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Information about age-related and sex-related normative measurements of the nasolabial region in native Northern Sudanese subjects is scanty. We have therefore used a hand-held laser scanner to measure nasolabial angles and distances, and collected the 3-dimensional coordinates of seven landmarks on the facial soft tissues from 654 healthy native Northern Sudanese subjects (327 male and 327 female, aged 4-30 years). From these we calculated five angles and two linear distances and took the mean (SD) for age and sex, and compared them using factorial analysis of variance. All measurements analysed were significantly modified by age in both sexes (p < 0.01) except for the distance from the lower lip to Ricketts' E-line. Sex had a significant effect on the mentolabial and maxillary prominence angles and both distances (p < 0.005). Nasal convexity and the interlabial angle became more obtuse with growth, while the nasolabial and mentolabial angles reduced progressively with female subjects having significantly more obtuse mentolabial angles (p < 0.001). The maxillary prominence angle progressively decreased during childhood, and increased after adolescence, with larger values in male subjects. The upper and lower lip distances from Ricketts' E-line were also significantly larger in male subjects (p < 0.003), but the difference reduced with age. Overall, there were several differences when we compared our data with published data for African and white subjects, which points to the need for ethnic-specific data. Measurements collected in the current study could be used for the quantitative description of facial morphology in native Northern Sudanese children, adolescents, and young adults.

Age estimation is a relevant field of application in archaeology, which is often limited by the fragmentation of recovered skeletal remains. There is therefore an urgent need for the development of novel methods. A potentially useful bone district is the sella turcica. The aim of this study was to evaluate the metrical standards of three different measurements of the sella turcica (length, depth and diameter) in 177 lateral cephalometric radiograms belonging to male and female individuals aged between 7 and 13 years, in order to find standards useful for age estimation. The results were evaluated by two-way ANOVA. There was no significant interaction between sex and age in any variable. The linear regression model fitted to the age and diameter measurements yielded the following equation: age (years) = 4.14*diameter (cm) + 5.76. Slope and intercept 95% CIs were, respectively, 4.64–7.61 years per centimetre and 2.34–5.28 years. The relevant coefficient of determination was R2 = 0.15, while the root mean square error was 1.74 years. The present results provide a novel method that is useful for the age estimation of skeletal remains recovered in archaeological contexts: further studies are needed in order to improve the method on a larger sample.

The pterygopalatine fossa is an important anatomical structure for several surgical and anaesthesiologic procedures; yet, very few data are available about its size. This study aims at providing a metrical assessment of pterygopalatine fossa through an innovative 3D segmentation procedure on head CT-scans. CT-scans from 100 patients (50 males and 50 females) aged between 18 and 85 years were chosen for the study. Right and left pterygopalatine fossae were segmented through ITK-SNAP open source software. Height and volume were calculated on the acquired 3D models. In addition, anterior–posterior nasal spine distance, upper facial height (nasion–prosthion) and biorbital breadth (ectoconchion–ectoconchion) were measured as well. Statistically significant differences of height and volume according to sex and side were assessed through two-way ANOVA test: sexually dimorphic measurements were further assessed through one-way ANCOVA test using the three cranial measurements as covariates (p 0.05); interaction was negligible for both the measurements. ANCOVA test verified that sexual dimorphism of both measurements is independent from general cranial size (p

Lymphedema (LE) is a chronic disabling disease, characterized by the accumulation of macromolecules and liquids in the interstitial space. Patients affected by LE should undergo appropriate imaging to confirm the diagnosis, to evaluate characteristics and the severity of LE and to allow for correct management and treatment plan. However, there is no consensus regarding the best imaging technique to study this disorder. We want to propose an overview of the studies published on Non-contrast Magnetic Resonance Lymphangiography, a relatively new technique for the diagnosis, assessment and management of lymphedema.

The present study compared the reliability of a low-cost laser scanner device to an already-validated stereophotogrammetric instrument. Fifty volunteers underwent duplicate facial scans through laser scanner and stereophotogrammetry. Intra- and inter-instrument reproducibility of linear distances, angles, facial surface area and volume was verified through the Bland-Altman test and calculation of absolute (TEM) and relative (rTEM) technical errors of measurement; rTEM was then classified as follows:1% excellent; 1-3.9% very good; 4-6.9% good; 7-9.9% moderate;10% poor. The scans performed through different devices were registered and superimposed to calculate the root mean square (RMS) (point-to-point) distance between the two surfaces. The same protocol was applied to a mannequin head. In inter-instruments comparison, 12/26 measurements showed a "good" rTEM; 5 were "very good". In intra-instrument comparison, most performances worsened, with only 10 of 26 measurements classified as "good" and "very good". All the measurements made on mannequin scans were at least "good", and 14/26 were "very good". Surface area was "very good" only in intra-instrument comparison; conversely, volumes were poorly repeatable for all the comparisons. On average, RMS point-to-point distances were 0.65 mm (inter-devices comparison), 0.56 mm (mannequin scans), 0.42 mm (intra-device comparison). In conclusion, the low-cost laser scan device can be reliably applied to inanimate objects, but does not meet the standards for three-dimensional facial acquisition on living persons.

Uniqueness of ear morphology has been a widely debated issue in cephaloscopy, but past studies used only two-dimensional approaches. In the current investigation, the right and left ears of 10 healthy adults were imaged twice by stereophotogrammetry at the interval of a few seconds. The ear images obtained from the two acquisitions were superimposed both within subject (group of matches) and among subjects (group of mismatches). A point-to-point root mean square distance was calculated between the two three-dimensional models. Differences according to side and group were assessed by two-way analysis of variance. In total, 200 superimpositions were performed. On average, the point-to-point root mean square distance was 0.31 mm in cases of matches and 1.43 mm in cases of mismatches: differences were statistically significant (p < 0.01). Results provided quantitative data for the assessment of uniqueness of ear morphology, highlighting differences based on their three-dimensional morphology.

Anatomical variants of the ethmoid bone have a special importance in several fields, especially in otolaryngology; a precise understanding of the complex anatomy and anatomic variations of the ethmoid bone is crucial for radiological diagnosis of paranasal pathology and for surgical work-up in order to avoid potential complications. The present study aims at helping general radiologists to become familiar with the most common forms of ethmoid anatomical variants and their clinical relevance.

Objective This study aimed to perform a longitudinal morphometric analysis of the alterations of the maxillary dental arches in children with cleft lip and palate before and after primary lip and/or palate surgeries using a 3-dimensional stereophotogrammetry system. Study Design The sample consisted of dental casts of 60 children with complete unilateral cleft lip (UCL) and complete unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP). Dental arches were evaluated before cheiloplasty (T1), after cheiloplasty (T2), and 1 year after palatoplasty (T3). Independent t test and Mann-Whitney U test were used for intergroup comparisons, and paired t test, Wilcoxon's test, and repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey's test, were used for intragroup comparisons. Results At T1, the intercanine and intertuberosity distances in the UCLP group were statistically greater than those in the UCL group. At T2, the maxillary dimensions significantly increased, except for the intertuberosity distance in UCL. Between T1 and T3, the intercanine distance and the anterior length decreased significantly, whereas the intertuberosity distance and the total length of the palate increased significantly. Conclusions Our results indicated that the primary lip surgery altered the development of dental arches, evidently in children with UCLP. The primary palate surgery interfered in the growth of the anterior palatal region in the UCLP group. Children with UCLP had more restricted development of the maxillary dental arch compared with children with UCL.

Aim Sella turcica bridging and ossified carotico-clinoid ligament are two variants of the sella turcica, the origin of which is partially unknown. These variations should be properly recognised, as they may hamper the removal of the anterior clinoid process in surgical procedures. Therefore, our aim was to determine the prevalence of these two anatomical variants and to investigate their prevalence according to patient sex and age in a series of maxilla computed tomography scans. Materials and methods We revised 300 computed tomography scans of the head from northern Italian patients, stratified into three age groups (18–40 years, 41–60 years, >60 years): a logistic regression analysis was used to explore an association of sella turcica bridging with age and sex through Matlab software, also including a test for the extracted model ( P Results The mean prevalence of sella turcica bridging and ossified carotico-clinoid ligament were 0.16 ± 0.06 (48/300, 16.0%) and 0.09 ± 0.03 (26/300, 8.7%), respectively. Statistically significant differences according to sex were found neither for sella turcica bridging ( P = 0.345) nor for ossified carotico-clinoid ligament ( P = 0.412). Only sella turcica bridging showed a correlation with age ( P = 0.007). In addition, the two variants were often associated, as patients without sella turcica bridging usually did not show ossified carotico-clinoid ligament ( P Discussion Our results suggest an association between the two variants, and provide a novel contribution to the debate around their origin.

In the present-day situation, the clinical forensic documentation of an asylum seeker’s narrative and his or her examination, together with the physical and psychological findings, may have very important effects on the outcome of the request for political asylum. Since 2012, the Municipality of Milan, the University Institute of Legal Medicine, and other institutions have assembled a team with the task of examining vulnerable asylum seekers and preparing a medical report for the Territorial Commission for International Protection (Prefecture, Ministry of Interiors), who will assess the application. We compared medico-legal reports and outcomes of 57 cases which were evaluated by the Commission after having undergone a medico-legal evaluation through the Istanbul Protocol criteria and examined, in particular, which medico-legal variables seem associated to the outcome. The results show that forensic assessment seems to have a significant and interesting correlation with the final assessment given by the Commission. For example, the higher the level of consistency, according to the Istanbul Protocol, the more frequently protection is granted. These data show how important clinical forensic medicine can be in such scenarios and how the presence of clinical forensic experts should be encouraged in such evaluations, as has been recently enshrined in Italy in the guidelines of a Ministerial Decree of April 3rd, 2017 for the assistance and the rehabilitation as well as the treatment of psychiatric disorders in refugees and asylum seekers who have undergone torture, rape, and other severe forms of psychological, physical, or sexual violence.

Objective To provide quantitative information about the facial soft tissue of Italian and Northern Sudanese subjects with Down syndrome by using summary anthropometric measurements. Design, Setting, and Patients The three-dimensional coordinates of soft tissue facial landmarks were obtained using a computerized digitizer in 54 Italian subjects with Down syndrome (20 females and 34 males, 13 to 52 years), in 64 Northern Sudanese subjects with Down syndrome (18 females and 46 males, 5 to 34 years), and in 578 Italian and 653 Northern Sudanese reference subjects, matched for sex and age. From the landmarks, 16 facial dimensions were calculated. Data from subjects with Down syndrome were compared with those collected from control individuals by computing z scores. Two summary anthropometric measurements for quantifying craniofacial variations were obtained: the mean z score (an index of overall facial size) and its standard deviation, the craniofacial variability index (an index of facial harmony). Results In subjects with Down syndrome, facial size was significantly smaller and craniofacial variability was significantly greater than in typically developed individuals; 93% of Italian and 81% of Northern Sudanese subjects with Down syndrome had one or both values outside the normal interval. Overall, Italian subjects with Down syndrome differed more from the norm than did those from Northern Sudan. In the Northern Sudanese subjects, the mean z scores and the craniofacial variability index were significantly influenced by age: Older Northern Sudanese subjects with Down syndrome had smaller mean z scores and craniofacial variability index values than younger subjects. Conclusions The two ethnic groups had different alterations in their soft tissue facial dimensions that were partially influenced by age.

In the third millennium where ethical, ethological and cultural evolution seem to be leading more and more towards an inter-species society, the issue of animal experimentation is a moral dilemma. Speaking from a self-interested human perspective, avoiding all animal testing where human disease and therapy are concerned may be very difficult or even impossible; such testing may not be so easily justifiable when suffering-or killing-of non human animals is inflicted for forensic research. In order to verify how forensic scientists are evolving in this ethical issue, we undertook a systematic review of the current literature. We investigated the frequency of animal experimentation in forensic studies in the past 15 years and trends in publication in the main forensic science journals. Types of species, lesions inflicted, manner of sedation or anesthesia and euthanasia were examined in a total of 404 articles reviewed, among which 279 (69.1%) concerned studies involving animals sacrificed exclusively for the sake of the experiment. Killing still frequently includes painful methods such as blunt trauma, electrocution, mechanical asphyxia, hypothermia, and even exsanguination; of all these animals, apparently only 60.8% were anesthetized. The most recent call for a severe reduction if not a total halt to the use of animals in forensic sciences was made by Bernard Knight in 1992. In fact the principle of reduction and replacement, frequently respected in clinical research, must be considered the basis for forensic science research needing animals.

The palaeopathological analysis of ancient populations is of crucial importance in archaeology: however, several bone lesions are not specific for a unique disease, and usually the anthropologist must describe a range of hypotheses, in the perspective of a differential diagnosis. Nevertheless, advanced laboratory tests may provide useful information for reaching a reliable diagnosis, and therefore a more precise description of the history of an individual or of a population. This study presents the case of a cranium of an adult female showing cribra orbitalia on the right orbital roof. In addition, locks of hair were still preserved. Toxicological analyses were carried out on a bone sample and on a lock of hair, and the results were consistent with the hypothesis of chronic intoxication by lead. This case shows that toxicological analyses may provide fundamental information for a more precise diagnosis of archaeological cases. Advanced laboratory analyses proved to be a crucial tool for a correct assessment of archaeological bone samples, especially if one considers that most of the pathological signs are aspecific and therefore provide only limited information concerning the health conditions of past populations.

Sex assessment is a crucial part of the biological profile in forensic and archaeological context, but it can be hardly performed in cases of commingled and charred human remains where DNA tests often are not applicable. With time literature have analyzed the sexual dimorphism of teeth (and especially canines), but very few articles take into consideration the teeth volume, although with time several technologies have been introduced in order to assess 3D volume (CT-scan, laser scanner, etc.). This study aims at assessing the sexual dimorphism of dental and pulp chamber volumes of a sample of canines. Cone beam computed tomography analyses were performed by 87 patients (41 males and 46 females, aged between 15 and 83 years) for clinical purposes, and were acquired in order to measure canine volumes. Results show that the dental volume amounted to 0.745 cm(3) (SD 0.126 cm(3)) in males, 0.551 cm(3) (SD 0.130 cm(3)) with a statistically significant difference (p0.01). A diagnostic threshold of 0.619 cm(3) was stated, which provides a percentage of correct answer of 80.5% in the chosen sample. The novel method was then applied with success to 7 archaeological: where in all the cases the results were concordant with those provided by the assessment of the cranium and pelvis. The study adds a contribution to the wide analysis of dental sexual dimorphism confirming the statistically significant differences of volume between males and females and providing a method for the diagnosis of sex applicable to forensic cases.

When estimating post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic anthropology, the only method able to give an unambiguous result is the analysis of C-14, although the procedure is expensive. Other methods, such as luminol tests and histological analysis, can be performed as preliminary investigations and may allow the operators to gain a preliminary indication concerning PMI, but they lack scientific verification, although luminol testing has been somewhat more accredited in the past few years. Such methods in fact may provide some help as they are inexpensive and can give a fast response, especially in the phase of preliminary investigations. In this study, 20 court cases of human skeletonized remains were dated by the C-14 method. For two cases, results were chronologically set after the 1950s; for one case, the analysis was not possible technically. The remaining 17 cases showed an archaeological or historical collocation. The same bone samples were also screened with histological examination and with the luminol test. Results showed that only four cases gave a positivity to luminol and a high Oxford Histology Index (OHI) score at the same time: among these, two cases were dated as recent by the radiocarbon analysis. Thus, only two false-positive results were given by the combination of these methods and no false negatives. Thus, the combination of two qualitative methods (luminol test and microscopic analysis) may represent a promising solution to cases where many fragments need to be quickly tested.

Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) has found new fields of application in bone medicine, but none of them concerns the forensic practice. This study exposes the potential of pQCT applied to a penetrating lesion in a vertebral body. A pQCT scanner was used for the measurements (XCT Research SA+; Stratec Medizintechnik GmbH, Pforzheim, Germany). A more precise reconstruction of the path of the lesion within the trabecular bone was reached, with more details concerning the morphological characteristics of the lesion inside the vertebral body, and the elaboration of a 3D model was created, which allowed the operator to define the volume of the lack of tissues related to the lesion. The application of pQCT scan proved to be a potentially useful tool for the assessment of bone lesions, although further studies are needed in order to verify its applicability to forensic context.

Palatal rugae are known in literature as individualizing anatomical structures with a strong potential for personal identification. However, a 3D assessment of their uniqueness has not yet been performed. The present study aims at verifying the uniqueness of 3D models of the palate. Twenty-six subjects were recruited among the orthodontic patients of a private dental office; from every patient, at least two dental casts were taken in different time periods, for a total of 62 casts. Dental casts were digitized by a 3D laser scanner (iSeries, Dental Wings©, Montreal, Canada). The palatal area was identified, and a series of 250 superimpositions was then performed automatically through VAM©software in order to reach the minimum point-to point distance between two models. In 36 matches the models belonged to the same individual, whereas in 214 mismatches they came from different subjects. The RMS (root mean square) of point-to-point distances was then calculated by 3D software. Possible statistically significant differences were assessed through Mann-Whitney test (p

Distinction of one twin with respect to the other, based on external appearance, is challenging; nevertheless, facial morphology may provide individualizing features that may help distinguish twin siblings. This study aims at exposing an innovative method for the facial assessment in monozygotic twins for personal identification, based on the registration and comparison of 3D models of faces. Ten couples of monozygotic twins aged between 25 and 69 years were acquired twice by a stereophotogrammetric system (VECTRA-3D® M3: Canfield Scientific, Inc., Fairfield, NJ); the 3D reconstruction of each person was then registered and superimposed onto the model belonging to the same person (self-matches), the corresponding sibling (twin-matches) and to unrelated participants from the other couples (miss-matches); RMS (root mean square) point-to-point distances were automatically calculated for all the 220 superimpositions. One-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the differences among miss-matches, twin-matches and self-matches (p .05). RMS values for self-matches, twin-matches and miss-matches were respectively 1.0 mm (SD: 0.3 mm), 1.9 mm (0.5 mm) and 3.4 mm (0.70 mm). Statistically significant differences were found among the three groups (p .01). Comparing RMS values in the three groups, mean facial variability in twin siblings was 55.9% of that assessed between unrelated persons and about twice higher than that observed between models belonging to the same individual. The present study proposed an innovative method for the facial assessment of twin siblings, based on 3D surface analysis, which may provide additional information concerning the relation between genes and environment.

Anatomy of greater palatine foramen is important for maxillary nerve blocks, haemostatic procedures, and the treatment of neuralgia; although metrical data are available about its collocation, still several aspects need to be explored, such as the influence of the cranium size. The position of greater palatine foramen was assessed on 100 skulls through six measurements (distances from intermaxillary suture, posterior palatal border, posterior nasal spine, and incisive foramen; palatal length; relative position on palatal length) and two angles (angles at incisive foramen and greater palatine foramen). Maximum cranial length, maximum cranial breadth, cranial height and bizygomatic breadth, horizontal cephalic index, and Giardina Y-index were evaluated. Possible differences according to sex and side were assessed through two-way ANOVA (p

Decomposition of the human body and human face is influenced, among other things, by environmental conditions. The early decomposition changes that modify the appearance of the face may hamper the recognition and identification of the deceased. Quantitative assessment of those changes may provide important information for forensic identification. This report presents a pilot 3D quantitative approach of tracking early decomposition changes of a single cadaver in controlled environmental conditions by summarizing the change with weekly morphological descriptions. The root mean square (RMS) value was used to evaluate the changes of the face after death. The results showed a high correlation (r = 0.863) between the measured RMS and the time since death. RMS values of each scan are presented, as well as the average weekly RMS values. The quantification of decomposition changes could improve the accuracy of antemortem facial approximation and potentially could allow the direct comparisons of antemortem and postmortem 3D scans.

Sexual dimorphism is a crucial characteristic of skeleton. In the last years, volumetric and surface 3D acquisition systems have enabled anthropologists to assess surfaces and volumes, whose potential still needs to be verified. This article aimed at assessing volume and linear parameters of the first metatarsal bone through 3D acquisition by laser scanning. Sixty-eight skeletons underwent 3D scan through laser scanner: Seven linear measurements and volume from each bone were assessed. A cutoff value of 13,370 mm3 was found, with an accuracy of 80.8%. Linear measurements outperformed volume: metatarsal length and mediolateral width of base showed higher cross-validated accuracies (respectively, 82.1% and 79.1%, raising at 83.6% when both of them were included). Further studies are needed to verify the real advantage for sex assessment provided by volume measurements.

The Lamendin method is widely reported as one of the most reliable means of age estimation of skeletal remains, but very little is known concerning the influence of burial in soil. This study aimed at verifying the reliability of the Lamendin method on corpses buried for 16 years in a cemetery. The Lamendin and the Prince and Ubelaker methods were applied. In all age groups except the 40- to 49-year-olds, the error was higher in the buried sample. The age-at-death error ranged between 10.7 and 36.8 years for the Lamendin method (vs. the reported 7.3-18.9 years) and 9.5 and 35.7 for the Prince and Ubelaker one (vs. the original 5.2-32.6 years); in all age groups, the error is closer to that found on archeological populations. These results suggest caution in applying the Lamendin method to forensic cases of human remains buried even for a brief period under soil.

Although the issue of torture and capital punishment has been addressed in the forensic literature, very few articles have addressed similar cases in archaeological or historical scenarios even if some do provide interesting data for what concerns human violence in general. This report aims at presenting a case of the skeleton of a male, aged between 17 and 20 years, recovered from the archaeological site of S. Ambrogio in Milan and dating back to the Middle Ages (1290–1430). The anthropological and osteological analyses highlighted symmetrical multiple perimortem fractures of ulnae, radii, tibiae and fibulae both on the right and left side. In addition, signs of decapitation were found on the occipital bones. Evidence from the anthropological and historical analyses led to the hypothesis of an execution by the wheel, a specific type of torture at that time. This case describes for the first time the remains of a victim of the wheel and underlines the importance of archaeology and anthropology in reconstructing cases of violation of human rights in the past.

Forensic anthropology has long established the use of sex estimation and assessment of geographical origin in the identification of unidentified subjects, including victims of human rights atrocities and migrant diasporas. This research explores and develops innovative anthropological methods for the application of the recent advances in geometric morphometry and ancient DNA (aDNA) to the above post-mortem approaches of identification. The aim of this research is to develop novel standards for diagnosing sex and geographic origins useful for the identification of unknown human remains. Phase I of the project involves the use of 3D digitization and geometric morphometric approaches to increase the accuracy in sub-adult sex estimation and to analyze size, shape and degree of maturation of skeletal elements to detect patterns of similarities and differences between sexes. A representative sample of a population of known origin was generated using contemporary human skeletal remains of Italian sub-adults who died during the 1990s. Bone surfaces were digitized using a 3D laser scanner and 3D landmarks and semi-landmarks were developed to capture the variation of skeletal morphology. GPA and PCA will be used as multivariate analyses. Phase II focuses on geographic origin and uses 20 modern samples from different geographic origins and taphonomic contexts. An aDNA protocol was used to maximize the results in degraded modern bones. DNA extraction, library and sequenced using a Shotgun-sequencing approach were carried out in genomics laboratories at UCD. The geographic information will be predicted by comparing the results obtained by means of SNP genotypes with databases of known populations. This approach enables the attribution of the samples to different regions and creates a basis for personal identification.

In the field of forensic investigation burial is a relatively common method of hiding a corpse. The location of clandestine graves is, however, a particularly difficult task in which multiple forensic disciplines such as anthropology, botany or archaeology can provide valuable assistance. The use of GPR (ground-penetrating radar) has recently been introduced as a method in the detection of these graves, but what is the true potential of this tool in an operative search scenario? In this study a total of 11 pig carcasses were buried in two wooded areas, each presenting a similar soil composition. The animals were subsequently exhumed at regular intervals, ranging from 2 to 111 weeks, using systematic GPR analysis of the burial sites and archaeological recovery of the subjects that were then autopsied. GPR proved to be useful in recognizing anomalies at the chosen depths of burial and appeared to be dependent on the state of decay of the samples, producing only slight anomalous readings in the presence of skeletal remains: at 92 weeks from burial the difference in signal was weak and at 111 weeks GPR survey offered no helpful information as to burial location. The experiment, in this particular context, determined the technique as being successful in the presence of recent burials, highlighting the need for a multidisciplinary approach in the operative search for buried human remains.

One of the most frequently observed lesions in clinical forensic practice concerns the patterned abrasion on skin due to constriction by various types of ligature. Detection of ligature marks and their patterns may be fundamental for reconstructing events and supporting testimony of an aggression, sexual abuse, or maltreatment. But very little actually exists in literature concerning their detectability and how long they last. This study aims at evaluating the time of persistence and detectability of skin signs left by different types of ligatures in living persons: on the arms of three volunteers, eight different ligatures were applied; 123 tests were performed, with time of contact ranging between 1 min and 2 h and 45 min. In addition, the persistence of the shape and pattern of the ligature was evaluated 15, 30, and 60 min after a 5- and 15-min compression. Polyvinyl siloxane, applied by a gun dispenser, was used to perform a cast of the skin mark. The results show that the pattern was less distinguishable with the decrease of time of contact, going from 75 % after 10 and 15 min of contact, to 45.8 % after 1 min. Above 15 min, the specific pattern was always recognizable. In addition, a progressive decrease of the detectability of the pattern with time, respectively, up to 12.5 and 37.5 % in 5- and 15-min tests was observed. This study provides useful results for the assessment of patterned injuries in forensic pathology and clinical forensic medicine, both on dead and living persons: in addition, the use of silicone casts seems to be a reliable and cheap method for easily recording and preserving the morphological profile of skin lesions.

Root transparency has proven to be related to age and has been considered by different odontological methods for age estimation. Very little is known concerning possible variations of root transparency with heat, although the applicability of the method to burnt remains depends on the possible modifications of this specific variable. This pilot study presents the results of an experiment performed on 105 teeth obtained from dental patients and autopsy material, heated in an industrial oven at 50°C, 100°C, 150°C and 200°C. Root transparency was measured before and after the charring experiment. The heating process proved to radically modify root transparency, which decreased in 20% of samples at 50°C, in 34.6% at 100°C, in 50% at 150°C, in 77% at 200°C. The overall correlation index (CI) between decrease in root transparency and increase in temperature amounted to 0.96. These results show that heat may modify root transparency and suggest caution in using methods based on root transparency for age estimation.

In cases of suspected child pornography, the age of the victim represents a crucial factor for legal prosecution. The conventional methods for age estimation provide unreliable age estimates, particularly if teenage victims are concerned. In this pilot study, the potential of age estimation for screening purposes is explored for juvenile faces. In addition to a visual approach, an automated procedure is introduced, which has the ability to rapidly scan through large numbers of suspicious image data in order to trace juvenile faces.Age estimations were performed by experts, non-experts and the Demonstrator of a developed software on frontal facial images of 50 females aged 10-19 years from Germany, Italy, and Lithuania. To test the accuracy, the mean absolute error (MAE) between the estimates and the real ages was calculated for each examiner and the Demonstrator.The Demonstrator achieved the lowest MAE (1.47 years) for the 50 test images. Decreased image quality had no significant impact on the performance and classification results. The experts delivered slightly less accurate MAE (1.63 years). Throughout the tested age range, both the manual and the automated approach led to reliable age estimates within the limits of natural biological variability.The visual analysis of the face produces reasonably accurate age estimates up to the age of 18 years, which is the legally relevant age threshold for victims in cases of pedo-pornography. This approach can be applied in conjunction with the conventional methods for a preliminary age estimation of juveniles depicted on images.

In the forensic and anthropological fields, the assessment of the age of a bone callus can be crucial for a correct analysis of injuries in the skeleton. To our knowledge, the studies which have focused on this topic are mainly clinical and still leave much to be desired for forensic purposes, particularly in looking for better methods for aging calluses in view of criminalistic applications. This study aims at evaluating the aid cone-beam CT can give in the investigation of the inner structure of fractures and calluses, thus acquiring a better knowledge of the process of bone remodeling. A total of 13 fractures (three without callus formation and ten with visible callus) of known age from cadavers were subjected to radiological investigations with digital radiography (DR) (conventional radiography) and cone-beam CT with the major aim of investigating the differences between DR and tomographic images when studying the inner and outer structures of bone healing. Results showed how with cone-beam CT the structure of the callus is clearly visible with higher specificity and definition and much more information on mineralization in different sections and planes. These results could lay the foundation for new perspectives on bone callus evaluation and aging with cone-beam CT, a user-friendly and skillful technique which in some instances can also be used extensively on the living (e.g., in cases of child abuse) with reduced exposition to radiation.

Finding spermatozoa is of the utmost importance in judicial cases involving both the living and the dead; however, most of literature actually deals with inner genitalia and does not take into consideration the chance of external deposition of semen on skin, which is not rare. In addition, the most advanced microscopic technologies such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have not been thoroughly investigated within this specific field of research. This study aims at applying SEM analysis to samples of decomposed skin in order to test its potential in detecting spermatozoa particularly in decomposed cadavers. A sample of skin was obtained at autopsy and divided into two thin strips; one of the samples was used as a negative control. Semen was then taken from a "donor" (with a normal spermiogram) and was spread onto the other skin sample. Every 3 days for the first 15 days (for a total of six samples), a standard slide was prepared from swabs on the treated and control skin and analyzed by standard light microscopy. In addition, every 7 days up to 91 days (3 months circa), a skin sample was taken from the positive and negative control and examined by SEM for a total of 14 samples. Results show that after 12 days, light microscopy failed in detecting spermatozoa, whereas they were still visible up to 84 days by SEM analysis. This study therefore suggests the persistence of sperm structures in time and in decomposing material as well as the possible application of SEM technology to decomposed skin in order to detect semen.

One of the main issues in forensic anthropology consists of the identification of signs of trauma in skeletal remains, including sharp-force injuries. So far, several studies have been performed to assess differences between injuries caused by different instruments, not, however, through light microscopy.In this study, 152 sharp-force injuries were performed by 5 different tools through 2 different orientations on 2 humeral diaphyses and were analyzed by stereo and light microscopy to assess possible morphological differences.This study showed that although W-shaped injuries are frequently reported in cases of wood-cutting saws, other shapes are often observed; lesions due to metal-cutting saws are almost always U shaped, whereas injuries caused by knives are V shaped. Although cut marks may represent a variable range of features, the present study was able to highlight typical profiles that may be of some help for the diagnosis of weapon and the intentionality of the action.

The charring process is a weak point of anthropological analysis as it changes bone morphology and reduces information obtainable, specially in fetuses. This experiment aims at verifying the conservation of fetal bones after cremation. A total of 3138 fetuses of unknown sex and age were used, deriving from legal and therapeutic abortions from different hospitals of Milan. Cremations took place in modern crematoria. Nine cremation events were analyzed, each ranging from 57 to 915 simultaneously cremated fetuses. During the cremations, 4356 skeletal remains were recovered, 3756 of which (86.2%) were morphologically distinguishable. All types of fetal skeletal elements were found, with the exception of some cranial bones. Only 3.4% of individuals could be detected after the cremation process, because of the prevalence of abortions under 12 lunar weeks. All fire alterations were observed and the results were statistically analyzed. This pilot study confirmed the possibility of preservation of fetal skeletal elements after cremation.

The introduction of the concept of child abuse has radically changed the mode of interaction between pediatricians and children, but also the practice of sanitary personnel in primary care centers, who are often the first to see victims of maltreatment. This study aims at illustrating the results of a questionnaire sent to family doctors, pediatricians and hospitals in Milan and surrounding areas concerning child abuse. Among all the operators, 273 returned the questionnaires. The results show scarce knowledge on how to report to judicial authority in cases of child abuse (51.5%), mainly because of lack of basilar information concerning the manner of reporting. For what concerns specific training, almost half the subjects recruited for the study admitted not to have attended any congress or meeting concerning child maltreatment in the last three years. In the same time span, more than one third has not read any scientific articles concerning child abuse. In addition, 75.6% admit to not ever having attended any professional training course concerning child maltreatment. This study highlights the scarce knowledge on the behalf of pediatricians and general practitioners regarding how to deal with child abuse and the importance of proper training programs.

Facial approximation techniques used in forensic anthropology are based on soft-tissue thickness databases. However most of articles deal with adult populations, and very few studies were conducted on minors. This study aims at providing data concerning facial thickness for George reconstruction, preliminary to the 3D facial approximation. Diagnostic cephalometric X-ray films were obtained from 222 healthy Caucasoid children (91 boys and 131 girls), aged between 6 and 18years, treated in a Department of Orthodontics of Northern Italy. After setting the Frankfurt plane horizontal, 14 measurements were taken at the mid-facial landmarks: supraglabella, glabella, nasion, nasale, subnasale, superior labial sulcus, labrale superius, stomion, labrale inferius, inferior labial sulcus, suprapogonion, pogonion, gnathion, menton. Mean and standard deviation of soft-tissues thickness at each point were calculated. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to test the modifications of facial parameters with age and sex (p

Scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) is extensively seen in the literature for the improvement of the macroscopic analysis of sharp lesions, but very few indications concerning its real potential in the forensic context, particularly in forensic anthropology, are at the moment available. This paper represents a pilot study for the analysis of the behaviour of metallic residues found on bone after sharp force injury. Fourteen lesions were made on human bone (radius), cleaned of all soft tissues, with seven different sharp tools (three metal instruments, three metal saws and a baked-clay knife). Tools and lesions underwent SEM-EDS. From 3 to 18 particles were detected on each lesion, whose diameter was included between 0.5 and 150 μm. In 58% of cases, particle composition was concordant with the instrument used. The results seem to suggest that sharp force injury frequently leaves relatively few residues on bone, particularly in the case of common types of metal. Saws showed slightly more contamination with other residues than knives, which may be explained by the capability of the saw's teeth to retain the residues of previously encountered material. In addition, metal residues related to the tool used to cut the bone were located on the edges/walls of lesions in the case of saw marks, whereas they were more frequently found on the kerf floor in the case of knives/scissors, with the exception of the baked clay knife which when it leaves residues at all, seemed to leave them equally divided between the floor, the edges and the surrounding bone.

Very little literature exists concerning radiochemical and microscopic analyses of gunshot wounds in decomposed material, and even less concerning skeletonized samples; the most advanced technologies may provide useful indications for the diagnosis of suspect lesions, especially if gunshot wounds are no longer recognizable. However, we know very little of the survival of gunshot residues (GSR) in skeletonized samples. This study examined nine gunshot wounds produced on pig heads which then underwent skeletonization for 4 years, and four gunshot entries on human heads from judicial cases which were then macerated to the bone in water; the samples underwent scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analysis. Positive results for GSR were observed only in four of the nine animal samples and in all four human samples. Among the human samples, two lesions showed Pb and Sb, one lesion only Pb, and one Pb, Sb, and Ba. This pilot study showed the survival of GSR in skeletal material and therefore the crucial importance of SEM-EDX analyses on skeletonized material. Further studies are needed in order to ascertain the role of environmental modifications of GSR. Language: en

Personal identification consists of the comparison of ante-mortem information from a missing person with post-mortem data obtained from an unidentified corpse. Such procedure is based on the assessment of individualizing features which may help in providing a conclusive identification between ante-mortem and post-mortem material. Anatomical variants may provide important clues to correctly identify human remains. Areas of idiopathic osteosclerosis (IO), or dense bone islands (DBIs) characterized by radiopaque areas of dense, trabeculated, non-inflamed vital bone represent one of these, potentially individualizing, anatomical features. This study presents a case where the finding of DBI was crucial for a positive identification through CT-scan. A decomposed body was found in an apartment in June 2014 in advanced decomposition and no dental records were available to perform a comparison for positive identification. Genetic tests were not applicable because of the lack of relatives in a direct line. The analysis of the only ante-mortem documentation, a CT-scan to the deceased dating back to August 2009, showed the presence of three DBIs within the trabecular bone of the proximal portion of the right femur. The same bony district was removed from the corpse during the autopsy and analysed by CT-scan, which verified the presence of the same features. Forensic practitioners should therefore be aware of the great importance of anatomical bone variants, such as dense bone islands for identification purposes, and the importance of advanced radiological technique for addressing the individualizing potential of such variants. We propose that anatomical variants of the human skeleton should be considered as being “primary identification characteristics” similar to dental status, fingerprints and DNA.

Identification from video surveillance systems is frequently requested in forensic practice. The “3D–2D” comparison has proven to be reliable in assessing identification but still requires standardization; this study concerns the validation of the 3D–2D profile comparison. The 3D models of the faces of five individuals were compared with photographs from the same subjects as well as from another 45 individuals. The difference in area and distance between maxima (glabella, tip of nose, fore point of upper and lower lips, pogonion) and minima points (selion, subnasale, stomion, suprapogonion) were measured. The highest difference in area between the 3D model and the 2D image was between 43 and 133 mm2 in the five matches, always greater than 157 mm2 in mismatches; the mean distance between the points was greater than 1.96 mm in mismatches

Analysis and detailed registration of the crime scene are of the utmost importance during investigations. However, this phase of activity is often affected by the risk of loss of evidence due to the limits of traditional scene of crime registration methods (ie, photos and videos). This technical note shows the utility of the application of a 3-dimensional optical digitizer on different crime scenes. This study aims in fact at verifying the importance and feasibility of contactless 3-dimensional reconstruction and modeling by optical digitization to achieve an optimal registration of the crime scene.

The study of skin and bone lesions may give information concerning type and manner of production, but in burnt material modification of tissues by the high temperatures may considerably change the morphological characteristics of the lesions. This study aims at pointing out the effects of burning head of pigs with several types of lesions (blunt trauma, sharp force, and gunshot lesions) on soft tissues and bones, both from a morphological and chemical point of view. Results show that the charring process does not completely destroy signs of lesions on bones, which can often be recovered by cleaning bone surface from charred soft-tissue residues. Furthermore, neutron activation analysis test proved that antimony may be detectable also on gunshot entry wounds at the final stages of charring process.

The age of the victim plays a crucial role for the legal implications concerning pornography. Judges therefore often call on forensic experts to verify the age of individuals depicted on photographs or videos. However, there is no scientifically established protocol available for forensic practice in such cases. The conventional methods such as the evaluation of secondary sexual characteristics provide unsatisfactory results particularly when the legally relevant ages for child pornography (i.e. 14 and 18 years) are concerned. To overcome these limits, a European research group has explored the applicability of facial proportions as an age indicator on images. In this pilot study, standardized facial images of 353 females and 20 males from four age groups (6, 10, 14 and 18 years) were randomly selected for the metric analysis from a large data set including German, Italian and Lithuanian subjects. In this sample, several indices extracted from the frontal and lateral photographs were closely correlated to their respective indices taken from the living individuals. Furthermore, age-related changes were identified for indices taken from the photographs. The discriminant analysis showed that for the pooled sample, 60.3% of the cases were correctly classified into the respective age group. The percentage of correctly classified cases increased in the respective country samples as follows: 69.9% for Germany, 69.4% for Lithuania and 80.5% for Italy. The present study suggests that the metric assessment of the face may be used for age estimation on images. Nonetheless, more work needs to be done in order to verify the reliability of these findings on a large sample.

Very little literature exists on gunshot wounds on decomposed material. In this study, seven pig heads underwent a shooting test. Entrance wounds from the first head underwent neutron activation analysis (NAA) and histological testing immediately after the firing test; the other six heads were exposed to two different environments (open air and soil) and analyzed by radiochemical and histological tests every 15 days. Gunshot wounds in air maintained their morphological characteristics, and those in soil showed severe alteration after 5 weeks. Microscopic testing verified positive results for lead in all gunshot wounds in open air, whereas in most of those in soil lead could not be detected. Radiochemical analysis performed by NAA yielded for all gunshot wounds but one antimony quantities in the range of 0.07-13.89 microg. In conclusion, it may be possible to detect residues of antimony even in degraded tissues.

Investigation of bodies recovered in water comprises an important proportion of medico-legal cases, but is affected by relevant limits concerning the specific decomposition processes and the cause of death. Few indications are provided by literature concerning the post mortem modification of corpses in water, but for a general variability in decomposition degree, and only few experimental projects have been performed in order to verify the influence of water on the decomposition process. On the other hand, in order to reconstruct the cause of death, at present, the diatom test is considered as the "golden standard" for the diagnosis of drowning, although recent literature has pointed out its relative reliability and the frequent problems of contamination. This pilot study was performed to observe the changes of animal remains in aquatic environments. The following experimental system was set up: three piglet corpses, who died by natural causes independent from the study, were immerged in water rich in diatoms (Navicola, Order Pennales) in a tank exposed to the open air; macroscopic, histochemical and diatoms analysis were performed after 1, 2 and 3 months. Decomposition effects were fast: since the first month the skin appeared colliquated with exposure of the underlying bone surface, whereas at the second and third month the inner viscera were no longer recognizable; histology revealed that the skin was well preserved at 1 month, but morphology was completely altered at the second month, whereas at the third month epidermis was no longer visible. Diatom testing showed the presence of contamination both in the first and second piglet; the finding of a sea-diatom, on the other hand, was completely unexpected. This study performed for the first time histochemical testing on animal models submerged in water: although the results became negative after the second month, some microscopic structure could still be recognized at the end of the experimental project; on the other hand, the search for diatoms in the samples proved the high possibility of post mortem contamination.