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Until the end of the nineties last century personality disorders could not be diagnosed before the age of eighteen. Nevertheless, the results of studies published in the last decade have revealed that personality disorders can be observed in children and adolescents and that personality disorders diagnosed in adult patients had been present as early as in childhood. The knowledge of possible mechanisms shaping personality disorders in childhood is unsatisfactory and needs to be expanded. Developmental psychology explains the development of abnormal personality through inappropriate attachment patterns and abnormal transitions between developmental phases. Genetic and temperamental factors are also important in the aetiology of personality disorders as well as early maladaptive schemas resulting from personal experiences and interactions with others. The aim of this article is to review the current knowledge on the mechanisms shaping the development of personality and personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

First applications of computer-assisted technologies (CAT) in the rehabilitation of cognitive deficits, including child and adolescent psychiatric disorders date back to the 80's last century. Recent developments in computer technologies, wide access to the Internet and vast expansion of electronic devices resulted in dynamic increase in therapeutic software as well as supporting devices. The aim of computer assisted technologies is the improvement in the comfort and quality of life as well as the rehabilitation of impaired functions. The goal of the article is the presentation of most common computer-assisted technologies used in the therapy of children and adolescents with cognitive deficits as well as the literature review of their effectiveness including the challenges and limitations in regard to the implementation of such interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim. The aim of the study was to find relationship between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and level and characteristic of physical activity among patients with anorexia nervosa (AN). Material and methods. 76 female patients, aged 14.8 +/ - 1.8 years with AN completed the Polish version of the Leyton Obsessional Inventory-Child Version (LOI-CV). In order to assess the level and type of physical activity, Physical Activity Questionnaire was developed. Results. 35 (46%) subjects were qualified to HR group (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder "High-risk group") (25 or more points on the Interference Score of LOI-CV) and 41 (54%) to nHR group (no "High-risk group"). nHR patients spent less studying in a standing position, significantly more often used elevators rather than stairs and, according to their parents, devote less time for physical activity. Positive correlation between the caregiver's perception of patient's weekly activity and the number of "YES" answers in LOI-CV, positive trend between Patient's Activity Index or summarised Activity Index and the number of "YES" answers in LOI-CV were found. We also found negative correlation between the time spent studying at school and the number of "YES" answers in LOI-CV. Conclusions. The results show that there is a connection between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and the hyperactivity in AN patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Adult personality disorders are well recognized and described in the literature. The discussion about the possibility of the presence of personality disorders in adolescents started about 20 years ago. Some authors claim the before the age of 18 it is only possible to identify precursors of future personality disorders and such a standpoint is reflected in diagnostic criteria. This is based on the assumption that personality in adolescence is still not well established. Consequently, the criterion on the persistence of symptoms for the period of time cannot be met (the persistence of symptoms of personality disorders for the period of at least two years). Other approach postulates that problems presented in adolescence should not be exclusively limited to Axis I according to DSM. The proponents of this approach claim that current diagnostic tools are not adjusted to adolescents, thus it is very difficult to measure stability and persistence of symptoms in this age group. This paper presents literature review on personality disorders in adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To evaluate anxiety level (as a trait and as a state) and the intensity of depressive symptoms in mothers of children with hyperkinetic disorder (HD) and with and without comorbid conduct disorder (CD); to determine the relationship between the intensity of anxiety and depression and intensity of symptoms of HD. Materials and methods: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and STAI questionnaire to measure state-trait anxiety were filled by 24 mothers of children with HD and 26 mothers of children without HD. Mothers of children with HD were also asked to complete the Conners Questionnaire for Parents and Teachers (IOWA). Teachers were asked to complete the Conners Questionnaire for Teachers (RCTS). Results: 75% of HD subjects had a comorbid CD, in comparison with 19.2 % in the control group. No significant differences were found between the mothers of children with HD and the control group in the results of BDI scale and STAI questionnaire in anxiety state and anxiety trait subscales. The difference was found between mothers of children with CD and without CD in anxiety-state subscale in STAI questionnaire. No correlations were found between the number of depressive symptoms, anxiety as a state and as a trait and the results of Conners IOWA and RCTS. Conclusions: The presence of HD in children does not correlate with the level of depression and anxiety in their mothers. There is a relationship between the presence of CD in children and elevated levels of state anxiety in their mothers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: to assess the prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or OC symptoms in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and to find a possible relationship between the presence of OC symptoms and the course of AN. Method: 137 adolescent female patients with AN, aged 14,8 +/- 1,8 years, completed the Polish version of the LOI-CV. Two groups, High-risk (HR) and no High-risk (nHR), were defined according to the cut-off score of LOI-CV. The diagnosis of OCD was confirmed with the Polish version of K-SADS-PL. The relationship between the number and intensity of OC symptoms and the following data were analyzed: age of onset and on admittance to a psychiatric facility, weight loss, BMI on admittance and its changes, age of first menstruation, time of amenorrhea and of restitution of menses, length of treatment and number of relapses. Results: OCD was not diagnosed in any subject, but 25% of the examined patients had OC symptoms which qualified them to High-risk group. Differences in HR and nHR groups were found between duration of AN before hospitalization, age and body mass after release from hospital. Negative correlation was found between "Yes" Score and Interference Score in LOI-CV and the age of patient at the time of release from hospital. Conclusions: the results of our study do not support the observations about a high cooccurrence of AN and OCD, but indicate the frequent co-occurrence of OK symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction and objective: The aim of the research was to test the functioning of patients with ADHD at young adult follow up in comparison with control group. All 180 subjects (mean age 17.3 years) received long-term interventions. Methods: Out of 180 subjects, 101 were included in the research. All subjects were-assessed for ADHD. Both groups were asked to complete a set of questionnaires. The same procedure was applied to control group. Results: 63% of subjects still met the criteria for ADHD. The reliability of diagnosis was 88%.ADHD was more prevalent in families with lower SES. No relationship was found between ODD/CD and the intensity of the decrease of symptoms of ADHD. The majority of patients received combined interventions. The quality of pharmacological interventions was not very different from international guidelines. No relationship was found between the presence of ADHD, subtype and degree of symptoms intensity at second assessment and functioning. Patients with ADHD reported significant impairment in school functioning. The prevalence of ADHD in parents was significantly greater than in general population. Subject reported more problems on CBCL and YSR scales related with mood and anxiety disorders and ADHD. A relationship was found between psychostimulant mediation and lower intensity of problems on YSR and CBCL scales. Discussion/conclusion: The results point at significant improvement of functioning of patients with ADHD. School functioning is most affected by symptoms of ADHD. The type of pharmacological interventions is related with functioning of patients with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: to assess the prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or OC symptoms in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and to find a possible relationship between the presence of OC symptoms and the course of AN., Method: 137 adolescent female patients with AN, aged 14.8 +/- 1.8 years, completed the Polish version of the LOI-CV. Two groups, High-risk (HR) and no High-risk (nHR), were defined according to the cut-off score of LOI-CV. The diagnosis of OCD was confirmed with the Polish version of K-SADS-PL. The relationship between the number and intensity of OC symptoms and the following data were analyzed: age of onset and on admittance to a psychiatric facility, weight loss, BMI on admittance and its changes, age of first menstruation, time of amenorrhea and of restitution of menses, length of treatment and number of relapses., Results: OCD was not diagnosed in any subject, but 25% of the examined patients had OC symptoms which qualified them to High-risk group. Differences in HR and nHR groups were found between duration of AN before hospitalization, age and body mass after release from hospital. Negative correlation was found between "Yes" Score and Interference Score in LOI-CV and the age of patient at the time of release from hospital., Conclusions: the results of our study do not support the observations about a high co-occurrence of AN and OCD, but indicate the frequent co-occurrence of OK symptoms.

The main focus of research on consequences of HIV infection is on adult population and not much attention is given to children, especially to children with perinatally acquired HIV. Researches have shown higher frequency of mental disorders in this group. HIV infection also has a negative impact on cognitive functions, especially attention concentration. Among the possible causes of mental disorders and cognitive impairment, attention is not only paid to the neurotoxic effects of HIV on the CNS, but also on other factors, such as awareness of chronic disease, the impact of opportunistic infections and side effects of antiviral therapy. Comorbid psychiatric disorders correlate with worse compliance and higher prevalence of risk behaviors among infected adolescents. This article reviews what is known about psychiatric disorders and cognitive disorders among perinatal HIV-infected children.

Aim: To compare the self concept of boys with ADHD and health subjects; to determine which symptoms ofADHD, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) have the greatest impact on self-concept., Method: Polish version of The Harter Self-Esteem Questionnaire (HSEQ) was filled by boys with ADHD and control group. In addition, a diagnosis of ODD and CD was made in ADHD group., Results: A significant difference was observed between boys with ADHD and control group on the following scales of HSEQ: Global Self-Esteem Subscale, Social Acceptance Subscale and Scholastic Performance Subscale. No significant influence of the quantity and intensity of ADHD and ODD symptoms on self-esteem was found. A significant correlation was indicated between all scales of HSEQ and quantity and intensity of symptoms ofADHD., Conclusions: Boys with ADHD have lower self-esteem than their healthy peers and their global self-esteem, social acceptance and school skills are most affected. The presence of conduct disorder (CD) had the greatest impact on the decrease of self esteem in ADHD group.

There is constant interest in possible relations between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa (AN). The comorbidity rate for OCD and AN is reported to be between 10% and even 40%. There is also an increased incidence of prior AN in OCD patients and high number of anorectic patients with obsessional premorbid personality. Similarities between AN and OCD lie in the symptoms of the disorders: intrusive, fearful thoughts, a compulsive need to perform rituals aimed at reducing the level of anxiety and obsessions maintaining these rituals. In case of AN, these behaviours revolve around food and thinness, whereas in OCD they are of more general and differential in type. Research on AN-OCD relations provides interesting insights, but also presents some limitations. The purpose of this review is to analyse and discuss the specificity of relations between symptoms of AN and OCD.

Multiple functional imaging techniques help to a better understanding of the neurobiological basis of autism-spectrum disorders (ASD). The early functional imaging studies on ASD focused on task-specific methods related to core symptom domains and explored patterns of activation in response to face processing, theory of mind tasks, language processing and executive function tasks. On the other hand, fMRI research in ASD focused on the development of functional connectivity methods and has provided evidence of alterations in cortical connectivity in ASD and establish autism as a disorder of under-connectivity among the brain regions participating in cortical networks. This atypical functional connectivity in ASD results in inefficiency and poor integration of processing in network connections to achieve task performance. The goal of this review is to summarise the actual neuroimaging functional data and examine their implication for understanding of the neurobiology of ASD.

Although the aetiology of autistic-spectrum disorder (ASD) remains unclear, great advances have been made to clarify the underlying neuroanatomical abnormalities and brain-behaviour relationships in autism. There is variability in the literature on structural neuroimaging findings in ASD. Early brain overgrowth is probably the most replicated finding in this subgroup. Additionally some specific brain regions are particularly implicated, including the frontal, limbic, basal ganglia and cerebellar regions. There is also evidence of volume abnormalities in both grey and white matter. New techniques, such as cortical-thickness measurements, surface morphometry and diffusion tensor imaging help to understand in more detail the patterns of abnormalities. More work is required, involving the use of large and homogeneous samples, to investigate the neuroanatomical determinants and their role in aetiology of ASD. The goal of this review is to summarise the available structural neuroimaging data and examine their implication for understanding of the neurobiology of ASD.

Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PPD) refers to the group of disorders characterised by delayed or inappropriate development of multiple basic functions including socialisation, communication, behaviour and cognitive functioning. The term,,autistic spectrum disorders" was established as a result of the magnitude of the intensity of symptoms and their proportions observed in all types of pervasive developmental disorders. Asperger's Syndrome (AS) remains the most controversial diagnosis in terms of its place within autism spectrum disorders. AS if often described as an equivalent of High Functioning Autism (HFA) or as a separate spectrum-related disorder with unique diagnostic criteria. Another important issue is the relationship between AS and speech disorders. Although it is relatively easy to draw a line between children with classical autism and speech disorders, the clear cut frontiers between them still remain to be found. The main distinguishing feature is the lack of stereotypic interests and unimpaired social interaction observed in children with speech disorders, such as semantic-pragmatic disorder.

Repetitive and stereotyped behaviours in the form of stereotyped interests or specific routine activities are one ofthe diagnostic criteria in pervasive developmental disorders. The occurrence of repetitive behaviours in patients with pervasive developmental disorders is a starting point for questions about the type and classification criteria of such behaviours. The aim of the article is to present case studies of patients with pervasive developmental disorders and co-morbid symptoms in the form of routine activities, tics, obsessive-compulsive symptoms or stereotyped behaviours. The first case study describes a patient with Asperger's syndrome and obsessive compulsive symptoms. The diagnostic problems regarding complex motor tics are discussed in the second case study which describes a patient with Asperger's syndrome and Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. The third and fourth case study describes mono-zygotic twins with so called High Functioning Autism whose repetitive activities point to either obsessive compulsive symptoms, stereotypic movements, need for absolute consistency or echopraxia. The possible comorbidity of pervasive developmental disorders and symptoms in the form of repetitive behaviours, possible interactions as well as diagnostic challenges is discussed in the article.

Aim: Combined biological and psychological basis of anorexia nervosa, related to increased self-control, low self-esteem and peculiar motivation, makes a synthetic approach still hard to achieve. The presented study assessed cognitive functions in anorectic patients with respect to both neuropsychological (test of attention) and biological (electrophysiology of information processing) approaches, and their reciprocal interrelations as well., Methods: Eleven adolescent anorectic females and 10 control subjects performed the Continuous Attention Test CAT. Parameters of potentials elicited by the visual CAT items were referred to the CAT results., Results: The anorectic girls were more accurate during CAT performance, revealing a lower index of errors, especially of commissions. On the other hand, they revealed a lower amplitude of the P2 component (correlated with index of commissions) and shortened latency of the frontal N2 component (correlated with a lower index of errors). The groups differed in relations between psychometric and biological parameters referring to the earlier stages of information processing. In the control group, high index of detections was correlated to right-sided P1 and P2 components. In the patient group, correlations linked a lowered index of commissions with right-sided N1 and bilateral P2 amplitudes., Conclusions: Increased self-control in anorexia nervosa, reflected by lower frequency of needless reactions, is related to alterations in biological visual information processing yet on its early, preconscious stage.

Aim: To critically review the past years of research on paediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections in children and adolescents., Method: Literature on PANDAS published from 1995 onward was systematically reviewed. The review focuses on definition and diagnostic consideration aetiological and therapeutical issues. To illustrate the clinical characteristic of PANDAS authors present two cases of children with a severe course of obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette's syndrome., Results: Post-streptococcal autoimmunity has been postulated as an aetiologic factor in the development of childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder, tic disorders including Tourette's disorder. This hypothesis arose from a series of clinical observations including the documentation of obsessive-compulsive symptoms of children affected by Sydenham's chorea, a variant of rheumatic fever characterised by neurological dysfunction and also by concomitant investigations of childhood-onset OCD and Tourette's syndrome., Conclusion: Results of these studies led to the identification of children whose clinical course is characterised by abrupt and dramatic symptom exacerbations which are temporally related to group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infections. The identification of such a subgroup will allow for testing of the model of pathogenesis as well as development of novel treatment and prevention strategies. Future research are needed to explore the nature of PANDAS and their relationship with different psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents.

The psychiatric and psychological literature was systematically reviewed for studies applying psychotherapeutic principles to young persons with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Abundant clinical and empirical evidence suggest that cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy, alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy, is an effective treatment for OCD in children and adolescents. Thirty-two investigations, most of them single case reports, showed some benefit for such kind of interventions. Graded exposure and response prevention form the core of treatment; anxiety management training and specific family interventions may play an adjunctive role.

This paper presents opinions about obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Washing, checking, repeating, touching, counting and scrupulosity are the most commonly seen rituals. Almost all patients reported a change in their principal symptom over time. There appear to be no significant intercultural differences in phenomenology. Childhood OCD seems to be associated with depression, eating disorders and anxiety disorders (in several cases the secondary diagnosis was mild), whereas there seems to be no convincing relation between OCD and schizophrenia. Follow-up studies of the course of OCD with a childhood onset are still very few in number. OCD is disabling disorder with bad prognosis for one third to one half of the patients. The behavior therapy is an effective treatment for childhood-onset OCD, while numerous systematic investigations have demonstrated the efficacy of clomipramine treatment. Fluoxetine and other drugs which inhibit serotonin reuptake also may be helpful.

Psychogenic seizures or psychogenic nonepileptic seizures occur in various mental disorders. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms can also imitate epileptic partial seizures, but detailed observations of this phenomenon are rare in the literature. A girl of 13 years was referred to the Department of Child Psychiatry because of sudden falls that had occurred during a 1-year period, mainly at school. She had been diagnosed previously as having epilepsy or conversion seizures. After a fall, she demonstrated no response for periods up to 10 minutes, postictal somnolence had occasionally been observed. From the age of 10 years, the patient was reported to have had intrusive recurrent thoughts about dirt and contamination and had also demonstrated some signs of separation anxiety disorder. She was diagnosed as having obsessive-compulsive disorder with poor insight. The chronic falling disappeared completely when behavioral therapy was begun, but the girl still exhibits obsession and separation anxiety.

The literature on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents is reviewed. The disorder is characterized by obsessions (recurrent troublesome thoughts) and compulsions (ritualized thoughts or behaviors performed repetitively in response to an irresistible urge). OCD is far more common among children and adolescents than was previously believed. Good epidemiological studies from different parts of the world are still needed to determine if prevalence is equally high. Boys seem to have an earlier age of onset of OCD than girls. Male female ratio changed with age of onset, with males predominating in early onset and increasing numbers of females occurring during adolescence. Increasing evidence supports a neurobiological theory for etiology of OCD, specifically a frontal lobe--basal ganglia dysfunction.