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The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical utility of appetite sensations to characterize individual overall energy intake. A group of men (n 28) and women (n 23) was recruited to record their ‘desire to eat’, ‘hunger’, ‘fullness’ and ‘prospective food consumption’ (PFC) on visual analogue scales before a standardized meal test, immediately after and every 10 min for a period of 1 h after the meal. The 1 h post-meal area under the curve (1 h AUC) and the satiety quotient (SQ) were calculated for all appetite sensations. In a second visit, all participants were invited to eat three meals in order to measure total energy intake (TEI) and food preferences. Metabolic rate (MR) was also assessed to derive daily relative energy intake (REI) by subtracting this variable from TEI (TEI−MR=REI). The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire scores were also calculated for all participants. One h AUC for fullness was the appetite sensation most strongly associated with TEI and REI (r−0·42, P≤0·003 and r−0·32, P≤0·05, respectively). SQ for fullness was the only predictor of TEI and REI (r−0·42, P≤0·0003 and r−0·30, P≤0·05, respectively). Restraint, disinhibition and hunger scores were not associated with appetite sensation variables. These results suggest that the fullness dimension seems to be a useful appetite sensation to predict long-term TEI and REI. Thus, assessment of appetite sensation such as fullness in response to a fixed load may be useful to evaluate individual overall energy intake.

Many food components can influence satiety or energy intake. Combined together, these food components could represent an interesting dietary strategy in the prevention and treatment of obesity. The aims of this study were: 1) to determine the effect of a functional food in the form of a healthy meal course on subsequent energy intake and satiety; 2) to verify if it is possible to maintain palatability while preserving the satiating effects of the test meal. Thirteen subjects were invited to eat two lunch sessions: healthy and control meal courses (2090 kJ/meal). Anthropometric and ad libitum food intake measurements, and visual analogue scales (VAS) were performed during the two lunch sessions. The healthy main course acutely decreased energy intake during the rest of the meal ( − 744 kJ, P ≤ 0·0001) and lipid ( − 6 %, P ≤ 0·0001) compared with the control meal. VAS ratings during the course of the testing showed a meal effect for hunger, desire to eat and prospective food consumption (P ≤ 0·05) and a time effect for all appetite sensations (P ≤ 0·0001). VAS scores on hunger ratings were lower for the healthy meal (P ≤ 0·05), whereas fullness ratings were higher shortly after the healthy main course (P ≤ 0·05). The healthy meal produced a slightly higher palatability rating but this effect was not statistically significant. These results suggest that it is possible to design a healthy meal that decreases spontaneous energy intake and hunger without compromising palatability.

Some individuals report weak appetite sensations and thus, have higher susceptibility to overeating. The aim of this study was (1) to evaluate the reliability of the satiety quotient (SQ), a marker of satiety efficiency; (2) to characterize the biopsychobehavioural profiles of individual presenting low satiety efficiency, i.e. the low satiety phenotype and (3) to document the impact of a weight loss program on these profiles. Sixty-nine obese men (BMI 33.6±3.0 kg/m², age 41.5±5.7 years) participated in a 16-week, non-restrictive weight loss intervention. Visual analog scales for appetite sensations in response to a test-meal were completed twice at baseline. Blood samples were collected before and during one test-meal. Questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention. The mean SQ showed good reliability (ICC=0.67). Baseline SQ scores tended to be negatively correlated with external hunger, anxiety and night eating symptoms (p<0.10). Moreover, the low satiety phenotype showed a lower cortisol response to the test-meal (p<0.05). The SQ seems to be a reliable marker of weaker appetite sensation responses. Stress/anxiety could be involved in the low satiety phenotype but did not influence the biopsychobehavioural changes in response to the intervention.

The impact of ingesting various foods on psychological and behavioural functions is a topic of both interest and concern to the general public. In this article, the scientific literature concerning demonstrated cause-and-effect relationships is reviewed, beginning with methodological considerations specific to the quantification of particular behaviours and psychological events. The essential function of food is to satisfy hunger and the need for essential nutrients. The contributions of macronutrients to appetite and satiety are described, as well as their impact on metabolism and energy balance. Functional properties of macronutrient substitutes (high intensity sweeteners, fat replacers) and flavour enhancers are examined in relation to their contribution to hunger, satiety, and energy balance. The effects of foods and individual nutrients on the performance of diverse psychomotor tasks are studied with consideration given to the various validated quantitative tools used to assess behaviour. The effects of food components on activation, sedation, and affective states such as dysphoria are also reviewed, with special attention given to brain function and neuroactive substances such as serotonin and the endorphins. The case of hyperactivity in children is given special emphasis with reference to the potential influence of sugar and food additives. Safety issues related to food constituents and additives are discussed. Finally, a set of criteria is proposed for the evaluation and elaboration of studies in the behavioural and psychological fields, along with suggestions for future research

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: A decline in resting energy expenditure (SEE) beyond that predicted from changes in body composition has been noted following dietary-induced weight loss. However, it is unknown whether a compensatory downregulation in REE also accompanies exercise (EX)-induced weight loss, or whether this adaptive metabolic response influences energy intake (El). SUBJECTS/METHODS: Thirty overweight and obese women (body mass index (BMI) =30.6 +/- 3.6 kg/m(2)) completed 12 weeks of supervised aerobic EX. Body composition, metabolism, El and metabolic-related hormones were measured at baseline, week 6 and post intervention. The metabolic adaptation (MA), that is, difference between predicted and measured SEE was also calculated post intervention (MA(post)), with SEE predicted using a regression equation generated in an independent sample of 66 overweight and obese women (BMI =31.0 +/- 3.9 kg/m(2)). RESULTS: Although mean predicted and measured SEE did not differ post intervention, 43% of participants experienced a greater-than-expected decline in SEE ( 102.9 +/- 77.5 kcal per day). MA(post) was associated with the change in leptin (r= 0.47; P=0.04), and the change in resting fat (r= 0.52; P=0.01) and carbohydrate oxidation (r= 0.44;P= 0.02). Furthermore, MApost was also associated with the change in El following EX (r= 0.44; P=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Marked variability existed in the adaptive metabolic response to EX. Importantly, those who experienced a downregulation in SEE also experienced an upregulation in El, indicating that the adaptive metabolic response to EX influences both physiological and behavioural components of energy balance.

Some individuals report weak appetite sensations and thus, have higher susceptibility to overeating. The aim of this study was (1) to evaluate the reliability of the satiety quotient (SQ), a marker of satiety effi- ciency; (2) to characterize the biopsychobehavioural profiles of individual presenting low satiety effi- ciency, i.e. the low satiety phenotype and (3) to document the impact of a weight loss program on these profiles. Sixty-nine obese men (BMI 33.6 ± 3.0 kg/m2, age 41.5 ± 5.7 years) participated in a 16- week, non-restrictive weight loss intervention. Visual analog scales for appetite sensations in response to a test-meal were completed twice at baseline. Blood samples were collected before and during one test-meal. Questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention. The mean SQ showed good reliability (ICC = 0.67). Baseline SQ scores tended to be negatively correlated with external hunger, anxiety and night eating symptoms (p < 0.10). Moreover, the low satiety phenotype showed a lower cortisol response to the test-meal (p < 0.05). The SQ seems to be a reliable marker of weaker appetite sensation responses. Stress/anxiety could be involved in the low satiety phenotype but did not influence the biopsychobehavioural changes in response to the intervention.

Key Points: - New observations show westward propagating salinity anomalies in S.Atlantic AAIW - They are the dominant form of variability on subdecadal timescales in a model - They have a speed close to the speed of second baroclinic mode Rossby waves Variability of Antarctic Intermediate Water salinity in the South Atlantic is investigated on interannual and intradecadal timescales. Novel observations of slow, westward propagating salinity anomalies in Argo data are presented. The features have no corresponding signal in temperature and are anomalous in density. Analysis of 40 years of model output supports the existence of these westward propagating salinity anomalies and indicates that they are typical occurrences in time. The features are intensified in a latitude band around 30°S associated with the propagation of Agulhas rings. However, the features are much larger than Agulhas rings and occur on decadal timescales in the model. They propagate westward with speeds of 2.3 cm/s in observations, and 1.7 cm/s in model data. They are more consistent with planetary waves than with the advection of large-scale salinity anomalies. The observation of these features has implications for the interpretation of salinity anomalies, such as the linking of hydrological cycle changes to salinity changes.

The aim of this paper is to describe and discuss relevant aspects of the assessment of physiological functions - and related biomarkers - implicated in the regulation of appetite in humans. A short introduction provides the background and the present state of biomarker research as related to satiety and appetite. The main focus of the paper is on the gastrointestinal tract and its functions and biomarkers related to appetite for which sufficient data are available in human studies. The first section describes how gastric emptying, stomach distension and gut motility influence appetite; the second part describes how selected gastrointestinal peptides are involved in the control of satiety and appetite (ghrelin, cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide, peptide tyrosin-tyrosin) and can be used as potential biomarkers. For both sections, methodological aspects (adequacy, accuracy and limitation of the methods) are described. The last section focuses on new developments in techniques and methods for the assessment of physiological targets involved in appetite regulation (including brain imaging, interesting new experimental approaches, targets and markers). The conclusion estimates the relevance of selected biomarkers as representative markers of appetite regulation, in view of the current state of the art.

The magnitude of exercise-induced weight loss depends on the extent of compensatory responses. An increase in energy intake is likely to result from changes in the appetite control system toward an orexigenic environment; however, few studies have measured how exercise impacts on both orexigenic and anorexigenic peptides.

Physiological control of feeding is mediated by tonic and episodic signalling systems. These are sometimes thought of as long-term and short-term control. Tonic signals arise from tissue stores whereas episodic signals oscillate periodically with the consumption of food. These physiological controls are paralleled in the motivation to eat by long-acting enduring traits (such as disinhibition) and by short-acting states (such as hunger). Peptides are usually envisaged to exert an action on appetite control through the modulation of states such as hunger and satiety (fullness). Here we provide evidence that peptides involved in tonic regulation--such as leptin--may express a control over appetite motivation through an effect on traits that confer a constant readiness to eat, whereas episodic peptides such as GLP-1 influence appetite motivation through a state such as hunger. The distinction between tonic and episodic regulation, and between traits and states has implications for understanding overconsumption and the susceptibility to weight gain.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical utility of appetite sensations to characterize individual overall energy intake. A group of men (n 28) and women (n 23) was recruited to record their ‘desire to eat’, ‘hunger’, ‘fullness’ and ‘prospective food consumption’ (PFC) on visual analogue scales before a standardized meal test, immediately after and every 10 min for a period of 1 h after the meal. The 1 h post-meal area under the curve (1 h AUC) and the satiety quotient (SQ) were calculated for all appetite sensations. In a second visit, all participants were invited to eat three meals in order to measure total energy intake (TEI) and food preferences. Metabolic rate (MR) was also assessed to derive daily relative energy intake (REI) by subtracting this variable from TEI (TEI−MR=REI). The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire scores were also calculated for all participants. One h AUC for fullness was the appetite sensation most strongly associated with TEI and REI (r−0·42, P≤0·003 and r−0·32, P≤0·05, respectively). SQ for fullness was the only predictor of TEI and REI (r−0·42, P≤0·0003 and r−0·30, P≤0·05, respectively). Restraint, disinhibition and hunger scores were not associated with appetite sensation variables. These results suggest that the fullness dimension seems to be a useful appetite sensation to predict long-term TEI and REI. Thus, assessment of appetite sensation such as fullness in response to a fixed load may be useful to evaluate individual overall energy intake.

Many food components can influence satiety or energy intake. Combined together, these food components could represent an interesting dietary strategy in the prevention and treatment of obesity. The aims of this study were: 1) to determine the effect of a functional food in the form of a healthy meal course on subsequent energy intake and satiety; 2) to verify if it is possible to maintain palatability while preserving the satiating effects of the test meal. Thirteen subjects were invited to eat two lunch sessions: healthy and control meal courses (2090 kJ/meal). Anthropometric and ad libitum food intake measurements, and visual analogue scales (VAS) were performed during the two lunch sessions. The healthy main course acutely decreased energy intake during the rest of the meal ( − 744 kJ, P ≤ 0·0001) and lipid ( − 6 %, P ≤ 0·0001) compared with the control meal. VAS ratings during the course of the testing showed a meal effect for hunger, desire to eat and prospective food consumption (P ≤ 0·05) and a time effect for all appetite sensations (P ≤ 0·0001). VAS scores on hunger ratings were lower for the healthy meal (P ≤ 0·05), whereas fullness ratings were higher shortly after the healthy main course (P ≤ 0·05). The healthy meal produced a slightly higher palatability rating but this effect was not statistically significant. These results suggest that it is possible to design a healthy meal that decreases spontaneous energy intake and hunger without compromising palatability.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to further evaluate the validity and clinical meaningfulness of appetite sensations to predict overall energy intake as well as body weight loss. METHODS: Men (n=176) and women (n=139) involved in six weight loss studies were selected to participate in this study. Visual analogue scales were used to measure appetite sensations before and after a fixed test meal. Fasting appetite sensations, 1 h post-prandial area under the curve (AUC) and the satiety quotient (SQ) were used as predictors of energy intake and body weight loss. Two separate measures of energy intake were used: a buffet style ad libitum test lunch and a three-day self-report dietary record. RESULTS: One-hour post-prandial AUC for all appetite sensations represented the strongest predictors of ad libitum test lunch energy intake (p⩽0.001). These associations were more consistent and pronounced for women than men. Only SQ for fullness was associated with ad libitum test lunch energy intake in women. Similar but weaker relationships were found between appetite sensations and the 3-day self-reported energy intake. Weight loss was associated with changes in appetite sensations (p⩽0.01) and the best predictors of body weight loss were fasting desire to eat; hunger; and PFC (p⩽0.01). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that appetite sensations are relatively useful predictors of spontaneous energy intake, free-living total energy intake and body weight loss. They also confirm that SQ for fullness predicts energy intake, at least in women.

A midlatitude coupled ocean-atmosphere model is used to investigate interactions between the atmosphere and the wind-driven ocean circulation. This model uses idealized geometry, yet rich and complicated dynamic flow regimes arise in the ocean due to the