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Since 2009, CIRAD (French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development) has been developing an ambitious LCA platform for analysing the life cycle of tropical agricultural products, involving a team of around 15 LCA practitioners, calculation tools and pooled databases. Implementing LCA in Mediterranean and tropical contexts raises specific challenges. In particular, data scarcity on foreground agricultural systems and the lack of LCI data sets for background processes in those contexts require significant resources to collect large amounts of LCI data on-site. Where primary data are not available, proxies must be found and adapted. Hence large data sets need to be compiled, changes tracked and experiences shared. Creating high-quality shareable data sets based on high-quality data was the main ambition for the new LCA platform right from the start. To this end, data sets must be created with the greatest care and transparency, especially when they are implemented in a pooled database, where providers of data sets and potential users may be distinct. The best way to ensure that data sets can be properly reused is to develop an integrated quality management system (QMS) at practitioner level, based on common procedures for data collection, data and metadata implementation in LCA software and nomenclature for data set review processes. The LCA-CIRAD team started to develop its QMS in 2012. The QMS is managed by a database engineer in charge of standardising and pooling the resources of the platform. The QMS is based on four activities:1) LCA data quality management: corpus of procedures on data set quality (compulsory acceptance) and training for practitioners.2) Data & tool management: mirroring of calculation tools, remote access to the platform, versioning control.3) Intellectual Property management: licence development, specific training in database property rights, intellectual property policy and licensing.4) Practitioner skill management: technical support, in-service training in advanced features of tools. Since it has been deployed, the LCA-CIRAD QMS has followed an on-going improvement cycle, with regular feedback from practitioners, leading to regular updates of procedures. The implementation of QMS guidelines by permanent LCA scientists, interns and PhD students at CIRAD has markedly improved the quality of LCI metadata, data set transparency and reuse of LCA projects. (Texte intégral)

Industrial tree crop plantations often enter in direct competition for land with forests. In those cases, the net result on climate is detrimental. In other cases, the possibility for tree crops to fulfil the objectives of CSA deserves a deeper investigation. This study analyses the case of natural rubber production in Thailand. The natural rubber (NR) commodity chain presents two promising features to reach CSA objectives. First, family farms represent the majority of surface areas under rubber plantations. These production systems may contribute to local sustainable development and food security. Second, NR is a natural competitor of synthetic rubber (SR) made from crude oil. Substituting SR by NR may hence allow for reductions in GHG emissions from fossil sources. We developed a multi-disciplinary research project with these two features as a backbone. The goal was to improve the productivity and the sustainability of rubber smallholdings, while making sure that their NR output would suit for SR substitution particularly in terms of consistency. Results showed a high diversity of farm structures and agricultural practices in rubber smallholdings. The diversification of farm activities, of income source and latex harvesting methods appeared to be important adjustment variables to cope with uncertainties linked to price fluctuations and natural hazards. The impact of clone, latex harvesting and post-harvesting practices on the physico-chemical properties of NR was assessed. Results also showed how rubber plantations could improve the soil ecosystem services and particularly the soil carbon content when rubber trees were planted on lands previously used for intensive annual crops. The next step of the research project is to integrate these results into a multi-criteria analysis, such as Life Cycle Assessment, in order to design and assess adaptation strategies of the NR supply chains to global changes. This project was conducted under the umbrella of the Hevea Research Platform in Partnership (HRPP) and with the financial support of the Thai International Cooperation and development Agency (TICA). (Texte intégral)

L'analyse de cycle de vie est l'une des méthodologies d'évaluation environnementale les plus complètes. Elle permet d'évaluer les impacts environnementaux des activités anthropiques tout au long d'une filière. Sa mise en oeuvre soulève de nombreuses questions scientifiques. Dans le cas des système de culture tropicaux, les chercheurs travaillent sur la compréhension et la modélisation des émissions vers f environnement en fonction de la diversité des milieux et des systèmes. Ils travaillent également sur les liens entre ces émissions et les impacts. Les analyses de cycle de vie des systèmes de cultures révèlent que l'impact sur le changement climatique varie en fonction des cultures, des milieux et des pratiques. L'analyse de cycle de vie permet d'orienter les modes de production pour diminuer leurs impacts environnementaux. Mais les choix ne sont pas toujours évidents.

Quantifying the environmental impact of production systems has become a milestone for agricultural commodity chains. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a unique ISO standardized methodology for estimating the environmental impact of human activities along a commodity chain. In the last decade, LCA has become the worldwide standard for environmental product declarations and the baseline model behind various GHG calculators and certifications (e.g. EC, 2009; RSPO PalmGHG). Various LCA on palm oil products have shown that the agricultural stage is a major contributor to most of the potential environmental impacts, including global warming, eutrophication and acidification for instance (Yusoff and Hansen 2005; Schmidt 2007; Chuchuoy et al. 2009; Choo et al. 2011). This large contribution is due to combined important nitrogen (N) input levels in the field and low input levels at the mill and refinery stages. The agricultural stage remains a critical contributor even when the system boundary is extended to palm-based biofuel production (Pleanjai et al. 2009; Achten et al. 2010; Papong et al. 2010; Arvidsson et al. 2011). Focusing on global warming impact, main contributors are N-related GHG emissions in the plantation and methane emissions from palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment. The impact from the plantation becomes overwhelming when forests or peatland areas are converted to palm plantations (Wicke et al. 2008; Reijnders and Huijbregts 2008; Schmidt 2010). Meanwhile, impact from POME can be drastically reduced if the biogas is captured with electricity recovery. While N-inputs are critical, LCA models still mostly rely on global emission factors (IPCC, 2006). A better modelling of the N balance including a better accounting for soil processes would allow for a more accurate diagnosis of environmental impacts and control levers in plantation management. (Texte intégral)

International audience; Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a product-oriented method to assess the environmental impacts of a product while accounting for its whole life cycle, "from the cradle to the grave". It is standardised by international norms (ISO, 2006). It was first mostly used for eco-conception in industrial productions, but has been widely spread in the agricultural sector in the last twenty years. By its holistic nature, LCA is a unique method to assess several environmental impacts while avoiding pollution trade-offs between production stages or impact categories. The most renowned impact categories are climate change or energy use, but several other impact categories can also be assessed such as eutrophication or human toxicity. With the growing awareness of the risks associated with climate change and the need to protect the environment, the design of eco-friendly production modes has become critical. Throughout the world, initiatives from both the private and public sectors promote the development of sustainable supply chains including the development of communication tools using LCA indicators. In France, a law was recently promulgated (Grenelle 1, 2009) that makes the eco-labelling based on LCA compulsory for a wide range of products such as food and pet food, automobile, clothes, electronics etc. Application of LCA to agricultural products or bio-sourced materials is not straightforward due to the variability in agricultural production systems. This variability is particularly important in the Tropics, where both pedo-climatic and socio-cultural conditions greatly vary. To account for the influence of these conditions on the field emissions and the final impacts within LCA, methodological developments are being carried out by the scientific community. Researchers at CIRAD especially focus on how to better account for tropical specificities and perennial crops within LCA (Bessou et al., 2012). They work together with several partners in France (www.elsa-lca.org) and abroad, and CIRAD is notably member of the LCA AgriFood ASIA Network (http://lca-agrifood-asia.org). Undoubtedly, there is a good opportunity for the actors in the rubber supply chain to benefit from the researches at CIRAD and the dynamism of the LCA AgriFood ASIA Network. Environmental impacts of rubber products will necessarily need to be assessed in a short to medium term, for instance because of buyers requests, and LCA has become the most commonly used method in order to compare products. As a perennial crop, not used for food products, it is crucial to assess the assets and drawbacks of rubber production in order to define best management practices and supply chain strategies to limit environmental impacts.

International audience; The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association that was created in 2003 and legally registered in 2004. It promotes the production and consumption of sustainable palm oil through a voluntary certification scheme. This certification scheme was developed by the stakeholders of the seven sectors involved in the palm oil commodity chain: growers, processors/traders, social NGOs, environmental NGOs, manufacturers, retailers, and banks. It relies, for the growers, on the compliance with the principles and criteria (P&Cs) of sustainability that were defined by consensus in 2007. These 39 P&Cs cover 8 dimensions: 1) Commitment to transparency [2 criteria], 2) Compliance with applicable laws and regulations [3 criteria], 3) Commitment to long-term economic and financial viability [1 criterion], 4) Use of appropriate best practices by growers and millers [8 criteria], 5) Environmental responsibility and conservation of natural resources and biodiversity [6 criteria], 6) Responsible consideration for employees and for individuals and communities affected by growers and mills [11 criteria], 7) Responsible development of new plantings [7 criteria], and 8) Commitment to continuous improvement [1 criterion]. The certified unit is the mill with its supply base. For out-growers supplying the certified mill, such as smallholders, a three-year delay is given to account for their difficulties in implementing the P&Cs. Other stakeholders involved in the supply chain must also fulfill specific requirements to allow for the complete chain certification. According to the supply chain certification systems, the final product may be labeled with the "Certified Sustainable Palm Oil" (CSPO) logo in the case of "Identity Preserved" or "Segregation". Alternatively, CSPO may be used to show support to the production of RSPO-certified palm oil without physical traceability of the produced amounts in the cases of "Mass Balance" and "Book and Claim" schemes. Nowadays, palm oil is the most used vegetable oil worldwide, representing more than 30% of total produced vegetable oils (Omont, 2010). With its 570 ordinary members, including 98 growers and 207 processors and traders, RSPO assembles 40% of worldwide palm oil producers and 20% of buyers. Despite a rapid increase in its production in the last 3 years, RSPO-certified palm oil (CSPO + CSPKO) represents today between 10 and 15% of global production (USDA, 2011 and RSPO, 2011) with only 50% uptake by the market. RSPO is directed by an executive board (EB) of 16 seats convening the diverse stakeholders. The EB plays a major role in organizing the annual general assembly, the highest RSPO authority, approving certification bodies and supervising member groups such as the taskforce on national interpretation of the P&Cs and the taskforce on revising the P&Cs, which must be done every 5 years. The executive board has also commissioned a working group on greenhouse gas (GHG WG) with the aim of identifying ways leading to meaningful and verifiable reduction of GHG emissions. Two successive science-based GHG WG have been active between 2009-2011, focusing on the review and development of methodological approaches and data that are accurate and relevant for diverse palm oil production systems. Such robust data and approaches underpin the outcomes of the GHG WG. Activities during the last two years were i) to organise a common harmonized framework for GHG accounting, ii) to develop a plan for moving forward via voluntary action, iii) to coordinate work with the group on peat land, and iv) to identify opportunities to reduce GHG from land use change. At the end of its mandate (November 2011), the GHG WG provided the EB with recommendations regarding the consideration of greenhouse gases within P&Cs to be considered by the taskforce revising the P&Cs. These recommendations include the use of a tool such as PalmGHG (or equivalent) to calculate the greenhouse gas balances of oil palm products. PalmGHG was developed by the workstream 1 of the GHG WG. It is an excel spreadsheet using the life cycle assessment approach and based on a previous tool by Chase & Henson (2010). The greenhouse gas balances are calculated for one mill and its supply base, as for the certification scheme. It allows for the calculation of greenhouse gas balances for diverse products such as crude palm oil or palm biodiesel (according to 2009/28/EC), and for scenario testing. It must be still peer-reviewed and upgraded to a user-friendly software. Other recommendations of the GHG WG refer e.g. to the characteristics that should be met by new plantations in order to ensure low GHG emissions.

International audience; The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable palm oil through a voluntary certi-fication scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) have been active in RSPO between 2009-2011, with the aim of identifying ways leading to meaningful and verifiable reduction of GHG emissions. One of the outputs is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the LCA approach to quantify the major sources of emission and sequestration for a mill and its supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies. Results gave an average of 1.03 t CO2e/t crude palm oil, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46 t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and area under peat were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, notably to amend default values and upgrade it to a user-friendly software.

International audience; The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable palm oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) were active in RSPO from 2009 to 2011, with the aim of identifying ways of achieving meaningful and verifiable reductions of GHG emissions. One of the outputs of the second group is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the life cycle assessment ap-proach to quantify major sources of emissions and sequestration for individual palm oil mills and their supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 with nine RSPO member companies that gave an average of 1.67 t CO2e/t crude palm oil (CPO), with a range of -0.02 to +8.32t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the area of peat soil used were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG continue to be made in order to make the tool more flexible and comprehensive, to refine default values, and to render it more user-friendly.

International audience; Agricultural landscapes are primarily designed by farming practices. Farmers chosse their farming practices in a balance between strengths and constaints, from local and wider scale as well as from biophysical and human context, following different land use strategies. These different strategies shape the landscapes and drive land use changes with consequent impacts onto the environment (e.g., on biodiversity conservation, soil erosion, water quality). In the last decades, land cover and land use changes have occurred in tropical areas : many tropical landscapes have shifted from forest to agriculture. Large areas are now used for agriculture. This is the case for oil palm plantations that have been increasingly developed to answer the global fat demand. In Indonesia, oil palm plantations are conducted through different farming practices eventually resulting into a wide range of environmental impacts. Understanding and modeling the divers of the diversity of oil palm farming practices and their associated spatial location within the landscape is then crucial to assess oil palm environmental future impacts and to find possible ways to foster its sustainable development (Verburg et al., 2004). The aim of this communication is then to present an analyses of the diversity oil palm agricultural practices and their portential drivers as a first step to propose oil palm possible futures. The case study is in Sumatera, Indonesia. We carried out interviews in two study sites different in terms of agricultural development : one being mostly developed with industrial plantations and one being developed with traditional smallholdings. We then performed multivariate analysis to explore the diversity of oil palm agricultural practices among oil palm smallholder's growers. This presentation will contribue to the wider understanding of land use managers' decision making processes as a way to better assess possible land use futures. This case study will also provide a methodological example that combine stakeholders' in-depth interviews and biophysical maps to model the processes involved in agricultural land uses allocation and their possible changes, which can then help fostering transitions towards more sustainable production.

Le maintien de la fertilité du sol, facteur principal d'une agriculture durable, dépend en partie du maintien de la biodiversité (Brussaard et al., 2007). Les plantations forestières sont soit décriées, soit vantées pour leur impacts environnementaux, sans pour autant que les arguments invoqués par les promoteurs ou les détracteurs ne soient solidement étayés par des travaux scientifiques (Epron et al., 2011). Mieux définir les impacts de l'agriculture sur les services écosystémiques du sol est particulièrement crucial dans les zones tropicales où les cultures pérennes sont en rapide expansion au détriment possible de zones écologiquement fragiles et pauvres. C'est le cas du développement de l'hévéaculture dans le Nord-est de la Thaïlande. Dans cette zone peu propice, les plantations villageoises se multiplient avec des pratiques plus ou moins adaptées au contexte défavorable (six mois de saison sèche, sols très sableux...). L'objectif de cette étude était d'identifier sur le terrain la variabilité des pratiques culturales et de mesurer leurs impacts sur le fonctionnement de l'écosystème. Malgré son importance l'effet du précédent cultural a été noyé lors de la création de la typologie, une même classe pouvant présentée des précédents culturaux diverses. Ce facteur fera l'objet d'une étude ultérieure afin d'analyser les changements à long terme et de distinguer les impacts directs des pratiques et des impacts indirects à l'échelle des changements d'usage des sols (Figure 1). Cette étude a recensé sur le terrain les pratiques culturales de 159 hévéaculteurs dans la province de Khon Kaen. Une typologie de ces pratiques a été ensuite établie à l'aide d'une classification ascendante hiérarchique. Cette typologie présente 3 classes avec différents niveaux d'intensité de pratiques notamment liée à un gradient en intrants (pesticides, niveau de fertilisation) et en travail du sol. Les 8 plantations parangons de chaque classe ont été échantillonnées sur les caractéristiques physico-chimiques du sol, l'écophysiologie des arbres, la diversité macrofaunique de la litière et la dégradation de la litière. La diversité macro-faunique de la litière ne semble pas être impactée par l'intensité de pratiques agronomiques, en revanche l'activité lombricienne (mesurée par la présence de turricules au sol) diminue fortement dans les plantations où les pratiques sont intensives. Les taux de matière organique, liée à la gestion de la plantation sur le long terme, sont plus importants dans les plantations extensives. On n'observe pas de différence dans le développement de l'arbre dans les différentes pratiques. D'après Lavelle et al. (2014), la macrofaune constitue un des meilleurs bioindicateurs de l'impact des pratiques culturales. Néanmoins, dans notre étude la macrofaune de la litière ne s'est pas avérée très sensible aux pratiques et indique qu'il serait certainement nécessaire d'étudier également la macrofaune du sol. Des travaux complémentaires devraient compléter ces résultats préliminaires. Les verres de terres endogés et épigés ne répondent pas de la même façon au changement d'utilisation des sols et à l'intensification des pratiques (Ponge et al. 2013) une étude plus poussée des ces populations serait également à envisager. L'absence de différence dans le développement (circonférence) de l'arbre peut être due à un début de saignée plus avancé dans le cas des pratiques intensives ; le ralentissement de croissance induit pouvant gommer les différences entre pratiques intensives et extensives. Afin de poursuivre cette étude d'évaluation environnementale, un projet de thèse a été soumis dans le but de compléter ces travaux et de les mettre à profit pour développer des indicateurs de biodiversité fonctionnelle des plantations de pérennes adaptés à la méthode de l'analyse de cycle de vie.

International audience; In Sumatra Island, in Indonesia, rubber plantations are a long tradition of familiy farming. The successes of oil palm smallholders involved in partnerships with companies ('plasma smallholders') worked as an incentive for the develoment of independent smallholders' plantations, most often replacing smallholders' old rubber agroforests and plantations. In Feintrenie et al. (2010) oil palm independent smallholders' plantations are expected to produce higher return to labour than rubber plantations, and more or less equivalent return to land depending on the respective prices of these two commodities. However, this result relies on assumptions on the yields of oil palm plantations that were generally too young to be productive at the time when the research was carried out. Is the reality at the level of expectations ? Are oil palm independent smallholders' plantations more profitable than rubber ones ? This paper challenges this assertion, and proposes an updated comparison between oil palm and rubber independent smallholders' plantations. We carried out interviews with independent oil palm smallholders in Jambi provinces in 2013. The Livelihoods of these regions relies mainly on low inputs rubber farming systems. Since 2000, several farmers have replaced rubber agroforests and plantations with oil palm plantations. We collected data on oil palm and rubber agricultural practices and calculated their respective profitability. We then compared oil palm plantations and rubber plantations net returns to smallholders depending on tow production factors : planting materials quality and fertilizers application quantity. Independent smallholders do not benefit from partnerships scheme advantages such as the provision of inputs and technical advices, but rather rely on themselves to access to necessary oil palm inputs. Our study showed that most of the fully independent farmers who tried oil palm have a poor access to selected seedlings and fertilizers. This lack of inputs quality impacts greatly fresh fruit bunches (FFB) production and thus reduces oil palm net returns for independent smallholders compared with plasma smallholders. In these agronomical conditions the production of oil palm FFB is not economically competitive with natural rubber production. Thus, in a context of low inputs farming systems, oil palm plantations can be less profitable than rubber plantations and cannot sustain farmers' livelihoods.

Lors du Grenelle de l'environnement, l'accent a été porté dans le secteur agricole sur l'agro-écologie et la nécessité d'orienter les modes de consommation vers des produits respectueux de l'environnement. Ainsi, depuis juin 2011, une nouvelle certification volontaire a été mise en place par décret : l'agriculture à haute valeur environnementale (HVE). Cette certification a pour objectif d'harmoniser les démarches agro-environnementales existantes et repose sur un système semi-quantitatif d'évaluation des pratiques. C'est une démarche en trois niveaux d'engagements, où seul le niveau le plus exigeant autorise l'apposition du logo HVE sur les produits. En parallèle, depuis le 1 er juillet 2011, une expérimentation nationale sur l'affichage environnemental des produits de grande consommation a été lancée avec plusieurs dizaines d'entreprises et autant de projets d'affichage environnemental. L'analyse de cycle de vie (ACV) est la méthode préconisée dans ce cadre. L'objectif est d'utiliser les données d'inventaire d'ACV afin de produire des indicateurs pour l'affichage environnemental des produits agricoles. L'HVE, centrée sur les pratiques au niveau de l'exploitation agricole, et l'ACV, qui se concentre sur les impacts des filières, reposent sur deux approches bien distinctes d'analyse d'impacts environnementaux. Les informations apportées par chaque méthode peuvent s'avérer complémentaires dans le cadre de l'affichage environnemental. Cependant, les conditions pour le développement de l'ACV semblent plus favorables, étant donné que l'ACV est obligatoire tandis que l'HVE est volontaire. Ces démarches restent en construction avec encore de nombreuses interrogations méthodologiques qui pointent la difficulté à trouver un compromis entre efficacité pour la communication et rigueur scientifique.

Lors du Grenelle de l_environnement, l_accent a été porté dans le secteur agricole sur l_agro-écologie et la nécessité d_orienter les modes de consommation vers des produits respectueux de l_environnement. Ainsi, depuis juin 2011, une nouvelle certification volontaire a été mise en place par décret : l_agriculture à haute valeur environnementale (HVE). Cette certification a pour objectif d_harmoniser les démarches agro-environnementales existantes et repose sur un système semi-quantitatif d_évaluation des pratiques. C_est une démarche en trois niveaux d_engagements, où seul le niveau le plus exigeant autorise l_apposition du logo HVE sur les produits. En parallèle, depuis le 1 er juillet 2011, une expérimentation nationale sur l_affichage environnemental des produits de grande consommation a été lancée avec plusieurs dizaines d_entreprises et autant de projets d_affichage environnemental. L_analyse de cycle de vie (ACV) est la méthode préconisée dans ce cadre. L_objectif est d_utiliser les données d_inventaire d_ACV afin de produire des indicateurs pour l_affichage environnemental des produits agricoles. L_HVE, centrée sur les pratiques au niveau de l_exploitation agricole, et l_ACV, qui se concentre sur les impacts des filières, reposent sur deux approches bien distinctes d_analyse d_impacts environnementaux. Les informations apportées par chaque méthode peuvent s_avérer complémentaires dans le cadre de l_affichage environnemental. Cependant, les conditions pour le développement de l_ACV semblent plus favorables, étant donné que l_ACV est obligatoire tandis que l_HVE est volontaire. Ces démarches restent en construction avec encore de nombreuses interrogations méthodologiques qui pointent la difficulté à trouver un compromis entre efficacité pour la communication et rigueur scientifique. Within the frame of the French Grenelle for the environment, in the agricultural sector, the need to orient consumers toward environmental-friendly products was emphasised. In June 2011, a new certification was hence promulgated by decree: the agriculture of high environmental value (HEV). This certification aims at harmonising all agri-environmental initiatives and is based on a semi-quantitative system for the environmental impact assessment of agricultural practices. This certification consists of three levels of commitment, with only the highest level being recognised by a logo on products. At the same time, a national experimentation phase was launched (July 2011) on eco-labelling involving dozens of companies with their own labelling projects on consuming goods. Life-cycle analysis (LCA) is the recommended method within the national methodological framework for eco-labelling. It is a holistic method that quantifies environmental impacts along the product life-cycle. The certification HEV and LCA are based on very different approaches of impact assessment, which can be complementary. However, the two approaches are also likely to compete with one another in terms of visibility, implementation and potential economic added-value. LCA-based eco-labelling is becoming mandatory, whereas the HEV certification is voluntary. Development of LCA-based eco-labelling is thus more likely to develop. Both approaches remain under development and numerous methodological questions are still open. More generally, eco-labelling also raises questions on the difficulty to find a good compromise between scientific reliability and efficient communication.

International audience; During the last two decades, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been increasingly used in the agri-food sector with a shift from focused applications in industrial eco-design to a broader range of products. In France, publications of LCA studies on agricultural feedstock started in the late 90s focusing on bioenergy production. With environmental assessment close to become a prerequisite in most sectors, the number of LCA practitioners in France has rapidly increased with a diversification of actors, such as researchers, consultants or governmental agencies. Research actors in LCA work in research institutes such as INRA1, CIRAD2 or IRSTEA3. The collaboration platform ELSA4, created in 2008, brings together numerous actors from these institutes in Montpellier as well as researchers form the universities Supagro and Les Mines of Alès. It is currently the biggest French team on LCA of agro-bioprocesses. Experts on industrial eco-design, agricultural and social sciences work together on several projects that aim to both provide expertise and develop knowledge on LCA. Activities within ELSA also consist in disseminate scientific knowledge on LCA or industrial ecology through Ph.D. thesis supervision, educational and vocational training. Lately, scientists within the team have been working specifically on four scientific challenges: 1) modeling the complex agro-bioprocesses, 2) dealing with uncertainty in LCA, 3) building causal chains related to specific environmental or social impacts, and 4) refining life cycle inventories (LCIs). Further information on ELSA and possible collaboration ways can be found under www.elsa-lca.org. Researchers from CIRAD actively contribute to activities within ELSA. They are particularly involved in researches dealing with tropical crops. Specific challenges in the tropics concern notably methodological developments and data collection to better account for very diverse cropping systems such as perennials or agro-forestry cropping systems.

Since 2009, ADEME, the French Environment and Energy Management Agency, has been working on implementing a recent French law from the Environmental Grenelle aiming to introduce environmental labeling of consumer products (Van der Werf et al., 2011). The objective of this environmental communication in France is to cover all the mass market products, encompassing 16 product categories, such as "Food and pet feed", "Finance service" or "Music instruments", which will be studied by specific working groups. The selected approach for the production of such environmental labeling is Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040 and 14044). Other required key points for all product categories are 1) environmental indicators are the same within a product category and their numbers must be limited, 2) carbon footprint is required for all products whatever the category, 3) the communication format has to harmonized in order to facilitate comparison, and 4) ADEME has to develop a public database in order to simplify the assessments (Cros et al., 2010). Pilot projects for several categories have been launched since 2010 with the aim to provide a common methodological framework. Within the frame of the Food and pet feed group, it was decided to create a public life cycle inventory (LCI) database of French agricultural raw products. This database, named Agri-BALYSE, is being developed by a consortium consisting of ten institutes for applied agricultural research and three agricultural research institutes specialized in the environmental analysis of farming systems. The database will apply a consistent methodology for the establishment of LCIs of plant and animal products at farm gate, following ISO norms and ILCD handbook (Van der Werf et al., 2011). The data basis will consist of 25 crop products declined in 70 LCIs, 3 LCIs for tropical products and 18 animal products with 48 declinations. A collection guide was established that defines the requirements for agricultural management data and states the rules for goal and scope definition and data documentation. The data collection tool allows for the conversion of the LCIs into Ecospold format. The LCI data should enable the calculation of the indicators identified for environmental labeling, but also of other indicators frequently used in LCA. By the end of the project, around June 2013, LCIs for the most representative production systems and production modes of the main French crop and animal products will be delivered based on consensual methods developed in the project (Van der Werf et al., 2011).

The agricultural sector is facing a huge increase in consumption patterns and food needs. This growth is likely to worsen the pressures on the local and global environments. The CIRAD, within the frame of the ADEME project called Agri-BALYSE, is in charge of assessing the environmental impacts of palm oil. The chosen methodology is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Today, Indonesia is the first world producer of palm oil. The Riau Province in Sumatra is one of the most dynamic regions in terms of palm oil production, and has therefore been chosen for our case study. The data inventory was carried out with the assistance of SMARTRI, the research center of PT-SMART. In the study area, diverse types of palm oil producers were identified and characterised in order to produce the relevant LCA for the diverse cropping systems. Data were collected in the field for the company and diverse types of smallholders, i.e. plasma, and independent smallholders with or without advices from the company on the agricultural management. We used SIMAPRO® to build up the LCAs and compare the environmental impacts of the different types of palm oil producers in Sumatra. We present here the preliminary results of the study. The functional unit was one metric ton of crude palm oil (CPO). The hierarchy of impacting cropping systems varied with the type of producers. Globally the Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) yields were lower per hectare for the independent smallholders and impacts per metric ton of CPO were larger. Despite the management advices that some independent smallholders received, their yields were still lower than those of the company probably due to non-selected plant materials. Further field data collection is still needed however, i) to survey more smallholders and insure the representativeness of modelled cropping systems, and ii) to gather more data on differential agricultural managements, notably on very diverse organic fertilizers used by smallholders.

The last decade has seen life cycle assessment (LCA) stand out as methodological reference for the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of a product or a production system. Although already widely used in economic and policies circles (eco-design, corporate social responsibility, eco-labelling), the methodological LCA framework is always a subject of extensive study for the scientific community. This article describes a number of research issues for this community and how the French research team Elsa address them., La dernière décennie a vu l’analyse du cycle de vie (ACV) s’imposer comme cadre méthodologique de référence pour l’évaluation quantitative des impacts environnementaux d’un produit ou d’un système de production. Bien que déjà largement utilisés dans les sphères économiques (éco-conception, responsabilité sociale des entreprises) et politiques (éco-étiquetages), le cadre méthodologique et les outils de l’ACV sont toujours un vaste objet d’étude pour la communauté scientifique. Cet article décrit un grand nombre de fronts de sciences de cette communauté et la manière dont le pôle de recherche français Elsa les aborde.

Novelty: A multi-scale approach using agro-ecosystem and landscape models is developed to calculate the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), especially N2O, related to crop and landscape management. This approach is used to improve the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of second generation biofuels. Context: 20% of fuel have to be produced from renewable origin in 2020, and meet a 50% decrease of GHG emission compared to fossil fuel (RED Directive, 2009/28/CE). Besides, agriculture represents 10 to 15% of GHG emissions in France and especially 65% of N2O emissions which have a huge global warming potential (310 times higher than CO2, according to IPCC 2007). Therefore, it is essential to carefully develop, evaluate and use relevant methods to assess the environmental balance of lignocellulosic crops (2nd generation biofuels). Even if they all demonstrate a net reduction in GHG emissions, LCA of 2nd generation biofuels do not present any common methodology (Cherubini and Stromman, 2011). Main differences during the crop cycle are due to the generic factors used to calculate GHG emissions and the lack of consideration for land use change. A multi-scale approach is required to fulfill a complete LCA. Indeed, GHG emissions are strongly bound with local pedo-climatic conditions and technological options (especially N application rates). This approach is used to estimate direct GHG emissions, downstream indirect GHG emissions and emissions due to land use change. Scope: The LCA is carried out for a lignocellulosic bio-ethanol industrial unit, located in France, supplied by a mixture of feedstocks: annual and dedicated crops (triticale and fiber sorghum), perennial crops (miscanthus and switchgrass), forest and crop residues (straw) and possibly short rotation coppice (SRC). The study focuses mainly on a supply area around the industrial unit located in the Champagne-Ardenne region. However, we aim at developing generic methods. Material and methods: The agro-ecosystem model CERES-EGC (Gabrielle et al., 2006) is used to simulate GHG emissions at plot scale (i.e., a few hectares). This model calculates direct emissions in relation to local soil and climate conditions. Downstream indirect emissions are simulated from the NitroScape model (Duretz et al. 2011), that accounts for hydrological and atmospheric transfers of reactive nitrogen between landscape elements (e.g., plots, farm buildings). That model works at a scale of typically a small watershed or a few (20-30) square kilometers and make it possible to estimate uncertainties made when considering only direct emissions. The CERES-EGC model will be possibly used at regional scale and combined with prospective scenarios of land use change from conventianl crops towards lignocellulosic crops. Results and discussion: The methodological approach for assessing LCA is currently under development. Primary results are expected for the end of 2011 (November). They should present LCA simulated at farm gate for a mixture of feedstock and integrated at plot and regional scales. Conclusion: This method is useful to reduce uncertainties in estimates of GHG emission, one of the steps that have important impact in biofuel LCA. Moreover it will be applied in the French project FUTUROL to assess the sustainability of a project of bio-ethanol production plant.

The cultivation of oil palm has become emblematic of the trade-off between development and conservation that agricultural commodities have to face: matching an increasing global demand while preserving the capacity of land to provide ecosystems services, and preserving natural forests. Towards the aim of providing solutions to such controversial issues, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was created in 2004 as a business-to-business initiative bringing together NGOs and private stakeholders under a voluntary certification scheme. The forces and weaknesses of RSPO are related to its business-to-business origin and intrinsic nature. Principles and criteria were designed to provide a shared framework for stakeholders who are willing to voluntarily commit themselves towards a sustainable palm oil production but not as a detailed methodology and control points to actually assess the impacts. The RSPO principles and criteria thus need to be revisited and associated with complementary diagnosis steps integrating the broad diversity of oil palm-based cropping systems and the constraints these systems have to face. Our strategy is: . To provide science-based knowledge and tools to ensure the sustainability of production systems or to implement new sustainable systems . To involve stakeholders in the innovation process through multi-agent modeling or workshops . To identify obstacles and bottlenecks and analyze whether they are related to some inherent incapacity of oil palm cropping systems to adapt or/and to insufficient efforts in making knowledge and tools accessible to end-users The generation of multidisciplinary research networks which are able to deliver science-based products of direct interest for end-users is now of paramount importance.

PalmGHG has been developed by the RSPO Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Working Group 2. It is a spreadsheet that quantifies the major sources of emissions and sequestration for a palm oil mill and its supply base, including estates and outgrowers, and is compatible with standard international GHG accounting methodologies. The calculator is flexible, allowing for different crop rotation lengths and alternatives to the default values. It calculates the total net emissions per ha, allocates these to co-products, and expresses them as t CO2e/t palm product, e.g. crude palm oil (CPO). The calculations can be done on an annual basis: this allows for identification of principal emission sources for management purposes; regular reporting, internally to the company and externally to the supply chain; and monitoring. A pilot study has been carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies, to determine its ease of use, and suitability of PalmGHG as a management tool. Results from eight mills gave an average of 1.03t CO2e/t CPO, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the percentage of the area under peat were the main causes of the variation. PalmGHG readily allows manipulation of input data to test management interventions. Results of scenario testing are given for a set of dummy data. The results show that high emissions result from clearing logged forest or peat, and conversely that very low (negative) emissions result from clearing low biomass land such as grassland. Net emissions below 0.5t CO2e/t CPO can be obtained from a mature industry that is replanting palms and capturing methane and generating electricity from the biogas. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, to amend default values and include calculations for biodiesel and other co-products. The updated calculator will then be tested through peer review, and completed by simplifying procedures for data entry, and providing documentation. (Texte intégral)

International audience; In the light of near future compulsory LCA based eco-labelling in France, the LCA literature on major tropical food imports was reviewed. About 70 studies covering five food product categories were considered. Observations were similar across these categories of fruits and vegetables, rice, stimulant beverages, vegetable oils and animal products: most assessments are either partial (often one or two impact categories), or lack a comprehensive description of the methodology and data used. In addition to this scarcity of comprehensive LCA studies, methodological weaknesses are generally observed, especially regarding the failure to consider farming systems diversity, the lack of specific methods and data for their inventory (especially field emissions), the absence of crucial environmental indicators for tropical systems such as biodiversity and water use. The state of the art of tropical food product LCAs is too immature to enable a fair assessment of these products in an eco-labelling program. Specific methodological issues and key challenges for research arising from this review are discussed. (Résumé d'auteur)

This Ph.D. work was supported by ADEME: French Environment and Energy Management Agency, and the Picardie region. Diplôme : Dr. d'Université; Les biocarburants sont produits à partir de biomasse qui peut être renouvelée à des échelles de temps beaucoup plus courtes que les carburants fossiles; ils sont ainsi une source secondaire d’énergie renouvelable. Parmi les énergies renouvelables, l’accent politique a notamment été porté sur l’utilisation des biocarburants dans les transports car ce domaine constitue l’une des sources majeures croissantes de gaz à effet de serre à l’échelle mondiale. Comparés aux carburants fossiles, les biocarburants émettent moins de gaz à effet de serre, à condition que les économies de CO2 grâce à la fixation photosynthétique des plantes ne soient pas enrayées par les émissions de gaz à effet de serre tout au long du cycle de vie du carburant. Une Analyse de Cycle de Vie (ACV) est donc nécessaire pour comptabiliser l’ensemble des émissions depuis la production jusqu’à la combustion du biocarburant. Cependant les facteurs d’émissions utilisés dans les ACVs ne permettent d’obtenir que des estimations moyennes des émissions ne prenant en compte aucune spécificité locale. Il est pourtant crucial d’estimer avec plus de précision les émissions agricoles et notamment celles de N2O. En effet ce gaz a un pouvoir de réchauffement 298 fois supérieur à celui du CO2 et l’agriculture est la principale source de N2O anthropique. Notre compréhension du déterminisme de ces émissions au champ reste cependant limitée, notamment concernant les impacts du changement de structure du sol sur ces émissions. Dans un premier temps, notre objectif fut d’approfondir notre connaissance des effets du tassement du sol sur la dynamique des émissions de N2O et de mieux caractériser ces effets en combinant expérimentation au champ et modélisation. À l’aide de chambres automatiques en Picardie sur des parcelles tassées et non tassées de betterave, nous avons mesuré en 2007-2008 des émissions cumulées de 944-977 g N-N2O ha-1 en non tassé et de 1,448- 1,382 g N-N2O ha-1 en tassé. Les émissions plus importantes dans les parcelles tassées furent liées en grande partie à des conditions anoxiques propices à la dénitrification. Ces émissions ne varièrent que peu d’une année sur l’autre malgré des doses d’engrais azoté très différentes (100 et 150 kg N ha-1). Nous avons modifié le modèle d’émissions de N2O (NOE Hénault et al., 2005) grâce à des données publiées pour mieux simuler la nitrification et tenir compte des variations des fractions de N2O sur les produits totaux de la dénitrification et de la nitrification en fonction des teneurs en eau et nitrates du sol. D’autre part le modèle modifié (NOE2) permit de simuler l’influence des facteurs locaux pedo climatiques et la distribution de l’engrais selon une discrétisation fine dans le profil vertical du sol (1 cm). Malgré une amélioration par rapport à NOE dans la prédiction du taux de nitrification et des flux après l’apport d’engrais, NOE2 sous-estima les émissions totales. La sévère sous-estimation des pics d’émission en été a illustré que les cycles sec-humides du sol peuvent entraîner de fortes émissions dont le déterminisme doit encore être élucidé et modélisé. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons alors utilisé un modèle d’agro-écosystème (CERES-EGC) couplé à NOE2 pour produire les données d’inventaire locales pour nos ACV comparées d’éthanol de betterave et de Miscanthus. Les ACVs indiquent que l’éthanol de Miscanthus produit en Picardie entraîne potentiellement beaucoup moins d’impacts sur l’environnement comparé à celui de betterave. Comparés à l’essence, l’éthanol de Miscanthus permettrait une réduction de gaz à effet de serre de 82-85% par MJ, celui de betterave une réduction de 28-42% par MJ. Ce dernier éventail de réduction illustre combien les résultats de l’ACV s’avérèrent sensibles aux variations des facteurs de production locaux. Ce fut aussi déterminant pour les catégories d’impact acidification ou eutrophication, auxquelles les émissions au champ contribuent pour une grande part. L’identification de systèmes de production optimum nécessite de trouver les facteurs de production locaux aboutissant au difficile compromis entre de forts rendements à l’hectare et des faibles impacts environnementaux. Une analyse qualitative des impacts sur le sol en tant que ressource devrait compléter ces ACVs locales pour servir d’outil d’aide à la décision. Enfin, de plus amples modifications du modèle CERES sont nécessaires pour mieux simuler la production de Miscanthus et mieux reproduire les multiples aspects des diverses pratiques culturales.

International audience

Oil palm cultivation has drastically increased in the last decades and has become a key crop to meet the global vegetable oil demand, while raising environmental issues linked to deforestation, fertiliser or pesticide uses. Guidelines on best practices have been developed to limit these environmental impacts. However, there is little evidence on the field reality of concrete declination of these general guidelines and on the room for improvement of practices in light of the local diversity of oil palm systems. This study aimed to investigate in the field the actual practices in two contrasted areas in Indonesia, the first global palm oil producer. We carried out field surveys in Riau and Jambi provinces and collected data on annual applications of two synthetic mineral fertilisers, two herbicides and yields. We characterised the cropping systems of 88 smallholders’ and 45 industrial plantation units including potential practice drivers. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses showed contrasted practices across growers. Fertiliser rates were variable across all grower types, while pesticide rates especially distinguished between industrial and smallholders’ practices. Practices and performances were particularly variable amongst smallholders, and significantly different in Jambi compared to Riau. This study highlighted the great diversity of practices and potential environmental impacts. It stresses the need for a more systematic accounting of the local specificities of the cropping systems and their rationales in order to promote more adapted and efficient best practices recommendations.

Oil palm cultivation has drastically increased in the last decades and has become a key crop to meet the global vegetable oil demand, while raising environmental issues linked to deforestation, fertiliser or pesticide uses. Guidelines on best practices have been developed to limit these environmental impacts. However, there is little evidence on the field reality of concrete declination of these general guidelines and on the room for improvement of practices in light of the local diversity of oil palm systems. This study aimed to investigate in the field the actual practices in two contrasted areas in Indonesia, the first global palm oil producer. We carried out field surveys in Riau and Jambi provinces and collected data on annual applications of two synthetic mineral fertilisers, two herbicides and yields. We characterised the cropping systems of 88 smallholders’ and 45 industrial plantation units including potential practice drivers. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses showed contrasted practices across growers. Fertiliser rates were variable across all grower types, while pesticide rates especially distinguished between industrial and smallholders’ practices. Practices and performances were particularly variable amongst smallholders, and significantly different in Jambi compared to Riau. This study highlighted the great diversity of practices and potential environmental impacts. It stresses the need for a more systematic accounting of the local specificities of the cropping systems and their rationales in order to promote more adapted and efficient best practices recommendations.

International audience; Palm oil is nowadays the first vegetable oil consumed worldwide. Given the world population growth and the increasing demand in fat for food and fuel, the increase in oil palm production is expected to continue. It is thus important to find ways of reducing the ecological impact of oil palm plantations at both the agroecosystem and the mill supply area levels, by improving agricultural practices and land uses. This is where agroecology can play a very critical role. The present article gathers short stories on agroecological practices currently taking place in oil palm plantations in South-East Asia. Such stories notably highlight the importance of the various palm co-products and how appropriate recycling strategies can allow for reducing external inputs to both the field and the mill. Besides limiting environmental impacts thanks to such savings, several co-products used as organic amendments can even help to maintain or enhance soil quality. Other stories explored agroecological practices developed for biological controls. Although integrated pest management has been applied in palm plantations for a long time, the underlying mechanisms are still not fully deciphered and practices still need to be improved. More knowledge is needed in order to better account for the holistic role of biodiversity and arbitrate trade-offs between practices and ecosystem services, at both plantation and landscape levels.; L'huile de palme est aujourd'hui la première huile végétale consommée au monde. Étant donné la croissance démographique mondiale et la demande accrue en corps gras pour l'alimentation et les biocarburants, l'augmentation de la production d'huile de palme devrait perdurer. Il est ainsi primordial de trouver des moyens de production permettant de réduire l'impact écologique des plantations de palmier à huile, à la fois à l'échelle de l'agroécosystème et celle du bassin d'approvisionnement de l'huilerie, en améliorant les pratiques et la gestion des usages des sols. Les principes de l'agroécologie peuvent aider à développer des solutions à ces diverses échelles. Cet article rassemble diverses histoires courtes illustrant des pratiques agroécologiques mises en place dans des plantations de palmier à huile en Asie du Sud-Est. Ces illustrations mettent en évidence l'importance des nombreux co-produits issus du palmier et leur rôle clé dans les stratégies de recyclage pour réduire le recours aux intrants externes pour la plantation comme pour l'huilerie. Au-delà de la réduction des impacts environnementaux du fait de ces économies d'intrants, certains co-produits restitués en plantation peuvent également permettre de maintenir, voire d'améliorer, la qualité des sols. D'autres histoires courtes parcourent quelques autres pratiques agroécologiques dans le domaine de la lutte intégrée. Bien que de nombreuses pratiques de contrôle biologique soient mises en œuvre dans des plantations de palmier à huile depuis de nombreuses années, les mécanismes sous-jacents ont été encore peu explorés et les pratiques peuvent être améliorées. De nouvelles connaissances sont nécessaires pour mieux caractériser et prendre en compte de manière holistique les enjeux et le rôle de la biodiversité et pouvoir arbitrer les compromis entre pratiques et services écosystémiques, aux échelles de la plantation et du paysage.

Oil palm is the most rapidly expanding tropical perennial crop. Its cultivation raises environmental concerns, notably related to the use of nitrogen (N) fertilisers and the associated pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. While numerous and diverse models exist to estimate N losses from agriculture, very few are currently available for tropical perennial crops. Moreover, there is a lack of critical analysis of their performance in the specific context of tropical perennial cropping systems. We assessed the capacity of 11 models and 29 sub-models to estimate N losses in a typical oil palm plantation over a 25-year growth cycle, through leaching and runoff, and emissions of NH3, N2, N2O, and NOx. Estimates of total N losses were very variable, ranging from 21 to 139 kg N ha−1 yr−1. On average, 31 % of the losses occurred during the first 3 years of the cycle. Nitrate leaching accounted for about 80 % of the losses. A comprehensive Morris sensitivity analysis showed the most influential variables to be soil clay content, rooting depth, and oil palm N uptake. We also compared model estimates with published field measurements. Many challenges remain in modelling processes related to the peculiarities of perennial tropical crop systems such as oil palm more accurately.