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Akara, a fried food of West African origin, is made from whipped cowpea paste flavored with fresh onion, fresh hot or bell pepper, and salt. Akara has potential for U.S. markets as a fully cooked, frozen, reheatable product. Akara was stored at −18°C for 9 months and compared to freshly prepared akara in selected quality characteristics. Frozen, thawed akara had a higher moisture and lower crude fat content, required significantly less force to shear, and had a lighter, less intense color than freshly prepared product. Frozen/thawed/reheated akara received lower senson scores for color, moistness and flavor than the fresh product. Analysis of headspace volatiles of freshly prepared akara and akara frozen 3, 6 and 9 months resulted in fifteen peaks. Two peaks were significantly affected by frozen storage.

Peanut is one of the most widely used legumes due to its nutrition and taste. The fact that is has been recognized recently as a functional food, its evaluation for its role in a heart-healthy diet has received tremendous attention. Functional compounds have been isolated, identified, quantified, and even enhanced to maximize the amount for adequate health benefits. The peanut industry's byproducts such as peanut hulls and shells, skins, and even leaves and roots have also been identified as possible sources of bioactive compounds. New uses for these underutilized renewable sources can create new market opportunities and increase the value of agricultural residues.

Peanut beverages were prepared and homogenized at 2000, 4000, and 6000 psi and processed at 100°C for 10, 15, and 20 min and at 121°C for 5, 10, and 15 min. Sensory analysis, gas chromatographic (GC) analysis, and viscosity measurements were performed on the products. Sulfur aromatic was found sufficient to discriminate between samples processed at 100°C whereas sulfur aromatic, cooked peanut flavor, and bitterness provided the most efficient combination for discriminating between samples processed at 121°C. Processing time had a more significant effect on the sensory attributes of products. Optimum conditions for processing were found to be at homogenization pressure > 3100 psi and process time > 16 min at a processing temperature of 100°C. No sensory characteristic of the peanut beverage correlated with the instrumental analyses done.

Textural characteristics of two peanut butter samples and one peanut paste sample were determined using three instrumental methods and a texture profile panel. In Method A, a penetrometer with a cone-shaped probe attachment was used. Method B involved the use of a plunger attached to the crosshead of the Instron Universal Testing Machine. Method C was a modified texture profile analysis (TPA). Instrumental measures show that peanut paste was the hardest, exhibited the greatest adhesive force but the least time to break the peanut column, and was the least cohesive. All instrumental methods were acceptable but TPA provided more information than the two other methods in describing texture. The panel rated the paste as firmest, least adhesive, spread least on the tongue, least smooth, most grainy, and most difficult to swallow. Significant correlations were found between several instrumental measures and sensory characteristics.

Unstructured line scales (ULS), semi-structured line scales (SLS), and category scales (CS) were compared in evaluating two samples of mungbean starch noodles. Results indicated that panelists discriminated better between noodle samples when ULS were used. When identical sets of descriptors were used, more terms were found to be discriminatory with ULS but a smaller group of descriptors was sufficient to discriminate between samples compared to those needed for SLS or CS. It was also found that the use of ULS was most reliable and most sensitive to product differences. Increased anchoring of the line scales with the intensity standards did not result in increased sensitivity and reliability of the scale. Results also showed that different scaling methods may be used in succession at intervals of at least 4 h by a trained panel in evaluating the sensory characteristics of noodles using descriptive analysis.

Indirectly puffed snacks were produced by an extrusion process with partially defatted (12% fat) peanut flour (30%, 40%, 50%) at different levels of screw speed (200, 300, 400 rpm) and feed rate (4, 5, 6 kg/h). Extrudates were dried to obtain half-products (11% to 12% MC) followed by puffing with deep-fat frying. The puffed snack prototypes were subjected to consumer acceptance test. Consumers rated higher than 6.0 (= like slightly) for all products produced within the experimental factor ranges on the attributes of crispness and texture, whereas consumer scores for appearance, color, flavor, and overall liking were lower than 6.0 for the product containing 50% peanut flour regardless of screw speed and feed rate. The product extruded with 50% peanut flour at screw speed of 400 rpm and feed rate of 6 kg/h received the lowest score of 5.5 on overall liking in a 9-point hedonic score. Predicted regression models indicated that feed rate had the largest effect on consumer attributes followed by peanut flour and screw speed. From the superimposed contour plot of individual contour plot of consumer attributes, the optimum region was identified as the area beginning at the 42.0% to 43.0% peanut flour and 4.0 kg/h feed rates, rising to a maximum at 45% peanut flour and 4.6 kg/h feed rates and decreasing to the 33.0% to 34.0% peanut flour and 6.0 kg/h feed rates. Verification confirmed the ability of predictive regression models to identify peanut-based snacks, which would be scored higher than 6.0 by consumer evaluation.

Application of no postharvest stress or by size reduction, grinding, chopping, or slicing and exposure to UV light or ultrasound were investigated for the elicitation of trans-resveratrol, total phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity (AOA) in peanut kernels. AOA and total phenolic compounds did not increase in stressed peanuts over incubation times 0−48 h at 25 °C; however, an increase in trans-resveratrol concentration over time occurred. Slicing (2 mm), ultrasound exposure for 4 min at 25 °C, and incubation for 36 h produced the highest level of trans-resveratrol synthesis in peanuts, increasing concentrations from 0.48 ± 0.08 μg/g in untreated peanuts to 3.96 ± 0.96 μg/g. AOA in stressed peanuts was negatively correlated with trans-resveratrol concentration, indicating that as AOA decreased trans-resveratrol concentration increased. Keywords: Resveratrol; UV; ultrasound; wounding; total phenolics; antioxidant activity

The effects of irradiation of refrigerated and frozen chicken on sensory properties were investigated on skinless boneless breasts (white) and leg quarters (dark). Irradiation did not affect appearance of moistness and glossiness of raw chicken (white or dark). Leg quarters irradiated while refrigerated were darker (p ≤ 0.05) than controls (nonirradiated chicken). Raw irradiated chicken had higher fresh chickeny, bloody, and sweet aromatic aroma intensities compared to nonirradiated samples. Cooked irradiated frozen dark meat had more chicken flavor, and cooked irradiated refrigerated dark meat was more tender than controls. No other sensory attributes of cooked chicken were affected. The state at which chicken had been irradiated (refrigerated or frozen) did not affect sensory properties.

The topics discussed in this paper are the changing demand for meat and the factors that influence this demand. These factors include increased health concerns, change in demographics, the need for convenience, changes in the distribution of meat, and price. Finally, the paper covers the meat industry's need for understanding the consumer and the measurement methods used to assess consumer preferences.

Three amino acid-balanced, vitamin- and mineral-fortified peanut spreads were stored at 4, 23, and 40 degrees C for 3 months. These were 69.6% peanut/19% soybean-40.5% fat, 61.9% peanut/19% soybean-44.5% fat, and 74.1% peanut/14% nonfat dry milk (NFDM)-40% fat. The peanut spreads were fortified with vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B(6), vitamin C, calcium, and iron to provide 33.3% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances for children. Water-soluble vitamins were quite stable in deaerated peanut spreads. The antioxidant activity of phytochemicals in soybean prevented vitamin A degradation in soy-containing spreads, whereas the NFDM spread lost 70% of the initial content. Instron analysis detected major changes in texture when peanut spreads were stored at 40 degrees C, suggesting that the polymorphic form of lipid transformed and the proper crystallization of stabilizer was destroyed. Panelists did not detect the texture changes in peanut spreads stored at different temperatures. At 40 degrees C, the primary deteriorative changes in sensory quality were increased browning and the development of "soybean" and "oxidized" flavors as well as decreased "roasted peanutty" flavor.

Scallopini is a general name derived from scallopine, an Italian preparation of veal, which describes thinly pounded cuts of meat which are either used as a cutlet or rolled around other foods and cooked. Concept development was accomplished through use of focus groups, consumer ranking studies, and mailed surveys. The objective of this study was to assess consumer acceptability of chicken scallopini at various thicknesses (4, 8 and 12 mm) and concentrations (0, 1, and 2%) of added sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP). A 3 x 3 factorial design with three replications was adopted for use in this study. To assess consumer acceptability of packaged products, 53 participants were presented with three packages of the raw scallopini packaged on white styrofoam trays and overwrapped with film. Because STPP produces no visual change in the product at the levels used, only product thickness was varied. The mean price suggested by panelists from the sensory evaluation was $1.28/lb. The average price per pound suggested for the raw, packaged product was $1.62. For the attributes of overall acceptability, tenderness, juiciness, flavor, size, and texture, the mean ratings were high, indicating an acceptable product in any of the nine treatments. Sensory attributes were affected by STPP concentration but not by scallopini thickness. As STPP concentration increased, hedonic ratings for tenderness, texture, juiciness, flavor, overall acceptability, and purchase likehood increased. Purchase likelihood was rated highest for scallopini containing 2% STPP. Purchase likelihood was verified through use of a simulated supermarket simulation test.

The effects of temperature, time, and number of extractions on the color, gas chromatographic profile, and flavor characteristics of water extracted peanuts were determined. Temperature was the major factor which affected these attributes. Increasing the extraction temperature resulted in darker colored peanuts with less chroma, less raw peanut flavor, and more cooked peanut flavor. It also led to a significant decrease in flavor volatiles. Based on the results, the recommended conditions are to water extract at 90°C for 10 min three times to produce peanuts which arc light in color and bland in flavor.

Three natural antioxidant systems, tocopherol, extract of rosemary, a tocopherol and rosemary combination, and BHA/BHT were evaluated in frankfurters prepared from chicken and pork. Thiobarbituric acid numbers of refrigerated bulk and vacuum packaged samples stored in darkness for up to 18 days indicated that natural tocopherols provided significantly more protection than controls containing no antioxidant and were as effective as BHA/BHT in retarding oxidation. All bulk-packaged frankfurters except those containing BHA/BHT and tocopherols were inedible after 18 days. Color values indicated no evidence that any treatment provided better color stability.

In a study of marketing opportunities for fresh, dark, chicken meat, focus group participants (n = 34) provided qualitative information concerning potential products and packaging concepts. Results of the focus groups indicated that the participants were willing to purchase new, convenient poultry products made from dark chicken meat. Specific dark meat products the participants were willing to by included boneless, skinless thighs, kabob cubes, and stir-fry strips. Consumers desired clear packaging for the products but did not want the packaging to be microwaveable or ovenproof. Acceptance of chicken kabob chunks and stir-fry strips of varying piece sizes (2.54, 3.81, and 5.08 cm) and seasoning concentrations (1.6, 2.1, and 2.6%) was evaluated by consumers (n = 83) using a nine-point hedonic scale. The most preferred products were a 5.08 cm (2 in) kabob with 2.6% seasoning and a stir-fry strip with 2.6% seasoning. A simulated supermarket setting test was conducted to verify findings from a mailed survey (n = 115) and actual purchase behavior by consumers (n = 121). A calculated desirability index indicated a ranked preference to be: breasts > kabobs > stir-fry > boneless, skinless thighs > bone-in, skin-on thighs.

A simulated supermarket setting (SSS) test was conducted to determine whether consumers (n = 126) would purchase irradiated poultry products, and the effects of marketing strategies on consumer purchase of irradiated poultry products. Consumer preference for irradiated poultry was likewise determined using a home-use test. A slide program was the most effective educational strategy in changing consumers’ purchase behavior. The number of participants who purchased irradiated boneless, skinless breasts and irradiated thighs after the educational program increased significantly from 59.5 and 61.9% to 83.3 and 85.7% for the breasts and thighs, respectively. Using a label or poster did not increase the number of participants who bought irradiated poultry products. About 84% of the participants consider it either “somewhat necessary” or “very necessary” to irradiate raw chicken and would like all chicken that was served in restaurants or fast food places to be irradiated. Fifty-eight percent of the participants would always buy irradiated chicken if available, and an additional 27% would buy it sometimes. About 44% of the participants were willing to pay the same price for irradiated chicken as for nonirradiated. About 42% of participants were willing to pay 5% or more than what they were currently paying for nonirradiated chicken. Seventy-three percent or more of consumers who participated in the home-use test (n = 74) gave the color, appearance, and aroma of the raw poultry products a minimum rating of 7 (= like moderately). After consumers participated in a home-use test, 84 and 88% selected irradiated thighs and breasts, respectively, over nonirradiated in a second SSS test.

Cowpeas and peanuts are legumes of major dietary and economic importance. They are favored worldwide because of their palatability, contribution to nutritional status, and low cost as a protein source compared to animal protein. Flours processed from cowpeas and peanuts have unique physico-chemical and sensory properties when used in composite flour mixtures. Appropriate blends of cowpea and peanut flours to replace wheat flour in Chinese-type noodles, muffins, and tortillas were determined using modelling and optimization procedures. For noodles, 15% peanut flour and 8% cowpea flour supplementation produced an acceptable product with high protein content (21%). For wheat flour replacement in muffins, up to 43% cowpea and up to 44% peanut flours may be used. However, when wheat flour replacement is 50% or greater, cassava flour should comprise 56 to 72% of the blend with a few exceptions. In tortillas, 24% cowpea and 46% peanut flours produced products similar in quality characteristics to those made from 100% wheat flour. The systematic approach used in these studies is more efficient than the traditional substitution method to optimize sensory qualities of wheat-based products containing composite flours.

Cooking influences the appearance, protein, water-binding, and textural properties of meat. The cooking method markedly affects the palatability of meat, poultry, or fish.

Beginning in 2001 the Georgia Department of Agriculture mandated testing of new and existing Vidalia onion varieties under the supervision of the University of Georgia. This was prompted by the introduction of early maturing Japanese overwintering varieties, which were perceived to be more pungent than traditional varieties grown in the Vidalia district. The testing primarily focused on flavor and pungency (pyruvate analysis) to determine suitability as a Vidalia onion variety. Our testing compared varieties to an industry standard, initially variety Granex 33, which was later switched to `Savannah Sweet'. In almost all flavor and pungency tests differences were detected among the varieties, however, since the chosen standard variety usually fell within the middle of the tested range, there was no consistent rejection of a variety. If a different statistical approach had been used it would have been possible to reject several varieties over the course of testing. Using multiple comparison with the best (MCB), a modification of Dunnett's test where the best performing variety for a particular parameter becomes the standard, several varieties would have been excluded, but not all of the early Japanese overwintering types. Finally, in 2005 a consumer acceptance study was conducted with 30 consumers evaluating each of 49 varieties resulted in an LSD (5%) with no differences between the top 38 entries, which included several of the Japanese overwinter types. It is becoming clear that concerns over flavor with these early varieties are unfounded.

Whole raw, chickens (180) were washed in tapwater (control), 12% trisodium phosphate (TSP), or 0.5% lactic acid/0.05% sodium benzoate (LB). Consumer panelists evaluated raw, treated, whole chickens as well as fried breast and thigh pieces. TSP and LB solutions did not affect (P < 0.05) external color, texture, flavor, moistness, or overall acceptability of fried chicken or consumer purchase intent. Evaluation of raw chickens 90 min after treatment with LB or after 7 days storage at 1°C revealed that overall acceptability, color and purchase intent were lower compared to controls. Sensory quality of raw chickens was not adversely affected by TSP. We concluded that 12% TSP or 0.5% lactic acid/0.05% sodium benzoate solutions have good potential for dips to sanitize chickens intended for frying before presentation to consumers.

A spread made from light colored, bland peanut paste flavored with cheese, meat, fruit or chocolate would enhance the probability of increased utilization of peanuts. The effect of particle size on quality of pastes prepared from whole peanut kernels subjected to water extraction (WE) and chopping was determined. Results indicated that the paste prepared from coarsely or moderately chopped peanuts was found to be light in color and have the lowest flavor intensity scores. Paste prepared from finely chopped peanuts had the darkest color among all treatments.

Peaches (cvs ‘Loring’ and ‘Redglobe’) were collected from five packinghouses within a 20 km radius on a single harvest date. Using color chips to categorize harvest maturity, fruit color and firmness were evaluated on the day of harvest. After 7 day storage at 5°C, designed to simulate maintenance of a cold-chain during wholesale distribution, peach color, firmness and sensory quality were determined. Color and flavor development were inhibited at 5° C but the softening rate increased at increasing levels of maturity. Separation of softening from flavor and color development has implications in study of ripening physiology of the peach and in assessing current handling practices.

Consumer use patterns for 43 fresh and processed vegetables were studied in an effort to explain recent shifts in vegetable consumption practices. Data on the appropriateness of each of the vegetables for 10 different uses were collected and analysed to determine food and food use patterns. Nine vegetable factors and two use factors were extracted. Results indicate that in the majority of cases respondents perceive different forms of the same vegetable to be inappropriate substitutes for each other. Patterns were found which reflect the changes in usage patterns for certain forms of vegetables that have occurred in recent years.

Forty-four mothers of preschool children representing low and middle income groups were studied to determine the correlations between food patterns of their children and selected family variables namely: family income, mother's educa tion, and mother's eating patterns. The mothers completed a questionnaire con taining family inventory questions, food and nutrition practices, and frequency of food consumption by mother and child. Results reflect significant differences in the frequency of consumption of certain foods between the low and middle in come mothers and their children. Family income, mother's education, and mother's eating patterns were significantly correlated with their children's diet. Understanding the dietary patterns of low and middle income mothers and their influence on their children's diet is helpful to educators in making recommenda tions to upgrade the quality of diets of young children.

Systolic blood pressures were measured on the same animals by direct and indirect methods. A tail cuff was used for the indirect measurements, and the direct measurements were obtained with a strain gauge after a needle was inserted into a major artery. Good agreement was found between normal values and elevated pressures produced by norepinephrine, but gross differences were observed in a nutritional experiment in which oatmeal was fed. Credibility requires that blood pressure changes be demonstrated by direct as well as by indirect measurements.

Snap beans were collected from nine lots at five wholesale warehouses over a 2 day period. The lots were separated into three groups based on wholesale price — high ($15.35/bu), intermediate ($13.35–$14.90/bu), and low ($13.00/bu). Lots were analyzed for quality by chemical, physical and sensory methods to determine those quality factors most closely associated with the price of fresh beans at the wholesale level. Textural properties differentiated between beans in low and intermediate price groups. Appearance factors were more important than texture in distinguishing between beans of the high and intermediate price groups.

Quality characteristics of fresh-market tomatoes were monitored throughout the postharvest handling system to determine the nature and extent of color and firmness changes at component handling steps. Greatest changes in hue and chroma were observed during simulated warehouse ripening and storate (12.5°C). Greatest changes in color value (lightness) and firmness were noted during simulated retail ripening and storage (21°C). Tomatoes harvested at carlier stages of maturity tended to maintain firmness longer and remained lighter as the hue changed from pink to red than those harvested at later stages. Shipping of tomatoes at the ‘pink’ stage or beyond requires modification of handling techniques to slow ripening starting at the packing house.

Differences in sensory qualities of a peanut beverage processed at 85°, 100°, and 121°C for 5, 15 and 25 min were determined using analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques. Temperature significantly affected cooked flavor, raw and cooked odors, viscosity and color. Time had significant effects only on cooked flavor and color. Factor analysis was used to determine relationships among sensory qualities and gas chromatographic peaks of the headspace volatiles. Seven factors accounted for 91% of data variance. Processing at 100°C yielded a peanut beverage with sensory quality better than the product processed at either 121°C or 85°C.

A bland flavored and light colored paste was developed to increase utilization of peanuts. This study compared flavor quality of two pastes prepared from whole and chopped peanuts, water extracted to remove flavor precursors, two commercial samples of peanut butter and a paste from raw peanuts (control). Cluster analysis was used to compare sensory scores of all samples. The premium brand peanut butter had the strongest roasted flavor while the pastes had significantly more of the beany flavor than the peanut butters but less than that in the raw control. Chopping of kernels results in the loss of roasted and sweet flavors and the introduction of cardboard, musty and metallic flavors.

Considers the extent of the marketers need to communicate quality to the consumer and the best ways of doing so. Examines the results of an experiment involving consumers. Suggests that some communication of quality is generally better than no such communication, although whether specific or non‐specific quality appeals should be used depends on the relative price of the brand.

Nutritional, microbiological and sensory qualities of peanut beverages processed at 85°C, 100°C and 121°C for 15 min and 121°C for 3 sec were determined. Heating improved the digestibility of peanut beverages, particularly those processed at 121°C for 3 sec and 85°C for 15 min. Methionine was particularly sensitive to the treatment at 121°C. The limiting amino acids were threonine, cystine, valine, lysine and tyrosine. No microbial growth was observed in products processed at 100°C and 121°C followed by storage at 4°C and 30°C for 20 days. Beverage processed at 85°C and stored at 30°C for 3 days contained an aerobic microbial population of 2.4 × 104 CFU/mL. The beany flavor was least pronounced in beverages processed at 100°C for 15 min and strongest at 121°C for 3 sec.

Seventeen sensory, physical and chemical measurements of postharvest quality were obtained from 72 snap bean samples during four separate experiments. Cluster analysis was used to determine relationships between the 17 variables and to reduce the data into a smaller set of underlying structures without appreciable information loss. Four clusters, representing 79% of the total variance, were obtained and named ‘acceptability measures’, ‘objective measures’, ‘ascorbic acid’, and ‘appearance measures’ according to the variables within each group. Acceptability, mouthfeel and flavor were the most important subjective measures while hue angle and moisture were the most important objective measures of postharvest quality.

Consumer respondents (203) in the metro-Atlanta statistical area answered a detailed questionnaire pertaining to their attitudes and perceptions of different food groups and food uses. Factor analyses resulted in five food attitude, two food item and three food-use appropriateness factors. The food attitude factors were “Like to Cook”, “Organizational”, “Adventurous”, “Convenience driven” and “Nutrition conscious but casual meal planner”. Food item factors were “Main dish” and “Snack”, Food-use appropriateness factors were “Social”, “Satiety” and “Casual”. A significant correlation between nutrition knowledge and nutrition concern, but not food attitude scores, was found. The “Organizational” factor correlated with the most numbers of variables and “Like to Cook” the least. Results of the respondents in this study indicate that consumers in this sample are leading mobile, dynamic and service oriented lifestyles.

Sensory and objective measures of postharvest quality of fresh market tomatoes were obtained before retail to the consumer. Effects of storage at 10°C and 21°C and differences in sensory quality of “ethylene-treated” versus “vine-ripened” tomatoes were determined. Principal component analyses of 19 variables reduced these to a maximum of six factors which explain 71% of the variance which could allow a reduction in the number of analytical tests. No objective measures other than firmness and color correlated with sensory measures. Except for color, sensory scores of Winter and Spring tomatoes were below the halfway point on the rating scale. Scores improved after storage at 21°C for 7 days. The only difference found in “ethylene-treated” and “vine-ripened” tomatoes was firmness “to the touch.”

Weanling male white rats were fed a diet containing a commercially available breakfast cereal. In 28 days they developed a mild anemia coupled with an increased amount of iron in the liver. In parallel work, this same diet was supplemented in a factorial fashion with casein, iron, copper and zinc. The zinc had no effect. Copper supplementation increased the hemoglobin level. Casein decreased liver iron. The copper and casein, when fed together, produced results approaching normal control levels. Supplementation of the diet with additional iron did not increase the hemoglobin or hematocrit but it did further increase iron storage in the liver. It is suggested that cereal enrichment programs might do well to consider copper and protein rather than focus total attention on additional iron and zinc.

Retail samples of semimembranosus were roasted, sliced, wrapped in aluminum foil and stored at 1.0°C for 0, 1, 4, and 7 days. A panel of 100 consumers evaluated samples for the variables: preference, purchase intention, flavor, off-flavor, and intended purchase frequency at three price levels. Panelists did not rate the 0, 1, and 4-day samples differently on all sensory variables, but the 7-day sample was rated as significantly different (P < 0.05) from all samples on each sensory variable. Results indicate that consumers were unable to detect off-flavor in reheated semimembranosus samples at TBA numbers of 6.3 or lower.

Peanut-supplemented Chinese-type noodles were prepared from blends of Durum wheat flour and partially defatted peanut flour (10, 20, and 30%). Physical measures and sensory quality of cooked fresh noodles were evaluated. Lightness (L) and cutting force of noodles were reduced as the level of peanut flour was increased. Firmness, number of chews before swallowing, yellowness and all other sensory scores of noodles were decreased as the level of supplementation increased. Replacement of up to 15% of wheat flour with peanut flour resulted in noodles judged to have acceptable sensory qualities. However, sensory attribute scores of cooked oven-dried (70°C 2 hr) noodles were higher than that of cooked deep-fried (160°C 30 set) noodles.