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Technologies based on electromagnetic radiation, such as the X-ray technique, has contributed to the establishment of new and promising methodologies for evaluating seed quality. This study aimed to relate parameters based on semi-automated analysis of radiographs of crambe seeds to their physiological quality. Radiographic images of seeds from 10 seed lots of cultivar FMS Brilhante were semi-automatically analyzed using ImageJ® software. Measurements of morphometric characteristics and tissue integrity were obtained for the seeds, as well as individually for the seed embryo. Following X-ray test, the seeds were subject to germination and seedling growth test. It was possible to visualize the internal structures of the seeds in the radiographs. There were differences in the physical parameters obtained by the semi-automated analysis of the radiographs between the seed lots. Also, the lots differed regarding the physiological quality of the seeds. Morphometric characteristics and tissue integrity, especially for the seed embryo, showed high correlation with the seed physiological quality. Therefore, this work presents an efficient approach to rapid and non-destructively assess the quality of crambe seeds. Resumo: Tecnologias baseadas em radiação eletromagnética, como a técnica de raios X, contribuíram para estabelecer novas e promissoras metodologias para avaliar a qualidade de sementes. Nesse sentido, este estudo teve como objetivo relacionar parâmetros baseados na análise semiautomatizada de radiografias de sementes de crambe à sua qualidade fisiológica. Imagens radiográficas de sementes pertencentes a 10 lotes da cultivar FMS Brilhante foram analisadas de forma semiautomatizada por meio do software ImageJ®. Foram obtidas medidas de características morfométricas e integridade tecidual das sementes, bem como individualmente para o embrião das sementes. Após o teste de raio-X, as sementes foram submetidas ao teste de germinação e crescimento de plântulas. Foi possível visualizar as estruturas internas das sementes nas radiografias. Houve diferenças nos parâmetros físicos obtidos pela análise semiautomática das radiografias entre os lotes de sementes. Além disso, os lotes diferiram quanto à qualidade fisiológica das sementes. Características morfométricas e de integridade tecidual, especialmente para o embrião, apresentaram alta correlação com a qualidade fisiológica. Assim, este trabalho apresenta uma abordagem eficiente para avaliar de forma rápida e não destrutiva a qualidade de sementes de crambe.

Crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst R.E. Fries) has recently attracted a renewed interest by the bio-based industry due to its high seed oil content (up to 57%), particularly erucic acid (up to 65% of total fatty acids), short growing cycle, and high drought tolerance. A field trial was conducted during four consecutive growing seasons (2016−19) in Greece, Poland, and Italy. The commercial crambe variety (Galactica) was sown in early, intermediate, and late sowing dates in spring at two seeding rates (LD: 100 seeds m−2, and HD: 200 seeds m−2) in a factorial design at each test location. Mean crambe seed yields exceeded 1.5 Mg DM ha-1 across all years and locations. Italy and Greece were the most productive sites, with average seed yields of 2.11 Mg DM ha-1 and 1.97 Mg DM ha-1, respectively. Oil yield, which was only determined in Italy and Poland, was about 30% greater in the southern environment (Italy). Nevertheless, 1000-seed weight was greater in Poland (6.49 g) than Italy (6.12 g), revealing that lower temperatures during seed filling resulted in heavier seeds. In conclusion, sowing date played a key role in crambe productivity, with the earliest sowing resulting in highest yields across all locations.

Цель исследований заключалась в оценке сортов крамбе абиссинской по их продуктивности и качеству маслосемян, устойчивости и стабильности в условиях Среднего Поволжья. Экспериментальную работу проводили в 2018-2020 гг. на опытном поле ФГБНУ ФНЦ ЛК — ОП «Пензенский НИИСХ». Объектом исследований являлись сорта крамбе абиссинской различного эколого-географического происхождения. Метеорологические условия вегетационных периодов в годы изучения крамбе характеризовались как засушливые, ГТК составил 0,4-0,8. Полевая всхожесть семян крамбе варьировала в пределах 76,3-79,4% в зависимости от сорта. Сохранность растений к уборке в среднем по сортам составляла от 84,5 до 89,3%. Все сорта крамбе абиссинской в среднем за 3 года сформировали высокую урожайность — 2,51-2,82 т/га с масличностью семян 37,1-38,9%. Сорта Деметра и Санмо отличались наиболее высокой продуктивностью — 2,82 т/га. По масличности семян были выделены сорта Borowski, Санмо и Деметра, содержание жира в семенах составило 38,9%. Изменчивость урожайности сортов крамбе по годам составила 18,59-25,06%. Меньшая вариабельность урожая отмечена у сортов CRA 5/79 и Belenzian, коэффициент вариации которых составил 18,59 и 19,16% соответственно. Наиболее высокие значения индекса стабильности имели сорта Деметра (15,74%), Санмо (15,25%) и Belenzian (14,85%). Данные сорта характеризовались высокой экологической пластичностью, индекс экологической пластичности (ИЭП) которых составил 1,04-1,05. Высоким значением показателя уровня стабильности сорта (ПУСС) отличались сорта Borowski, Санмо и Деметра, показатель которых составил 41,93, 43,01 и 44,39 соответственно. Наиболее высокая экологическая устойчивость отмечена у сортов CRA 5/79 и Belenzian, уровень которой составил 0,98. Данные сорта имеют высокие значения экологической пластичности, стабильности и устойчивости к условиям возделывания в Средневолжском регионе., The aim of the research was to evaluate the varieties of Crambe abyssinica by their productivity and quality of oilseeds, resistance and stability in the conditions of the Middle Volga region. The experimental work was carried out in 2018-2020 on the experimental field of the "Penza Research Institute of Agriculture”. The object of research was the Crambe abyssinica varieties of various ecological and geographical origin. The meteorological conditions of the growing seasons during the years of study of Crambe were characterized as arid, the GTK was 0.4-0.8. Field germination of Crambe seeds varied within 76.3-79.4% depending on the variety. The preservation of plants for harvesting on average for varieties ranged from 84.5 to 89.3%. All varieties of Crambe abyssinica, on average, over three years formed a high yield of 2.51-2.82 t/ha with an oil content of seeds of 37.1-38.9%. Varieties Demetra and Sanmo were distinguished by the highest productivity — 2.82 t/ha. The varieties Borowski, Sanmo and Demetra were distinguished by the oil content of the seeds; the fat content in the seeds was 38.9%. The variability of the yield of krambe varieties over the years was 18.59-25.06%. Less variability in yield was observed in varieties CRA 5/79 and Belenzian, the coefficient of variation of which was 18.59 and 19.16%, respectively. The highest values of the stability index were in the varieties Demetra (15.74%), Sanmo (15.25%) and Belenzian (14.85%). These varieties were characterized by high ecological plasticity, the ecological plasticity index (IEP) of which was 1.04-1.05. Varieties Borowski, Sanmo and Demetra were distinguished by a high value of PUSS, the indicator of which was 41.93, 43.01 and 44.39, respectively. The highest ecological resistance was observed in the varieties CRA 5/79 and Belenzian, the level of which was 0.98. These varieties have high values of ecological plasticity, stability and resistance to cultivation conditions in the Middle Volga region.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of nitrogen (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 kg ha&minus, 1) and sulfur (0, 15, and 30 kg ha&minus, 1) fertilization on the morphometric parameters of plants, seed yield components, seed and straw yield, N fertilizer use efficiency (NFUE), and quality of crambe seeds. The experiment had a randomized complete block design, and it was carried out in Bałcyny (northeastern Poland) in 2017&ndash, 2019. In northeastern Poland, the average seed yields ranged from 0.96 to 1.64&ndash, 1.82 Mg ha&minus, 1 (hulled seeds). Seed yield increased significantly in response to 120 kg N ha&minus, 1 and 15 kg S ha&minus, 1. The NFUE of crambe decreased by 28% with a rise in N rate. Hulled crambe seeds accumulated 324&ndash, 394 g kg&minus, 1 DM of crude fat, 208&ndash, 238 g kg&minus, 1 DM of total protein, and 118&ndash, 137 g kg&minus, 1 DM of crude fiber. Nitrogen fertilization decreased the crude fat content (by 6%), and it increased the total protein content (by 11%) and the crude fiber content (by 14%) of crambe seeds. Sulfur fertilization increased crude fat content (by 4&ndash, 5%) without inducing significant differences in the total protein content and the crude fat content of seeds.

We hypothesized that by-products from biodiesel production like crambe meal (Crambe abyssinica) totally replace soybean meal (Glycine max) and crude glycerin could partially replace corn (Zea mays). Our aim was to evaluate different supplements with combinations of crambe meal and crude glycerin replacing soybean meal or corn on performance and carcass traits of finishing heifers. Sixty Nellore heifers 18 months old were used, and 298.96 ± 21.99 kg of body weight allotted in Brachiaria brizantha pastures. All heifers were distributed in a randomized complete block design, with four treatments being the following supplements: corn + soybean meal (CS), corn + crambe meal (CCr), corn + soybean meal + crude glycerin (CSG), corn + crambe meal + crude glycerin + (CCrG). The animals were distributed in four paddocks of 13 hectares each, in a continuous grazing system. We evaluated pasture characteristics, intake, performance, carcass traits, characteristics, and centesimal composition of Longissimus thoracis muscle. There was an effect (P < 0.05) of inclusion of crambe meal on the performance of the animals for slaughter weight and daily gain. The supplement containing corn + soybean meal (CS) presented better conversion rates and food efficiency. There was an effect of inclusion of crambe meal and crude glycerin on the centesimal composition of Longissimus thoracis muscle. The use of crambe meal and crude glycerin as alternative sources from the agro-industry of biodiesel in concentrate supplement for finishing heifers in pastures can promote positive effects related to productive performance and carcass characteristics.

Determination of seed-maturation indicators enables the identification of the ideal moment for harvest to achieve the best production and conservation potential. Our objective here was to evaluate some physical and physiological changes of crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst) seeds as possible indicators of seed maturation. Crambe flowering was monitored in Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Plants were tagged, and 13, 22, 26, and 28 days after the initiation of flowering, the seeds were collected and following physical attributes evaluated: length, diameter, total mass, dry matter and water content. Physiological quality of the seeds was assessed using the germination test, by registering the percentage of normal seedlings and dormant seeds, immediately after each harvest, and again after six months of storage. The water-absorption curves were characterized as a function the seed-development stages. All physical attributes were observed to increase because of the accumulation of reserve substances during seed development, except for water content, which gradually decreased from 72.2% at the start of development to 29.5% at maturity. At 28 days after anthesis the germination percentage of crambe seeds at physiological maturity was only 17%, indicating that they became dormant while maturing. However, seed germination rate was 89% after six months of storage, indicating that dormancy was almost fully overcome after this period. Determination of seed-maturation indicators enables the identification of the ideal moment for harvest to achieve the best production and conservation potential. Our objective here was to evaluate some physical and physiological changes of crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst) seeds as possible indicators of seed maturation. Crambe flowering was monitored in Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Plants were tagged, and 13, 22, 26, and 28 days after the initiation of flowering, the seeds were collected and following physical attributes evaluated: length, diameter, total mass, dry matter and water content. Physiological quality of the seeds was assessed using the germination test, by registering the percentage of normal seedlings and dormant seeds, immediately after each harvest, and again after six months of storage. The water-absorption curves were characterized as a function the seed-development stages. All physical attributes were observed to increase because of the accumulation of reserve substances during seed development, except for water content, which gradually decreased from 72.2% at the start of development to 29.5% at maturity. At 28 days after anthesis the germination percentage of crambe seeds at physiological maturity was only 17%, indicating that they became dormant while maturing. However, seed germination rate was 89% after six months of storage, indicating that dormancy was almost fully overcome after this period.

This study aimed to evaluate the performance of broilers fed a diet in which the total protein has been replaced by the protein of the crambe meal. The experiment was used 630 male chickens (Cobb® 500) from 8 to 42 days of age, distributed in a completely randomized design with five treatments, six replications of 21 birds per plot. The treatments were: control diet (0%) and diets containing 3, 6, 9 and 12% of crambe meal protein in replacement of the total protein of the feed. The performance was evaluated in the initial phase (8 to 21 days), growth (22 to 42 days) and total (8 to 42 days). Carcass and cuts was evaluated at 43 days of age. Diets containing crambe meal promoted lower feed intake compared with to the control diet in all evaluated phases. For weight gain, a worse result was observed with increased inclusion of crambe protein, with a linear decrease compared to those who did not receive crambe in the total breeding period. It was found that for the total period the best feed conversion was obtained with 6% of the inclusion of crambe protein in comparison to the crambe-free diet. Carcass, breast and thigh weights decreased with a diet containing 12% of the crambe protein. The results indicate that it is possible to partially replace the crude protein of the feed up to 6% with the protein of the crambe meal. Este estudio tiene como objetivo evaluar el rendimiento de los pollos de engorde alimentados con una dieta en la que la proteína total fue reemplazada por la proteína del salvado de crambe. Se utilizaron 630 pollitos machos de la línea Cobb 500 de 8 a 42 días de edad, distribuidos en un diseño completamente al azar con cinco tratamientos, seis repeticiones de 21 aves por parcela. Los tratamientos fueron: dieta de un grupo testigo (0%) y dietas que contenían 3, 6, 9 y 12% de proteína de salvado de crambe en reemplazo de la proteína total del alimento. El rendimiento se evaluó en la fase inicial (8 a 21 días), crecimiento (22 a 42 días) y total (8 a 42 días). La carcasa y los cortes fueron evaluados a los 43 días de edad. Las dietas que contienen salvado de crambe promovieron una baja ingesta de alimento en comparación con la dieta de control en todas las fases evaluadas. Para el aumento de peso, se observó un peor resultado con un aumento en la inclusión de la proteína del crambe, con una disminución lineal en comparación con aquellos que no recibieron crambe en el período de cría total. Se encontró que para el período total se obtuvo la mejor conversión alimenticia con un 6% de la inclusión de proteína crambe en comparación con la dieta libre de crambe. Los pesos en canal, pechuga y muslo se redujeron con la dieta que contenía el 12% de la proteína crambe. Es posible el reemplazo parcial de proteína cruda en la dieta de hasta 6% por proteína de salvado de crambe. Este estudo objetiva avaliar o desempenho de frangos de corte alimentados com dieta em que a proteína total foi substituída pela proteína do farelo de crambe. Foram utilizados 630 pintos machos (Cobb 500) de 8 a 42 dias de idade distribuídos no delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado com cinco tratamentos, seis repetições de 21 aves por parcela. Os tratamentos foram: dieta controle (0%) e dietas contendo 3, 6, 9 e 12% de proteína do farelo de crambe em substituição da proteína total da ração. O desempenho foi avaliado na fase inicial (8 a 21 dias), crescimento (22 a 42 dias) e total (8 a 42 dias). A carcaça e cortes foram avaliados aos 43 dias de idade. Dietas contendo farelo de crambe promoveu baixo consumo de ração comparado com a dieta controle em todas as fases avaliadas. Para o ganho de peso observou-se pior resultado com aumento da inclusão da proteína do crambe, com decréscimo linear comparado aos que não receberam o crambe no período total de criação. Verificou-se que para o período total a melhor conversão alimentar foi obtida com 6% da inclusão da proteína do crambe em comparação à dieta isenta de crambe. Os pesos da carcaça, de peito e de coxa reduziram com a dieta contendo 12% da proteína do crambe. Os dados indicam que é possível a substituição parcial da proteína bruta da ração até 6% pela proteína do farelo de crambe.

The sustainable production of renewable energy is a key topic on the European community’s agenda in the next decades. The use of residuals from agriculture could not be enough to meet the growing demand for energy, and the contribution of vegetable oil to biodiesel production may be important. Moreover, vegetable oil can surrogate petroleum products in many cases, as in cosmetics, biopolymers, or lubricants production. However, the cultivation of oil crops for the mere production of industrial oil would arise concerns on competition for land use between food and non-food crops. Additionally, the economic sustainability is not always guaranteed, since the mechanical harvesting, in some cases, is still far from acceptable. Therefore, it is difficult to plan the future strategy on bioproducts production from oil crops if the actual feasibility to harvest the seeds is still almost unknown. With the present review, the authors aim to provide a comprehensive overview on the state of the art of mechanical harvesting in seven herbaceous oil crops, namely: sunflower (Heliantus annuus L.), canola (Brassica napus L.), cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.), camelina (Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), crambe (Crambe abyssinica R. E. Fr.), and castor bean (Ricinus communis L.). The review underlines that the mechanical harvesting of sunflower, canola and cardoon seeds is performed relying on specific devices that perform effectively with a minimum seed loss. Crambe and safflower seeds can be harvested through a combine harvester equipped with a header for cereals. On the other hand, camelina and castor crops still lack the reliable implementation on combine harvesters. Some attempts have been performed to harvest camelina and castor while using a cereal header and a maize header, respectively, but the actual effectiveness of both strategies is still unknown.

The research was aimed at assessing oil quality obtained from Crambe abyssinica Hochst. cultivated in the Crimea. In our studies, we used variety ‘Polet’. It has been included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements since 2012 and is recommended for all areas of this crop production. The content of crude protein in the seeds of Crambe abyssinica was 28.0%; fiber – 18.7%, ash – 6.0%, nitrogen-free extractive substances – 3.5%. In 2016, the fat content in seeds (earlier planting dates such as the second decade of March) amounted to 33.63%; the third decade of March – 33.83%; the first decade of April – 29.73%. The content of erucic acid, depending on the planting date, in the Crambe abyssinica Hochst. oil varied from 56.47 to 60.05%; linoleic – from 7.90 to 8.12%; linolenic – from 4.67 to 5.33; oleic – from 15.75 to 17.32; eicosene – from 3.02 to 4.85%; behenic – from 2.03 to 2.15%.

As an alternative fuel of diesel engines, the interest in biodiesel fuels is rising due to some useful features. This interest leads to an increase in the diversity of studies. In recent years, studies about the crops that can grow in non-arable lands and produce nonedible oils were increased. In this work, performance and emissions of biodiesel production from crambe abyssinica and crambe orientalis oils were studied. The purpose of this paper was to examine the performance and emissions of crambe biodiesels and diesel fuel in a single-cylinder, four-stroke, direct injected diesel engine with air cooling system at 2200 1/min fixed engine speed and with four different engine loads (BMEP, 0.12 MPa, 0.24 MPa, 0.36 MPa and 0.48 MPa). Crambe abyssinica biodiesel and crambe orientalis biodiesel were expressed as CAME B100 and COME B100 respectively. The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), total hydrocarbon (THC), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and smoke emissions results obtained from the experimental study were compared with No. 2 diesel fuel. Achieved results suggest us that crambe biodiesels can preferred for diesel engines. Since environmental effects and energy requirement become more important, the interest of the crops that can grow unsuitable lands has increased.

The aim of this study was to assess the 1000-seed weight (M1000) and oil content of seeds of canola (Brassica napus L.), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst), flax (Linum usitatissimum) and radish (Raphanus sativus L.), grown in fall/winter at four locations in the State of Parana (Brazil) with varying edaphoclimatic features, and intended for the production of biodiesel. The weight of the 1000 seeds (M1000) measurement was conducted using an electronic counter (ESC 2008 SANICK). Seed moisture content was determined using the oven drying method at 105 °C. The Soxhlet method was used to extract and quantify the oil. The weight of the 1000 seeds was higher for canola, safflower and crambe grown at the Londrina location. At the four locations evaluated, the cultivar that produced seeds with the highest oil content was crambe FMS Brilhante, followed by canola, flax, safflower and radish. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the edaphoclimatic conditions at the locations, and in particular the temperature, which had no effect on M1000 and oil content. The oilseed plants with the highest M1000 value did not have the highest oil content, and there was an inverse relationship between M1000 and oil content.

Some 154 Brassicaceae genotypes (78 Brassica napus, 38 B. carinata, 25 B. juncea, three Raphanus sativus, two each of Rapistrum rugosum and B. incana and one each of Crambe abyssinica, B. fruticulosa, Hirschfeldia incana, B. insularis, B. oleracea and Sinapis arvensis), were inoculated with a mixture of seven isolates of Hyaloperonospora brassicae to identify effective host resistances. Many highly resistant genotypes were identified, particularly R. sativus Krasnodar Market B (%Disease index 6.6) and Pegletta (%DI 9.0); B. carinata Tamn Rex-sel Green (%DI 7.6), BRA926/18 (%DI 9.7) and PI360884 (%DI 9.7); and B. juncea, Ringot1 (%DI 9.7). A further 13 B. carinata, seven B. juncea and single R. sativus (Boss) and B. incana (UPM6563) genotypes were also highly resistant (%DI 11.1), as were B. oleracea CPI106844 (%DI 14.6) and Crambe abyssinica (%DI 17.4). Almost all B. carinata and B. juncea genotypes showed high resistance (%DI 7.6–22.2). In contrast, B. napus genotypes showed wide ranging responses, from high resistance in SN-8 (%DI 22.2%) to extreme susceptibility in Hyola 450TT and Thunder TT (%DI 83.7, 95.5, respectively). R. rugosum, B. fruticulosa, H. incana and B. insularis genotypes ranged from moderately to highly susceptible (%DI 55.2–78.8). This study highlights the ready availability of very high levels of pathotype-independent resistance across diverse Brassicaceae to H. brassicae, particularly R. sativus, B. carinata, B. juncea, B. oleracea and C. abyssinica. Resistances identified can be utilized as sources of resistance in oilseed and vegetable Brassicaceae breeding programs and/or directly deployed as new varieties where downy mildew is prevalent.

The urgent need to reduce the use of fossil sources, whether agricultural inputs or fuels, and to promote a more sustainable means of production has become an incessant search worldwide. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can be an important alternative once they act in the biogeochemical cycles of nutrients in the soil and in the maintenance of soil and plant health and quality. Crambe abyssinica has been recognized as an important crop for the production of high-quality biodiesel. The identification of specific PGPR are of great importance for the production of sustainable and low-cost biodiesel. The effect of four different PGPR and its mixture, on the growth and yield of Crambe was assessed in a greenhouse setting. Six treatments were used: Azospirillum brasilense (strain Ab-V5), Methylobacterium komagatae (strain ZM), Rhizobium sp. (strain 8.1.2.1), Azomonas sp. (strain 4.3.1.2), a mixture of these four and no inoculation. Plant height and stem diameter, the area of roots, and yield were evaluated. M. komagatae, Azomonas sp. and Rhizobium sp. provided an average of 102% greater root area compared to uninoculated crambe. However, only M. komagatae provided a significant yield increase (108%). The positive responses of a bacterium not previously reported as growth-promoting enables also a series of study possibilities such as the elucidation of the mechanisms of association and testing in other plantas, particularly other Brassicaceae.

In the present study, the effect of different degumming processes on the phosphorus content of Crambe abyssinica oil and resultant biodiesel was evaluated. The non-edible oil was submitted to water degumming and chemical degumming with different concentrations of phosphoric acid and varying the acid to oil volume percentages. Phosphorus content of the products was measured by UV spectroscopy after sample calcination, according to NP 1994:2000. Biodiesel was produced by transesterification using a 6:1 methanol to oil molar ratio and 1 wt% sodium hydroxide as catalyst at 65 degrees C, during 1 h. The biodiesel produced directly from the crude oil presented high phosphorus concentration (>20 ppm); consequently, a degumming process was required to fulfil the quality standard (

This study aimed to evaluate the total contents of As, Cu and Zn in the profile of a Haplic Cambisol cultivated with crambe and corn and fertilized with sanitary sewage sludge and to compare them with those obtained in other forms of fertilization, as well as the content of metals in the grain of these crops. Two experiments were carried out in the field, one with maize cultivation and another with crambe, both were delineated as randomized blocks with four treatments and six replicates, which were: without fertilization, fertilization with sewage sludge dewatered and dried in the sun, with dry sewage sludge and with mineral fertilizers. At the end of the experiments soil samples were collected at 15, 50, 100, 150 and 200 cm depth for analysis of the total contents of As, Cu and Zn, as well as the grain of the crops. No differences were observed among the treatments. The total contents of As, Cu and Zn in the soil in both experiments and in the corn grains are below the limits of prevention and the maximum limit in grains established by the Brazilian resolutions. In relation to depth, the metal contents in the samples collected from the soil submitted to the fertilization treatments were similar to those quantified in the plots that did not received fertilization, but there was accumulation of Cu and Zn in the upper layers of the soil that received fertilization. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os teores totais de As, Cu e Zn no perfil de um Cambissolo Háplico cultivado com crambe e milho e adubado com lodo de esgoto sanitário e compará-los com os obtidos em outras formas de adubação, bem como o teor de metais no grão dessas culturas. Foram realizados dois experimentos a campo, um com cultivo de milho e outro com crambe, ambos delineados em blocos casualizados com quatro tratamentos e seis repetições, sendo eles: sem adubação, adubação com lodo de esgoto desaguado e seco ao sol, com lodo de esgoto e com fertilizantes minerais. Ao final dos experimentos foram coletadas amostras de solo nas profundidades de 15, 50, 100, 150 e 200 cm para análise dos teores totais de As, Cu e Zn, bem como os grãos das culturas. Não foram observadas diferenças entre os tratamentos. Os teores totais de As, Cu e Zn no solo em ambos os experimentos e nos grãos de milho estão abaixo dos limites de prevenção e do limite máximo em grãos estabelecidos pelas resoluções brasileiras. Em relação à profundidade, os teores de metais nas amostras coletadas do solo submetidos aos tratamentos de adubação foram semelhantes aos quantificados nas parcelas que não receberam adubação, mas houve acúmulo de Cu e Zn nas camadas superiores do solo que recebeu a fertilização.

The aim of this study was to determine the energy and economic efficiency ofCamelina sativaandCrambe abyssinicaproduction on a commercial plantation. The study was based on a three-year large- scale trial. The energy and economic inputs in the production of camelina and crambe were similar and were dominated by the consumption of fertilisers. The average yield of camelina and crambe seeds was very similar but the yield of camelina was more stable. The average energy gain from production of camelina was higher by 4.9% compared with the crambe. The average income from camelina seeds production (876.3 €ha-1) was higher by almost 12% than for crambe. The average energy efficiency ratio for production of camelina seeds (2.00) was higher by 5.7% compared with the crambe. The average energy efficiency ratio for the production of total biomass (seeds and straw) of camelina (4.74) was higher by 4.2% compared with the crambe. The revenue from camelina seeds was on average 312 €ha-1and was 36% higher than that from crambe seeds, while the revenue from camelina total biomass production was on average 432.6 €ha-1and was 26% higher than the value obtained from crambe production.

Raphanus sativus L. and Crambe abyssinica Hochst. are promising crops for supplying oil to chemical industries. They are not used for human consumption and can be grown off-season due to their short life cycle. However, drought may limit their growth, photosynthesis and productivity. Thus, the aim of this research was to evaluate the morphological and physiological responses of R. sativus and C. abyssinica subjected to water deficit to identify the strategies used by these species to tolerate the effects of water stress. Two independent experiments for R. sativus and C. abyssinica were conducted with different water replacements: 100% (control), 66% and 33% of the field capacity. The characteristics of water relations, gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, chloroplastidic pigments, morphology and root distribution in the soil profile were evaluated separately in both crops. The results indicate the ability of both species to control water loss. In R. sativus and C. abyssinica, the cell turgor and consequently photosynthesis and growth were maintained even under drought conditions. The maintenance of water status was achieved by osmotic adjustment in R. sativus, and also the root distribution and deepening in both species. Such responses allowed R. sativus and C. abyssinica to be classified as tolerant to drought conditions.

Understanding the influence of row spacing and plant density on grain yield and yield components of crambe is critical in order to obtain higher grain yields. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of row spacing and plant density on grain yield and its components in crambe in two distinct regions of Brazil (Marechal Candido Rondon-PR, MCR-PR, and Botucatu-SP, BTU-SP). Narrow and wide row spacing (0.20 and 0.40 m) combined with four plant densities (15, 25, 35, and 45 plants m-1) were evaluated in a randomized block layout with four replications in a 2 × 4 factorial design. The experiment at BTU-SP was run under rainfed conditions with supplementary irrigation, whereas the experiment at MCR-PR was run under rainfed conditions without supplementary irrigation. Both experiments were run in soils classified as Oxisols. There was no interaction between row spacing and plant density. Highest grain yield with supplementary irrigation was observed at 0.20 m row spacing. Without irrigation, row spacing did not affect grain yield owing to the plasticity of crop. The highest grain yield was observed with approximately 30 plants m-1 at both experimental locations. A strong negative correlation was observed between final plant population and number of grains per plant. There was high plant mortality, particularly at high plant densities cultivated under irrigation. Higher mortality occurred because of high intraspecific competition and a larger disease incidence due to the higher humidity in the irrigated experiment. A mechanism of self-adjustment by plant density was observed in crambe, with its intensity dependent on plant density and environmental conditions, such as water and nutrient availability and light incidence.

Crambe abyssinica (crambe) is a new industrial oil crop that can grow on saline soil and tolerates salty water irrigation. Genetically engineered crambe in which the seed‐oil composition is manipulated for more erucic acid and less polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) would be highly beneficial to industry. In this research, lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase 2 RNA interference (CaLPAT2‐RNAi) was introduced into the crambe genome to manipulate its oil composition. The result showed in comparison with wild type, CaLPAT2‐RNAi could significantly reduce linoleic and linolenic acid content, simultaneously increasing erucic acid content. Systematic metabolism engineering was then carried out to further study CaLPAT2‐RNAi, combined with the overexpression of Brassica napus fatty acid elongase (BnFAE), Limnanthes douglasii LPAT (LdLPAT), and RNAi of endogenous fatty acid desaturase 2 (CaFAD2‐RNAi). Oil composition analysis on the tranformants' seeds showed that (a) with CaFAD2‐RNAi, PUFA content could be dramatically decreased, in comparison with BnFAE + LdLPAT + CaFAD2‐RNAi, and BnFAE + LdLPAT + CaFAD2‐RNAi + CaLPAT2‐RNAi seeds showed lower linolenic acid content; (b) BnFAE + LdLPAT + CaFAD2‐RNAi + CaLPAT2‐RNAi could increase the erucic acid content in crambe seed oil from less than 66.6% to 71.6%, whereas the highest erucic acid content of BnFAE + LdLPAT + CaFAD2‐RNAi was 79.2%; (c) although the four‐gene combination could not increase the erucic acid content of seed oil to a higher level than the others, it led to increased carbon resource deposited into C22:1 and C18:1 moieties and lower PUFA. Summarily, the present research indicates that suppression of LPAT2 is a new, promising strategy for seed‐oil biosynthesis pathway engineering, which would increase the value of crambe oil.

Crambe ( Crambe abyssinica Hochst) is a Brassicaceae crop with high potential for biofuel production without conflict with food industry and with similar energy performance to fossil fuels, but there is almost no information on soil conditions affecting crop grain and oil production. We studied the spatial correlation between soil porous space, soil resistance to penetration, and bulk density of a clayey Oxisol (Ferralsol) with crambe grain yield and oil content. Four states of compaction were generated by using a roller compactor, in a 1-ha field, and 133 georeferenced sampling points were selected. In two consecutive years, these positions were used for soil physical characterization, and crambe harvesting for grain yield and oil content determinations. Soil resistance to penetration, bulk density, and pore space properties showed spatial dependence structure over time in three soil layers. After two years of crambe cultivation, soil bulk density and soil resistance to penetration values increased, and soil porosity decreased in all soil layers, showing that crambe root system was not able to improve soil physical composition properties. Soil bulk density up to 1.3 Mg m −3 reduced grain yield and increased oil content of crambe. Increased soil bulk density and resistance to penetration, caused by additional soil compaction, changes crambe source/sink relationship, resulting in lower crambe grain yield, but in grains with higher oil content.

Oil hydrolysis is an important industrial process that requires high temperatures and pressure, or expensive enzymatic catalysts; it is, therefore, necessary to seek the use of inexpensive raw materials and process enhancement. In this work, a rapid and eco-friendly method, using ultrasound power, was successfully employed to hydrolyze crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst.) oil using lipase enzymes directly from castor (Ricinus communis L.) seeds, in oil-free and fresh forms. A yield of 86 % conversion of triglycerides into free fatty acids (FFA) was achieved in 5 min using castor fresh seeds and 73 % of conversion when performing the reaction with oil-free seeds. The operational conditions of ultrasound power, mass ratio of buffer solution and oil, catalyst, and total substrate were evaluated using a central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The hydrolysis yield was optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The optimum conditions were approximately 70 % of ultrasound power (350 W), 1.79 buffer solution/oil mass ratio, and 0.25 catalyst/substrate mass ratio for fresh seeds. For the oil-free seeds, the optimal conditions found were 68 % (340 W) of ultrasound power, 1.67 buffer solution/oil mass ratio, and 0.06 catalyst/substrate mass ratio. Mathematical modeling was applied to the experimental kinetic data, and it was possible to predict FFA concentration values from independent experiments.