation, and immunocontraception, the technique of laparoscopic vasectomy of free-ranging bull elephants was investigated. Bilateral vasectomies were performed in 45 elephants. Of these elephants, one died within 24 hr of recovery and two had complications during surgery but recovered uneventfully. Histologic examination confirmed the resected tissue as ductus deferens in all the bulls. Most animals recovered uneventfully and showed no abnormal behavior after surgery. Complications recorded included incisional dehiscence, 1 full-thickness and 2 partial-thickness lacerations of the large intestine, and initial sling-associated complications, for example, deep radial nerve paresis. One bull was found dead 6 weeks after surgery without showing any prior abnormal signs. Vasectomy in free-ranging African bull elephants may be effectively performed in their normal environment. The surgical procedure can be used as a realistic population management tool in free-ranging elephants without major anesthetic, surgical, or postoperative complications.

Since Barbour proposed sympatric speciation to explain evolution of silversides in the Lerma-Santiago basin, relatively little subsequent study has been done. We assessed foraging patterns of four sympatric silversides species (Chirostoma estor, Chirostoma grandocule, Chirostoma attenuatum and Chirostoma patzcuaro) in Lago de Pátzcuaro to understand resource partitioning and their sympatric coexistence. We assessed the abundance of invertebrate prey in three feeding habitats and measured physical and chemical habitat parameters at two study sites. Fish were collected during the wet (September 1987) and dry (March 1988) seasons; a total of 242 gut contents were analyzed. We evaluated the trophic guild of each species using the index of relative importance (IRI), prey selectivity with the Ivlev Electivity Index (E), dietary diversity using Shannon and Wiener diversity index (H’), and diet overlap using Morisita index. All silverside species were determined to be predacious carnivores that feed mainly on nekton and periphyton. Dietary diversity and prey selectivity patterns were similar among species and diet overlap was >70%. Our data do not support the proposition that coexistence of these four fish species is maintained by dietary specialization. We hypothesize that sympatric coexistence of atherinopsids in Lago de Pátzcuaro is explained by food resource availability and ontogenetic variation in their diets. This study highlights the importance of analyzing ecological patterns and mechanisms as basic elements for designing conservation strategies of species flocks, especially under habitat loss and introduction of exotic species. Conservation efforts are urgent to preserve the rare evolutionary process of sympatric speciation (habitat segregation) that is occurring in other lakes in central Mexico, and probably already lost in the Lago de Pátzcuaro, as a result of poor management and inadequate conservation strategies. KEY WORDS: Atherinopsidae, feeding interactions, species flocks, evolutionary process, conservation. RESUMEN: Los patrones de forrajeo de cuatro especies simpátricas del género Chirostoma (Chirostoma estor, Chirostoma grandocule, Chirostoma attenuatum y Chirostoma patzcuaro) fueron evaluadas en el Lago de Pátzcuaro, para entender la repartición de recursos alimenticios y su coexistencia simpátrica. La abundancia de invertebrados presa fue estimada en distintos hábitat alimenticios y se midieron parámetros físicos y químicos del hábitat en dos sitios de estudio. Los peces fueron recolectados durante las temporadas de lluvias (Septiembre 1987) y estiaje (Marzo 1988); 242 tractos digestivos fueron analizados. Se revaluó el gremio trófico, la selectividad de las presas, la diversidad y el traslape de dieta. Las cuatro especies fueron determinadas como carnívoros depredadores que se alimentan principalmente de necton y perifiton. La diversidad de la dieta y los patrones de selectividad de presas fueron similares entre los atherinopsidos y el traslape de dieta fue >70%. Los resultados no apoyan la propuesta de que la coexistencia de estas cuatro especies se mantiene por medio de la especialización de su dieta. Se hipotetizó que la coexistencia simpátrica de los atherinopsidos del Lago de Pátzcuaro se explica por la alta disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios y la variación ontogénica de su dieta. Este estudio resalta la importancia de analizar los patrones y mecanismos ecológicos como elementos básicos para el diseño de estrategias de conservación en bandadas de especies, bajo efectos antropogénicos como la pérdida del hábitat y la introducción de especies exóticas. Los esfuerzos de conservación son urgentes para preservar el raro proceso evolutivo de la especiación simpátrica (segregación del hábitat) que ocurre en otros lagos del centro de México, y que posiblemente se ha perdido en el Lago de Pátzcuaro, como resultado del manejo deficiente y estrategias de conservación inadecuadas. PALABRAS CLAVE: Atherinopsidae, interacciones alimenticias, bandadas de especies, procesos evolutivos, conservación.

Objective—To evaluate the outcome of horses with large fragments of the extensor process of the distal phalanx that were removed by use of arthrotomy. Design—Retrospective study. Animals—14 horses with large fragments of the extensor process of the distal phalanx. Procedure—Medical records for horses with large fragments of the extensor process that were removed by use of arthrotomy were reviewed. Data retrieved from medical records included signalment, use of horse, affected limb, lameness history, lameness examination findings, radiographic findings, surgical technique, and outcome. Follow-up evaluation was obtained by telephone interview. Results—Most affected horses were < 5 years old and had a history of chronic lameness. Lameness grade ranged from 1/5 to 4/5. Fragments involved 20 to 45% of the dorsopalmar articular surface of the distal phalanx. Eight of 14 horses had a successful outcome. Outcome was not associated with age, duration or severity of lameness, or fragment size. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Despite involvement of a large portion of the articular surface and use of arthrotomy, joint instability and permanent soft tissue injury was not a problem in most horses. Outcome may be improved by selection of horses with lameness of < 2 years' duration and careful management after surgery. A fair prognosis may be anticipated for removal of large fragments of the extensor process via arthrotomy. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000; 217:1351–1355)

Equine surgery continues to benefit from advances in endoscopic surgical techniques. Much of what we have learned in equine endoscopy comes from techniques used in humans. Descriptions of the normal anatomy of the standing horse and advances in instrumentation have improved our ability to perform laparoscopic surgery in standing and dorsally recumbent horses. This article describes the history of laparoscopy and available instrumentation.

Transrectal ultrasonography of a 35-yr-old captive female southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) with a history of chronic mucohemorrhagic vulvar discharge revealed right transmural uterine horn enlargement. Abdominal laparoscopic surgery, although extremely difficult because of inadequate instrumentation, permitted uterine visualization and biopsy. Standing anesthesia, incorporating butorphanol and azaperone together with local anesthetic infiltration, facilitated the laparoscopy. A leiomyoma was suspected on the basis of history, physical examination, ultrasonographic appearance, and histopathology. Prior rhinoceros laparoscopies have failed, primarily from limitations imposed by recumbency.

Objective—To describe a technique for laparoscopic colopexy in horses. Study Design—Description of a technique to perform laparoscopic colopexy in horses. Animals—Six healthy adult horses between 3 and 23 years of age and weighing between 440 and 636 kg. Methods—Horses were positioned in dorsal recumbency, and the abdomen was insufflated to an intraabdominal pressure of 15 mm Hg. A laparoscope portal was placed at the umbilicus, and instrument portals were placed cranial to the laparoscope and lateral to midline. The lateral taenia of the left ventral colon was laparoscopically identified and retracted with Babcock forceps to the peritoneal surface and sutured with two strands of size 2 monofilament nylon in a continuous pattern via laparoscopic observation. All horses were euthanatized 90 days after surgery, and the colopexy adhesion was examined histologically. Results—Laparoscopic colopexy was successful in all six horses. There were no intraoperative or postoperative complications. Initial abdominal insufflation to 15 mm Hg required an average of 38 L (range 32 to 46 L) of carbon dioxide and 9.8 minutes (range 9 to 11 minutes) to be completed. A total of 132 L of carbon dioxide (range 64 to 196 L) was needed for the entire procedure. The laparoscopic colopexy procedure required 95 minutes (range 60 to 142 minutes) to perform. Laparoscopic colopexy resulted in a firm, fibrous adhesion of the colon to the abdominal tunic. Microscopically the colopexy adhesion was mature fibrous tissue with no evidence of inflammation. Conclusions—Laparoscopic colopexy can be successfully performed in horses with minimal abdominal invasion.

Objective— This article describes a new technique for laparoscopic cryptorchid castration in standing horses. Study Design— Prospective study. Animals or Sample Population— Eight horses aged 11 months to 3 years and weighing between 300 and 643 kg. Methods— Food was withheld for 24 to 36 hours, and then horses were sedated with detomidine HC1 (0.02 to 0.03 mg/kg) and butorphanol tartrate (0.02 mg/kg). The paralumbar fossa region was desensitized with 2% mepivacaine in an inverted “L” pattern and caudal epidural anesthesia was administered with either xylazine (0.18 mg/kg diluted to 10 to 15 mL with 0.9% sodium chloride) or a combination of 2% mepivacaine and xylazine (0.18 mg/kg). Initial laparoscopic exploration was performed from the left flank; in three horses, right flank laparoscopy was needed to complete the procedure. The spermatic cord was ligated within the abdomen with one or two sutures of 0 polydioxanone suture, and the testis or testes removed through a flank incision. Results— In five horses with no palpably descended testes, standing laparoscopy was the only procedure performed, whereas in two horses, the abdominal testis was removed laparoscopically, and the descended testis was removed under short acting anesthesia. In one horse, with nonpalpable testes, it was determined by laparoscopic observation that the testes were in the inguinal canal, and castration was performed under general anesthesia. No surgical or postoperative complications were noted. The right side of the abdomen, and especially the right vaginal ring, could be easily observed from the left side by passing the laparoscope through a small perforation in the mesocolon of the descending colon or by elevating the descending colon with an instrument or by use of an arm in the rectum. Conclusions— The standing laparoscopic approach combined with or without short-acting anesthesia to remove the descended testis is easily performed. Clinical Relevance— This approach will provide surgeons with another option to castrate cryptorchid stallions.

Various surgical approaches have been used for removal of ovaries, including granulosa thecal cell tumors, in the mare. Some of the more common techniques used for ovariectomy include the ventral midline approach, the flank approach including laparoscopy, and the colpotomy technique through the vaginal wall. The selection of the approach is based on ovarian size, surgeon’s preference, and overall health of the animal. Generally, ovaries greater than 15 cm in diameter have been removed through a ventral midline approach, while smaller ovaries have been removed through the flank using either an open approach, a laparoscopic approach, or a laparoscopic-assisted approach. This paper describes a laparoscopic approach for removal of a granulosa thecal cell tumor in a pregnant mare with a severe lameness localized to the stifle.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of bilateral laparoscopic ovariectomy on peritoneal fluid values in mares and compare how this effect was modified by the method of ovarian vessel hemostasis used. Ten mares undergoing standing bilateral laparoscopic ovariectomy were used in a randomized clinical study. During surgery, blood vessels within the mesovarium were either: (1) sealed and transected with a vessel sealing and dividing device (VSDD), or (2) ligated using two loops placed proximal to each ovary and then the mesovarium transected using laparoscopic scissors. The ovaries were removed through the ipsilateral body wall. Abdominocentesis was performed before surgery and 24 h and 72 h after surgery. Markers of peritoneal inflammation, as measured by total nucleated cell count, total protein (TP) and red blood cell count via abdominocentesis, were consistently increased for all groups compared to pre-operative values. The mean (range) of TP for the VSDD group was 4.14 (3.9-4.5) g/dL, and that for the ligating loop group was 3.18 (2.7-3.5) g/dL. Use of the VSDD resulted in significantly greater TP concentrations in the abdominal fluid at 24 h and 72 h post-operatively when compared to a ligating loop (P

Equine surgery continues to benefit from advances in laparoscopic techniques. Descriptions of the normal anatomy of the standing horse and advances in instrumentation have improved our ability to perform laparoscopic surgery in both standing and dorsally recumbent horses. The common uses for laparoscopy are diagnostic laparoscopy, cryptorchidectomy, ovariectomy, and diagnostic thoracoscopy. Other reported uses include inguinal hernia repair, ruptured bladder repair, and ventral colopexy.

The purpose of this study was to determine the analgesic efficacy of bupivacaine, morphine, or saline (control) when injected epidurally into the lumbosacral epidural space in goats after abdominal surgery. Goats received either bupivacaine (0.5%; 1.5 mg/kg in 0.9% sodium chloride solution), 0.9% sodium chloride solution (0.2 mL/kg), or preservative-free morphine (0.1 mg/kg). Total volume injected into the epidural space was 0.2 mL/kg for all groups. The variables evaluated were times to extubation, sternal recumbency, standing, and eating; heart and respiratory rates; and pain score. Only two of the goats in the bupivacaine group were able to stand on their hindlimbs before 6 hours. Time to eating was shorter for the saline group when compared with the bupivacaine group. Heart rate over all time in the saline group (137 +/- 4 beats/min, mean +/- SEM) was higher than the morphine (125 +/- 3 beats/min) and bupivacaine groups (121 +/- 3 beats/min). Respiratory rate over all time was increased in the saline group (26 +/- 1 breaths/min) compared with the bupivacaine (24 +/- 1 breaths/min) or morphine (24 +/- 1 breaths/min) groups. At 50 minutes, the pain score for the saline group was higher than the morphine group. Pain score over all time in the saline group (1.5 +/- 0.10) was higher than the morphine (1.2 +/- 0.07) and bupivacaine (1.2 +/- 0.04) groups. One goat in the saline group required two intravenous injections of flunixin meglumine for pain.

To determine the effect of unilateral laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy and removal of the descended testis on peritoneal fluid values, and to compare effect between 2 methods for cryptorchid testis vessel hemostasis.Randomized clinical study.Stallions (n = 10) with unilateral abdominal cryptorchid testis.During standing laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy, blood vessels within the mesorchium of the cryptorchid testis were either sealed and transected with the LigaSure Atlas™ or 2 ligating loops were placed proximal to the testis and the tissue transected with laparoscopic scissors. The testis was removed through the body wall. After laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy, stallions were anesthetized and the descended testis was removed using a closed technique leaving the scrotal incision open. Abdominocenteses were performed before surgery, and 24, and 72 hours after surgery.Values for peritoneal total nucleated cell count (TNCC), total protein concentration (TP), and red blood cell count (RBCC) were all elevated at 24 and 72 hours when compared with baseline. Median TNCC for LigaSure™ (59,780 cells/μL) was nearly twice that of the ligating loop (32,880 cells/μL) at 24 hours postoperatively. There was no statistically significant difference in TNCC, TP, or RBCC between groups.TNCC, TP, and RBCC increase appreciably from baseline 24 hours after laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy and closed castration but are markedly reduced by 72 hours.

Terrapene coahuila is one of four extant species of North American box turtles. It is restricted in distribution to the Cuatro Cienegas Basin in Coahuila, Mexico. Results of previous examinations of extant T. carolina and T. ornata revealed relatively high levels of morphological variation, but morphological studies of T. coahuila are rare, and data on skeletal morphology are limited. We examined 214 skeletal specimens of T. coahuila and documented variation in 51 mensurative and discrete characters of the carapace and plastron. Overall levels of variation are low, as predicted by previously documented levels of gene flow between the sub-populations of the species. However, significant polymorphism is present in the positions of the anterior and posterior sulci of the fourth vertebral scute and the configuration of neural bones 2, 3, and 7. Additionally, co-ossification of the carapacial bones varies substantially within the sample, but independently of carapace length. Genetic, epigenetic, and environmental controls for those features are not known. In addition to documenting skeletal morphology within T. coahuila, we provide new perspectives on patterns of variation within Terrapene, and contribute data that should help paleontologists to establish more rigorous criteria for the identification of fossil specimens of North American box turtles. Those data will be especially important for critical evaluation of recently discovered early and middle Tertiary fossils that are yielding new insights into the evolution of box turtles and the modernization of the turtle biota.

Minimally invasive surgery in the human was first identified in mid 900’s. The procedure as is more commonly practiced now was first reported in 1912. There have been many advances and new techniques developed in the past 100 years. Equine laparoscopy, was first reported in the 1970’s, and similarly has undergone much transformation in the last 40 years. It is now considered the standard of care in many surgical techniques such as cryptorchidectomy, ovariectomy, nephrosplenic space ablation, standing abdominal exploratory, and many other reproductive surgeries. This manuscript describes the history of minimally invasive surgery, and highlights many of the techniques that are currently performed in equine surgery. Special attention is given to instrumentation, ligating techniques, and the surgical principles of equine minimally invasive surgery.

To describe a surgical technique for, and outcome after, laparoscopic vasectomy of free-ranging elephants.Case series.African elephants (Loxodonta africana; n = 14).Male elephants (12-35 years old) were anesthetized with etorphine and supported in a sling in a modified standing position, and positive pressure ventilated with oxygen. Anesthesia was maintained with IV etorphine. Vasectomy was performed under field conditions by bilateral, open-approach, flank laparoscopy with the abdomen insufflated with filtered ambient air. A 4-cm segment of each ductus deferens was excised. Behavior and incision healing were recorded for 8 months postoperatively.Successful bilateral vasectomy (surgical time, 57-125 minutes) was confirmed by histologic examination of excised tissue. Recovery was uneventful without signs of abnormal behavior. Large intestine lacerations (3 elephants; 1 full and 2 partial thickness) were sutured extracorporeally. One elephant found dead at 6 weeks, had no prior abnormal signs. Skin incisions healed without complication.Laparoscopic vasectomy can be performed in African elephants in their natural environment.

Traditional abdominal surgery in the elephant and rhinoceros has rarely been performed and, in those cases in which it has, success has been limited. Emergency cesarean sections in elephants have been attempted and have proved fatal for both the calf and mother. Successful castration of bull elephants has been described. In these reports, young animals were castrated in a single procedure, whereas adults required multiple procedures. These elephant castration procedures were difficult and it was not uncommon for incisions to break down and heal by second intention. An abdominal exploratory and ovariectomy has been reported in an Indian onehorned rhinoceros, but the animal died 48 hours after the surgery. Abdominal surgery in the elephant and rhinoceros is difficult for several reasons, the first being the animal’s overall size and how it affects the surgeon’s ability to reach and manipulate organs. Second, there is considerable thickness to the skin and body wall, which requires larger incisions and an inordinate amount of time for closure. Surgical sites may also be predisposed to dehisce and break down. An additional complicating anatomic variation in elephants is their peritoneum. Unlike most other mammal species, the peritoneum is covered by a fibroelastic layer and is itself redundant and only loosely attached to the body wall. For this reason, entering the peritoneal cavity of elephants, even after making an incision through the dermis and associated muscle layers, may be very challenging. Finding a route to and through the peritoneum is much more of an issue when animals are in lateral recumbency (versus standing), when there is less tension on the peritoneum. Rigid laparoscopy, or minimally invasive surgery (MIS), offers a variety of advantages over traditional surgical procedures. In humans and animals, MIS has been shown to be less painful, requires less healing time, allows faster return to normal function, and has less chance for infection. For the elephant and rhinoceros, MIS has these advantages and thus makes abdominal surgery a realistic and much less risky procedure. Laparoscopic abdominal surgeries have been successfully performed in the African elephant, white rhinoceros, and black rhinoceros. Procedures have included abdominal exploration with diagnostic sampling and a variety of reproductive surgical techniques.

Species range expansions are often difficult to determine (West 1968, Smida and Wilson 1985, Dennis 2001). Spatial -ly and temporally comprehensive surveys allow strong infer-ences regarding absences with minimal subjectivity, but typi-cally surveys are inadequately comprehensive either spatially or temporally for use in detecting range expansions. Large datasets that cover long time periods and large geographic space are needed for this purpose. The Fishes of Texas Proj-ect database (FoTX; Hendrickson and Cohen 2011), which has been highly controlled as to quality and represents the most complete database of historical fish occurrences in Texas, is the best source for data to address range expansions and contractions for Texas’ fish species. Museum data clearly and unambiguously document presence (Chapman 2005) but typically cannot rigorously address absences (West 1968). For various reasons specimens deposited in museums do not always represent the entire community present at a given lo-cation (West 1968). Susceptibility to capture varies among species, among collecting methods, and as a function of ef-fort. Furthermore, sampling methods and effort are inconsis -tently reported in museum records. Additionally, collectors may deposit only selected specimens from their collections, thus creating pseudoabsences. However, the museum data are numerous, cover a large time span, and specimens can be examined for positive identification. Museum data are thus often the best data readily available for assessing changes in distributions.We used FoTX’s database of museum—vouchered species occurrences to examine potential range expansions. A “spe-cies occurrence” is the presence of a species from a single collecting event, which is defined by a unique combination of collector(s), location and date. Species occurrences were garnered from the FoTX database of records from 40 do-nor institutions, coupled with the same project’s database of species occurrences gathered from published literature, and our own post—2007 collections from the lower coastal plain of Texas. These are used in an attempt to detect recent spatial changes in fish distributions. Our recent collections are all backed by museum voucher specimens and are other-wise typical of museum specimen—based occurrence data in that they come from collecting events conducted irregularly over space and time using non—standardized methods and effort. Our preliminary analyses of these combined data sets identified

Cartilage resurfacing by chondrocyte implantation, with fibrin used as a vehicle, was examined in large (12 mm) full-thickness articular cartilage defects in horses. Articular chondrocytes, isolated from a 9-day-old foal, were mixed with fibrinogen and injected with thrombin, in a 1:1 mixture, into 12 mm circular defects on the lateral trochlea of the distal femur of eight normal horses. The contralateral femoropatellar (knee) joint served as a control in which the defect was left empty. Synovial fluid from the femoropatellar joints was sampled on days 0, 4, 7, 30, 120, and 240 postoperatively. Groups of four horses were killed at 4 or 8 months postoperatively, and the repair tissue was evaluated by gross and histologic examination with use of hematoxylin and eosin and safranin O staining and by autoradiography. Biochemical analyses included quantitation of proteoglycan, total collagen, and type-II collagen in the repair tissue. Grossly, grafted defects had improved filling of the cartilage lesions; histologically, these areas consisted of differentiated chondrocytes in the deep and middle zones. The cellular arrangement in these zones resembled that of hyaline cartilage. The control defects contained poorly attached fibrous tissue throughout. Grafted tissue at 8 months had increased proteoglycan synthesis evident by both safranin O staining and autoradiography. Glycosaminoglycan quantitation by dye-binding assay confirmed a significantly elevated glycosaminoglycan content in grafted defects (58.8 micrograms/mg of dry weight) compared with control defects (27.4 micrograms/mg; p < 0.05). Similarly, the levels of chondroitin sulfate/dermatan sulfate was significantly elevated in the grafted defects, and this was the predominant glycosaminoglycan epitope present. There was a statistically significant (p < 0.05) increase in type-II collagen in the grafted tissue at 8 months (61.2% grafted; 25.1% control). This resurfacing attempt with use of allograft chondrocytes, secured in large full-thickness articular defects with polymerized fibrin, resulted in an improved cartilage surface in comparison with the control defects, a significantly greater aggrecan level, and a significantly higher proportion of type-II collagen.

To characterize pulmonary gas exchange and arterial lactate in horses with gastrointestinal disease undergoing anesthesia, compared with elective surgical horses, and to correlate these variables with postoperative complications and mortality.Prospective clinical study.Horses undergoing emergency laparotomy for acute intestinal disease (n = 50) and healthy horses undergoing elective surgery in dorsal recumbency (n = 20).Arterial blood gas analysis was performed at predetermined intervals on horses undergoing a standardized anesthetic protocol. Alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient was calculated. Predictive factors for postoperative complications and death in colic horses were determined.Arterial oxygen tension (P(a) O(2)) varied widely among horses in both groups. P(a) O(2) significantly increased in the colic group after exteriorization of the ascending colon. P(a) O(2) and alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient were not significantly different between groups, and neither were correlated with horse outcome. Arterial lactate in recovery ≥ 5 mmol/L was associated with a 2.25 times greater relative risk of complications and lactate ≥ 7 mmol/L was associated with a 10.5 times higher relative risk of death.Colic horses in this population were not more likely to be hypoxemic than elective horses, nor was gas exchange impaired to a greater degree in colic horses relative to controls. Arterial lactate sampled immediately after anesthetic recovery was predictive for postoperative complications and death.

To compare the biomechanical characteristics of 2 arthrodesis techniques for the equine proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP) using either a 3-hole 4.5 mm locking compression plate (LCP) or 3-hole 4.5 mm narrow dynamic compression plate (DCP), both with 2 transarticular 5.5 mm cortex screws.Experimental.Cadaveric adult equine forelimbs (*n=6 pairs).For each forelimb pair, 1 limb was randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment groups and the contralateral limb by default to the other treatment group. Construct stiffness, gap formation across the PIP joint, and rotation about the PIP joint were determined for each construct before cyclic axial loading and after each of four, 5000 cycle loading regimens. After the 20,000 cycle axial loading regimen, each construct was loaded to failure.There were no significant differences in construct stiffness, gap formation, or sagittal plane rotation between the LCP and DCP treatment groups at any of the measured time points.Biomechanically, fixation of the equine PIP joint with a 3-hole 4.5 mm LCP is equivalent to fixation with a 3-hole 4.5 mm narrow DCP under the test conditions used.

Accurate establishment of baseline conditions is critical to successful management and habitat restoration. We demonstrate the ability to robustly estimate historical fish community composition and assess the current status of the urbanized Barton Creek watershed in central Texas, U.S.A. Fish species were surveyed in 2008 and the resulting data compared to three sources of fish occurrence information: (i) historical records from a museum specimen database and literature searches; (ii) a nearly identical survey conducted 15 years earlier; and (iii) a modeled historical community constructed with species distribution models (SDMs). This holistic approach, and especially the application of SDMs, allowed us to discover that the fish community in Barton Creek was more diverse than the historical data and survey methods alone indicated. Sixteen native species with high modeled probability of occurrence within the watershed were not found in the 2008 survey, seven of these were not found in either survey or in any of the historical collection records. Our approach allowed us to more rigorously establish the true baseline for the pre-development fish fauna and then to more accurately assess trends and develop hypotheses regarding factors driving current fish community composition to better inform management decisions and future restoration efforts. Smaller, urbanized freshwater systems, like Barton Creek, typically have a relatively poor historical biodiversity inventory coupled with long histories of alteration, and thus there is a propensity for land managers and researchers to apply inaccurate baseline standards. Our methods provide a way around that limitation by using SDMs derived from larger and richer biodiversity databases of a broader geographic scope. Broadly applied, we propose that this technique has potential to overcome limitations of popular bioassessment metrics (e.g., IBI) to become a versatile and robust management tool for determining status of freshwater biotic communities.

Objective: To compare the presence or absence of pain, pain-related behavioral responses, and hormonal responses to noxious stimuli during standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in mares sedated with continuous intravenous (IV) detomidine infusion and caudal epidural detomidine. Study Design: A double blind prospective study. Animals: Mares (n=12) Methods: Mares were divided into 2 treatment groups; 6 were sedated using continuous IV detomidine infusion and 6 were sedated with caudal epidural detomidine. All mares received IV xylazine (0.33 mg/kg) and butorphanol tartrate (5 mg) premedication before detomidine administration. Venous blood samples were taken to assess serum cortisol levels in each mare at 4 time points: a baseline cortisol measurement after the mares' arrival to the clinic, 10 minutes before surgery, at the removal of the 2nd ovary, and 10 minutes postsurgery. Two surgeons performed bilateral ovariectomy and at 8 time points involving surgical manipulations, noted the presence or absence of pain (yes/no) and scored the patient's response on a 10 cm visual analogue scale (VAS) for pain assessment with 0 indicating no pain responses and 10 cm indicating pain so severe that the mare required additional sedation or analgesia to complete the procedure. Each mare was also assigned a VAS score by each surgeon for the overall satisfaction of analgesia during the entire procedure. Results: Serum cortisol levels between the 2 detomidine administration groups differed significantly at the baseline (precortisol) measurement but not at the 3 remaining time points. Seven of the procedures within the surgeries did not differ significantly in VAS scores between the 2 groups. The initial grasp of the left ovary (the 1st ovary) in the continuous infusion group had a significantly higher (P=.05) median VAS score compared with the caudal epidural group. Conclusions: Mares sedated with a continuous IV infusion of detomidine have similar hormonal and behavioral responses to painful stimuli during standing laparoscopic ovariectomy as mares sedated with caudal epidural detomidine. Clinical Relevance: Sedation using a continuous IV infusion of detomidine can be used for laparoscopic ovariectomy in mares.

A 364-kg (800-lb) 1-year-old mixed-breed horse was admitted for treatment of uncontrolled bleeding after castration. Multiple attempts to ligate the testicular artery through the scrotal incisions prior to referral had been unsuccessful. Because of the owner's concerns about cost, an attempt was made to control the bleeding by applying pressure to the inguinal region and administering formalin IV. However, hemorrhage continued. A decision was made to use laparoscopy to ligate the testicular artery. The horse was anesthetized and positioned in dorsal recumbency, and a routine ventral laparoscopic approach was used. The horse recovered without further complications. Laparoscopy should be considered for ligation of the testicular artery in horses with uncontrolled bleeding after castration.