Search

Some theoretical definitions of attitudes, including various assumptions that underlie most approaches to attitude mesurement, are presented, and directions and findings of attitude research approaches to attitude measurement are the Bogardus Social Distance Scale, the semantic differential, and the Likert scale, each characterized by a particular format and a certain set of assumptions. Some methodological considerations fundamental to attitude measurement are presented. Guidelines are suggested for the selection of appropriate procedures for given purposes, the identification of specific instruments for specific research situations, and the construction of original measures for situations in which no appropriate one is available. Given current interest in the possible relationships between attitudes and foreign language achievement, and in alleged nonlinguistic outcomes of foreign language study, it seems likely that more and more attitude studies will be conducted in foreign language education. It is desirable that this research include longitudinal, quasi-experimental studies to supplement and extend the valuable correlational studies that have already been done. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of research data, particularly with respect to the inference of casual relationships among variables. (SW)

Current attitudes within the foreign language profession at large are assessed, and some attempts to meet the common problems are described. The need for promoting and improving a public image in all areas outside the profession and informing the community about foreign language educational goals is an overriding problem. In addition to publicity achieved through a wide variety of public events, more foreign language educators are seeking ways to have feature articles included in educational and trade journals. Foreign language teachers are also demonstrating greater aggressiveness in their immediate dealings with both guidance personnel and with administrators. More support to foreign languages needs to be given from within the profession itself; a positive action to deal with this problem is to provide more services to members and to identify activities which would make membership more attractive. Colleges and universities in some states play an important role in support of foreign languages by serving as communications centers and as focal points of activities in their region. Between the university and secondary schools and within the university community itself there exists a polarization of attitudes regarding curriculum content and future directions for foreign languages. Career education is occupying a growing place in foreign language curricula, and literature has been central to foreign language study. Directions of foreign language study, including the "back to basics" thrust, are discussed. (SW)

A discussion of programs in foreign language, bilingual/bicultural education, and English as a second language (ESL) considers the unique aspects of each program, what they have in common, and areas in which closer cooperation might be developed. Foreign (or second) language programs are characterized by an attempt to give students some proficiency in one or more of the four language skills and also perhaps to increase their acquaintance with and appreciation for the populations that speak the target language. ESL programs are designed for those who do not speak or understand English well enough to perform at grade level in the classroom. In bilingual/bicultural education, two languages and cultures are developed simultaneously: English and the student's native tongue. Four distinctive types of bilingual/bicultural programs that have been delineated are transitional bilingualism, monoliterate bilingualism, partial bilingualism, and full bilingualism. Commonalities of the programs are specified for language skills, everyday culture, "belletristic" culture, and curriculum integration. Suggested areas in which cooperation is possible are in obtaining financial support, sharing resources, teacher training and personnel, material development and distribution, making use of research, sharing career education materials and testing materials, incorporating classroom techniques, and publicizing language programs. It is cautioned that a fusion of the programs may work to the disadvantage of one or more of the individual programs, particularly if there is a sudden decline in public support. (SW)

Language testing must be an integral component of any foreign language program. It should relate closely to the objectives of the program so that students are tested on what they practice in the classroom. Although language testing during the past few decades has been concerned primarily with measuring only linguistic knowledge, more consideration is being given to performance testing of communicative competence. Testing of listening and reading proficiency are very common today, principally because they are easily written using a multiple-choice format. Tests of speaking and writing, although less common, are receiving more attention in the classroom. Nonlinguistic aspects of communication need to be incorporated into tests of communicative competence. Students need to learn how the people of a culture communicate and interpret cultural and social information. Research in language testing has moved from a principal focus on validity and reliability to include important psycholinguistic aspects of second language acquisition. Areas within language testing that need special consideration are: more emphasis on the development of valid tests of communicative competence; the development of training materials for administering and scoring performance language tests; better dissemination of information about successful methods of testing foreign language proficiency; more concern for criterion validity; and methods for testing at the higher levels of language proficiency. (Author/SW)

The current state of teacher education is reviewed to compare what is being done now with predictions of future needs. An attempt has been made in the last year or so to achieve greater accountability through competency-based teacher education programs. Moskowitz's attempt to discover how and why master teachers are effective has been helpful, but many characteristics possessed by master teachers are not, and perhaps cannot be, taught in methods courses. Successful preservice education techniques (micro-teaching, use of media, shock lessons, instructional objectives) continue to be used. Several new areas have emerged: the increasing program development in bilingual/bicultural education and English as a second language, a greater emphasis on students' involvement and participation in their own training, and a greater flexibility in methodology. The training of teaching assistants, virtually unknown fifteen years ago, has become an established practice in colleges and universities. Its necessity and legitimacy as a part of graduate programs are still controversial issues. It has been determined that there are many career opportunities outside education, and that these careers are increasing in number and type as the world shrinks. For the most part, higher education is not preparing foreign language majors for the world of work outside teaching. As students gain expertise for careers in business, government, industry, and other institutions, they will fill a real need in the interdependent society. Foreign language majors who do choose to become teachers will be a select group, ready to respond to the constantly changing students and world. (Author/SW)

Developments in the field of teaching culture are outlined, and some directions for further reading and development are listed. The focus is on multicultural materials, with only occasional reference to culture-specific media. Most of the literature surveyed is in the field of foreign language education, but some attempt was made to sample current trends in social studies education, communications, and anthropology. In the area of cognitive learning objectives, authors stress generalities applicable to many cultures, illustrated by target-culture specifics. In the area of process (skill) objectives, research and face-to-face communication skills are emphasized. Affective objectives include the acquisition of empathy, curiosity, and flexibility, plus skill in clarifying one's own stable core of values. The number and quality of culture materials integrated into beginning texts is increasing. Lectures are still used far too frequently, despite indications of their inefficiency in developing crosscultural effectiveness. Presentation techniques should include more well-prepared and grouped multimedia presentations together with high-involvement techniques such as "critical incident" self-instructional materials, mini-dramas, and games. Inductive methods important for developing process and affective skills include discussion, research, dramatization, and simulation approaches. (SW)

Examination of the historical facts surrounding the American linguistic heritage and application of theories of language policy and planning may help to clarify possible future directions for the role of language not only in the classroom but in the pluralistic cultures of the United States and the world. The need to revitalize the bilingual tradition in the United States has brought forth questions regarding the role of linguistic uniformity in national unity. Both the maintenance of languages other than English among ethnic groups and the teaching of foreign languages to native Americans are central policy issues. The centrality of language in social, political, and ideological issues accounts for both the frequency and intensity of language heritage debates. There has been a lack of attention to specific language policy in the United States. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Bilingual Education Act in 1967 promoted recognition of the educational role of languages other than English for ethnic groups. Colonial and early national proposals, court cases concerning language and educational policies, developments concerning the education and socioeconomic and political status of immigrants, academic approaches to modern language teaching, and practical benefits of foreign language study in the second half of this century are considered. (SW)

The interdependence of the creative process and the communication process is examined. Artistic creativity, humanistic creativity, and creativity in the psychological laboratory are briefly examined, and Guilford's structure-of-intellect (SI) model is analyzed. Instead of categorizing people according to their general intellectual ability, the SI model recognizes a diversity of intellectual abilities, possessed by each individual to some degree or another. Creativity in an educational context and creativity in the second language classroom are then examined. Convergent tasks and divergent-production tasks are discussed and examples are provided. Creative problem solving in second language learning is considered, and a discussion and examples are presented concerning linguistic factors, sociolinguistic factors, and nonverbal factors. Creativity in the second language classroom is also seen to involve activities designed to encourage imaginative behavior through verbal play, creative writing, and creative reading. The following are discussed as ways of facilitating enhanced communication in the classroom: reevaluating student/teacher roles, providing activities that ensure student success, and encouraging risk-taking on the part of students. (SW)

Some of the possibilities for taking language learning and instruction into the larger classroom of the school, the community, and the world are considered. Programs conducted within the school or college campus but outside of the usual classroom include intensive language courses and interdisciplinary courses. A step farther from the traditional classroom are language camps, language festivals, and ethnic festivals; still farther removed are the various types of programs abroad. An attempt is made to determine how these new curricular connections promote language learning. Suggestions are offered as to how foreign language teachers might integrate "extra" classroom instruction into their own programs. Several conclusions about the nontraditional programs are presented. It is suggested that although intensive foreign language courses are more prevalent at the college level, there is no reason why they could not be effective at the secondary level. Interdisciplinary programs involving foreign languages are on the increase in this country. Language camps have become an increasingly popular way of providing students with linguistic and cultural immersion, and although language festivals and ethnic festivals are often thought of for their motivational purpose alone, they function as sites for language learning. Lengthy periods of study abroad are out of the reach of many students because of the expense involved, but short-term study-abroad programs continue to flourish. (SW)

The greatest single opportunity for influencing public opinion concerning foreign language study is through the teacher-student encounter. There is some indication that student motivation for foreign language study may be related to general cultural interests and travel facility rather than to research or career requirements. Flexibility in pace or content contributes to a positive image of foreign languages. There is a need for tailoring teacher behavior to students' declared desires. Adoption of a humanistic, cooperative approach between teacher and student may help improve the image of foreign language study. Activities are reviewed that stress a close personal relationship between student and teacher. The language teacher's relationship with the student's family can also influence foreign language enrollment. Professional associations can provide resources and support to the classroom teacher. The relationship between the foreign language teacher and counselors and administrators is important, and a closer cooperation between the school and community is needed. The language fair and the language camp are popular foreign language activities; language study can also be promoted by some modern advertising methods. The business community often supports and promotes foreign language activities. (SW)

The interaction of teacher, students, and materials in foreign language study is considered. In the student-centered classroom, the teacher must adapt materials to a particular client or clientele. Student needs and characteristics need to be determined, using diagnostic tools such as aptitude, intelligence and creativity tests, and attitudinal scales. The determination of needs and interests should be an ongoing process rather than merely the first step; observation of the learner as he learns is important. The claims that individualized instruction and minicourse curricula meet the needs of students are examined. Many features typically associated with more innovative programs are being included as components of courses that remain mostly traditional. Many language teachers are using a more eclectic and experimental approach and are attempting to modify familiar techniques, such as drills and dialogues. Some use of the language for authentic communicative purposes even in beginning courses is frequently advocated. Teachers are adapting and supplementing standard teaching materials to meet the needs of students rather than following a single text or program. Personalized exercises, special group and individual projects, and communicative exercises help to meet the emotional, psychological, and social needs of students. (SW)

This article examines communication problems in teacher education programs and cites programs or approaches and research efforts in teacher education. Needs of prospective teachers and the quality of student teaching are examined. Instructional procedures and components that may improve learning in teacher education programs include micro-teaching, interaction analysis, computer assisted instruction, individualization of instruction, and increased use of a wide range of media. Some evolving processes and movements are competency-based teacher education, simulation, protocol materials, minicourses, and self-renewal patterns. The systems approach has also been applied to language teaching. A variety of new and expanded laboratory and practicum experiences include early major experiences, continuous individually tailored experiences, teacher education centers, professional courses taught on location in school and community, internships, and residences. The interrelations among the triad of the student teacher, cooperating teacher, and college supervisor and their communications effectiveness as seen by each has been studied by researchers. Student teacher education centers have been operated to increase the effectiveness of the student teaching experience. Communication problems between schools and colleges are discussed. Inservice teacher education programs, evaluation and feedback about teacher education programs, and the dissemination and use of research findings in the field are discussed. (SW)

This article discusses the varieties of bilingualism, types of bilingual programs, goals and program implementation, measurement and evaluation of bilingual/bicultural programs, teacher preparation, the impact of the ESEA Title VII Bilingual Education Act, sample programs, the question of language "standards," and studies about program outcomes. The term "bilingual" refers to persons who demonstrate abilities in two languages. Most bilinguals demonstrate mastery of one language and less than educated native speaker competence in the other language. Goals of bilingual/bicultural education vary from transition to English and rapid assimilation into the dominant culture to parallel programs in both English and the home language. A promising way to develop English literacy in children whose home language is other than English is to begin by teaching them to read and write in their home language, while acquiring skills in English. Bicultural programs stress understanding of and respect for the child's home culture and consideration of the home culture in teacher training and the program of studies. Understanding the attitudes of the non-English-speaking community and involving them in program planning are important. Reliable and valid measures of the language abilities of teachers and children in English and the home language in all skills are needed, and evidence of change in attitudes and self-concept of children should be gathered and evaluated. Progress of children in bilingual programs should be compared with children in traditional programs. (SW)

Enrollment trends and factors that influence foreign language study in colleges and universities are discussed. Most college foreign language programs have emphasized the study of literature and have not been committed to the training of teachers or the teaching of civilization or culture. It appears that students' concern about the job market and their future economic security affect their choice of courses. Foreign language teachers and their organizations need to reach out to the community in order to make the public aware of the values of studying languages. Traditional reasons for studying a foreign language are cited which are insufficient for choosing foreign language study instead of another subject. The ability to use a foreign language increases a person's capacity to communicate and should be justified on that basis. Language study helps the student appreciate culture, read literature without translation, and communicate with people in their language. Foreign language majors need to develop other skills in addition to linguistic talents for career purposes. Foreign languages in science, translating positions, and linguistic and conversational skills in business, diplomacy, and other occupations are discussed. (SW)

Preparation for study abroad is a valid part of the foreign language program. One advantage of study abroad is the motivational focus it gives to home-based foreign languages programs. The possibility of participating in the foreign culture and actually using the language are incentives. Teaching intercultural communication and understanding is a valid way of teaching the language; it may require using materials collected and combined by teacher and students out of their own personal experience. Although official accreditation of foreign study programs appears to be an impossible task, individual teachers can speak out about the quality of international programs. Barriers to communication in a foreign culture and overcoming the obstacles are discussed. A good orientation program and, if possible, intensive language training should precede the study abroad experience. There is a need to free students from egocentric, ethnocentric, and stereotypic perceptions. (SW)

Curriculum is continually changing because it is based on needs of the student, needs of society, and subject-matter knowledge. In 1973, cultural, communication, and career goals assumed greater importance. Curriculum design involves consideration of interest and ability grouping, self pacing, mastery learning, multiple approaches to learning, learning of language skills with content of individual choice according to specific interests, confluence of content and process, content based on human concerns, communication games, and peer teaching. Curricular changes in foreign language programs at the elementary level include a return to classical Greek and Latin courses and the teaching of culture. At the secondary level, language programs are including student-centered curricula, minicourses, career and interdisciplinary courses, the use of radio and television in the classroom, autotutorial materials, and total immersion programs. At community colleges, terminal courses set goals related to the interests and needs of the students. The curricula of undergraduate courses are being personalized to maintain student motivation. Use of multimedia, multiple approach to learning, career preparation, interdisciplinary programs, and minicourses stress keeping the language alive and diversity in course offerings, content, and student-teacher relationships. Research suggests that no single curriculum provides optimal learning experiences for all students and it recognizes the fact that there is no "average student." (SW)

Teachers frequently extend their activities beyond what is found in the text by expanding materials in the text or by creating a context for achieving their objectives for the course independent of the text. Teachers who extend beyond the text generally focus their attention on some important aspect of the total program: greater amounts of student drill in order to master basic pronunciation or patterns; more frequent, extensive, and creative use of the target language; and increased experience with various facets of the culture. Some of the techniques currently being used by teachers in the United States are examined with attention to the impact on the teacher. The following techniques/materials are covered: individualization; classroom games and inexpensive materials; commercially prepared games; radio broadcasts; film/tape presentations; programmed texts and computer-assisted instruction; and the team approach using student aides and paraprofessionals. The need to provide a context for creative student activity is pointed out. Ideas about providing conversational practice and integrating the cultural with the linguistic component are discussed, including the use of role playing and dramatic activities. Learning resources in the community, language festivals, and language camps are also covered. (SW)

The principal aim of testing is to communicate to the student the extent to which he has progressed in attempting to fulfill his goals. Progress in the testing field is observed especially as a step in a feedback loop that includes goals, tasks, and evaluation procedures for providing feedback to the student. The teacher-as-learner also uses test feedback in program planning. The criterion-referenced test is essential if the "mastery model" is used. A need exists for computerized banks of foreign language test items that are easily used for individualized programs, and research and local study are needed to determine the minimum objectives for foreign language courses. When only criterion-referenced tests on discrete language are used, there is a danger that affective goals will be glossed over. If contracts are used, there should be some flexibility to allow for specialized student interests. Both discrete item tests and tests of global language proficiency are needed. There is also a need for tests of communicative competence to ensure goal-test congruence. Research is continuing on ways to test "way-of-life" culture; behavior can and must be tested as well as knowledge. New reporting systems to parents are needed for innovative programs. Constant evaluation of the attitudes of foreign language students and students who are not studying languages are needed so that the programs reflect the goals and needs of students. Continued research into ways of assessing student and community attitudes toward foreign language study and foreign people and cultures is essential. (SW)

The affective education movement and applications to foreign language learning are surveyed. Affective, or humanistic, education seeks to include self-knowledge, improved interpersonal communication, and clarification of one's values. Research studies show that thinking and feeling are intertwined. Emotion is present in the classroom and cannot be totally suppressed without negative consequences. A curriculum of affect is based on students' concerns. Both subject-matter content and skills are enlisted to aid students in overcoming their anxieties relating to self-image, their relationships to others, and control over their lives. The major psychological basis of affective education is Maslow's theory of basic human needs. Self-actualization refers to an innate drive to realize in actuality what a person may potentially be. Adolescent learners are involved in a search for self-identity, and teachers can be influential in their development. Successful teachers possess empathy, sensitivity to students, and the ability to accept them. Classroom characteristics that promote affective growth and group processes operating in the classroom are discussed. Foreign language programs that have incorporated affective education are described. Techniques have been adapted from the values clarification and human dynamics movements. Leading affective activities requires the teacher to be sensitive to students' reactions. Major criticisms of affective education are also discussed. (SW)

Overall and specific tasks involved in learning a foreign language and the factors that promote or retard learning are considered. To apply theories of learning and teaching, behavioral objectives for the learner must be considered. A macro-level learning theory is useful in conceptualizing reasons for student success and failure and in establishing educational policies. Factors affecting learning include time, aptitude, age, learning opportunities, perseverance, and quality of instruction. Four studies illustrating the learning model are described. Views on current controversies concerning the theory of language acquisition are discussed. A micro-level learning theory breaks the task down into recognizing the sounds and sound sequences and the meanings to which the sounds correspond. Receptive and productive learning processes and the importance of meaning and situation are discussed. Language learning problems concerning instructional sequence and memory are considered, and suggestions are offered for classroom teachers, students, and preparers of instructional materials. (SW)

This analysis considers the deep purposes of communication, communication and relationship, relationship and nonverbal communication, projective and introjective perception, emotions and learning, the theory of dramaturgy applied to teaching, and some implications for the foreign language teacher. Communication is a special combination of intrapersonal and interpersonal interaction. Communication is described in four ways: as an interaction; a commentary; a transaction called learning; and, at the meaning level, an arousal, not a sending. A managerial grid is presented that illustrates the significance and role of relationship in communication. Unspoken communication is expressed by the whole body and the information expressed concerns the feelings about the self, the task at hand, and the other persons involved. A well-structured course and reasonable goals are important, but the art of teaching involves sensing the way to capitalize upon the unpredictable behavior of both the class and the self as interaction takes place. Foreign language teaching is one of the great disciplines in the humanities and general education, if put in its communicative setting. Effective teaching communicates to the student the great value of a discipline. The communicative power of teachers depends largely upon the capacity to open up to students and show how their aspirations were, at least in part, attained in their teaching. Successful teaching is related to becoming a whole person to the student, knowing the behavior of the student, and his aspirations. (SW)