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BACKGROUND: Antibiotic resistance is a leading cause of death, with the highest burden occurring in low-resource settings. There is little evidence on the potential for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) access to reduce antibiotic resistance in humans. We aimed to determine the relationship between the burden of antibiotic resistance in humans and community access to drinking water and sanitation. METHODS: In this ecological study, we linked publicly available, geospatially tagged human faecal metagenomes (from the US National Center for Biotechnology Information Sequence Read Archive) with georeferenced household survey datasets that reported access to drinking water sources and sanitation facility types. We used generalised linear models with robust SEs to estimate the relationship between the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in human faecal metagenomes and community-level coverage of improved drinking water and sanitation within a defined radii of faecal metagenome coordinates. FINDINGS: We identified 1589 metagenomes from 26 countries. The mean abundance of ARGs, in units of log(10) ARG fragments per kilobase per million mapped reads classified as bacteria, was highest in Africa compared with Europe (p=0·014), North America (p=0·0032), and the Western Pacific (p=0·011), and second highest in South-East Asia compared with Europe (p=0·047) and North America (p=0·014). Increased access to improved water and sanitation was associated with lower ARG abundance (effect estimate -0·22, [95% CI -0·39 to -0·05]) and the association was stronger in urban (-0·32 [-0·63 to 0·00]) than in rural (-0·16 [-0·38 to 0·07]) areas. INTERPRETATION: Although additional studies to investigate causal effects are needed, increasing access to water and sanitation could be an effective strategy to curb the proliferation of antibiotic resistance in low-income and middle-income countries.

Riparian vegetation, which plays important roles in conservation of regional biodiversity and provision of many environmental services, has been severely degraded in East Africa by human activities. To ameliorate this degradation, more knowledge of the vegetation and factors affecting it is required. Thus, effect of land use on the plant community composition, species richness and diversity patterns were investigated along 18 streams in the Gilgle Gibe River catchment, in south-western Ethiopia, using 100 m2 plots established along transects on both sides of the streams at 35 sampling locations beside land designated as agricultural, forested, mixed vegetation or eucalyptus plantation. The communities in the plots were surveyed and classified by Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis. In total, 107 vascular plant species belonging to 49 families were recorded. Species richness and diversity were lowest along streams beside agricultural land, which had narrow riparian buffers, and highest along forested streams, which had wider riparian buffers. The communities in the sampling plots were assigned to seven groups. Species richness was positively correlated buffer width (r = 0.74, p < 0.01). The results highlight the human influence on riparian vegetation and the importance of sustainable management that is compatible with its conservation and restoration. However, to address the severity and complexity of forest fragmentation, conservation strategies must embrace a multi-site, contextual approach.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify pathways to improve the performance and competitiveness of Ethiopia's tourism sector using coffee as one essential tourism experience, thereby improving the socio-economic conditions of the local communities who depend on coffee for their livelihoods. Design/methodology/approach Based upon qualitative focus group discussions undertaken with key informants in both the coffee and tourism sectors in Ethiopia. Findings Despite the existing tourism development potential, Ethiopia has not yet fully exploited this position. While the country uses coffee to assist its destination marketing strategies, practical interventions to position coffee as a primary tourism product are absent and remain of critical importance. Research limitations/implications In this exploratory study key informant participants from government and industry share their experience within this policy domain. It is acknowledged that future research aiming to provide a fuller picture of governance in this domain would also include the perspective of community-level coffee growers. Practical implications Paramount among the implications of this study is the need to enhance cross-sectoral planning and collaboration and to establish a bridging organisation that will help integrate the agricultural (coffee) sector and the tourism sector. Social implications This study identifies key governance-related obstacles to addressing rural poverty through coffee-related agri-tourism initiatives in Ethiopia. Originality/value This paper addresses, from a governance perspective, the obstacles and opportunities for coffee as a tourism product/experience in Ethiopia. The paper identifies what interventions and innovations in policy and practice are necessary to enhance the role of Ethiopia's coffee culture in the performance of the country's tourism sector.

The purpose of this article is to explore African form of indigenous mass communication with emphasis on Ethiopian indigenous form mass communication institutions, tools, manuscripts, and regulatory bodies. The method employed for this study is qualitative. First hand documents, tools and observation were considered as sources of primary data. Furthermore, pertinent literature was reviewed. The data was analyzed qualitatively where description of the responses on the bases of themes was given emphasis. The finding of this study argued that drum beating, horn blowing and town crying are a form of mass communications in the ancient time. In ancient time news in Africa was first made public from the tower in the center, squares of the city, palace main stairs, market and church. Town Criers, Azmari and shepherds were the journalists and the essential news presenters in ancient times. In the same manner, Afe Negus (mouth of the King) and Tsehafe Tezaze (Minister of Pen) were originally indigenous information regulatory bodies of the empire regime. This research discovered the oldest African newspaper in Ethiopia, a news sheet entitled Zenamewale (Daily News) and the first written newspaper and inscriptions of king Ezana are the first types of African form of news, which dates back to 320 A.D. Zena mewale is believed to be the first handmade press so far known in Africa for 700 years. This confirmed that Ethiopia has 3,000 years of indigenous forms of oral mass communication and handmade press history in Africa. Keywords: indigenous mass communication institutions, tools of traditional mass communication, manuscripts, regulatory bodies, Ethiopia

Introduction In order to improve our understanding of the fundamental limits of core interventions and guide efforts based on prioritization and identification of effective/novel interventions with great potentials to interrupt persistent malaria transmission in the context of high vector control coverage, the drivers of persistent disease transmission were investigated in three eco-epidemiological settings; forested areas in Cameroon, coastal area in Kenya and highland areas in Ethiopia. Methods Mosquitoes were sampled in three eco-epidemiological settings using different entomological sampling techniques and analysed for Plasmodium infection status and blood meal origin in blood-fed specimens. Human behavioural surveys were conducted to assess the knowledge and attitude of the population on malaria and preventive measures, their night activities, and sleeping pattern. The parasitological analysis was conducted to determine the prevalence of Plasmodium infection in the population using rapid diagnostic tests. Results Despite the diversity in the mosquito fauna, their biting behaviour was found to be closely associated to human behaviour in the three settings. People in Kenya and Ethiopia were found to be more exposed to mosquito bites during the early hours of the evening (18-21h) while it was in the early morning (4-6 am) in Cameroon. Malaria transmission was high in Cameroon compared to Kenya and Ethiopia with over 50% of the infected bites recorded outdoors. The non-users of LLINs were 2.5 to 3 times more likely to be exposed to the risk of acquiring malaria compared to LLINs users. Malaria prevalence was high (42%) in Cameroon, and more than half of the households visited had at least one individual infected with Plasmodium parasites. Conclusions The study suggests high outdoor malaria transmission occurring in the three sites with however different determinants driving residual malaria transmission in these areas.

Bezawit Mulat,1 Adugnaw Ambelu,1 Sewbesew Yitayih,2 Yibeltal Yismaw Gela,1 Ayechew Adera,1 Yigizie Yeshaw,1 Yonas Akalu1 1Department of Human Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; 2Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, EthiopiaCorrespondence: Bezawit Mulat Email mulatbezawit@gmail.comBackground: Cognitive impairment is a common complication of hypothyroidism that affects the patient’s quality of life in different aspects. In Ethiopia, though the prevalence of hypothyroidism is high the magnitude of cognitive impairment among these patients is not known. Therefore, the current study is aimed at determining the prevalence of cognitive impairment and associated factors among adult hypothyroid patients.Methods: An institution-based cross-sectional study was employed from February 24 to May 22, 2020, to assess the prevalence of cognitive impairment and associated factors among adult hypothyroid patients. Data was collected by a pretested interviewer-administered structured questionnaire and standardized Mini-mental state examination (SMMSE) tool. A cluster sampling technique was used. Data was entered into Epidata version 4.6 and exported into a statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 25 for further analysis. Both bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were done. A 95% confidence interval and P-value < 0.05 were used to declare statistical significance.Results: A total of 216 adult hypothyroid patients were included with a response rate of 98.6%. The mean age was 42.5 (± 11) years. The prevalence of cognitive impairment was 27.3% (95% CI (21.7, 33.8)) and it was significantly associated with increased age (AOR = 1.23, 95% CI (1.11, 1.34)), increased duration of illness (AOR = 1.48, 95% CI (1.14, 1.90)) and high thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level (AOR = 1.3, 95% CI (1.1, 1.6)).Conclusion: The prevalence of cognitive impairment among hypothyroid patients was high. Increased age, increased duration of illness and high TSH levels were significantly associated with cognitive impairment. Hence, early screening of cognitive impairment among hypothyroid patients with increased age, increased duration of illness and high TSH level should be given due emphasis to increase patients quality of life.Keywords: cognitive impairment, hypothyroidism, SMMSE, Ethiopia

BackgroundAntibiotic resistance is a leading cause of death, with the highest burden in low-resource settings. There is limited evidence on the potential for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure to reduce the burden of antibiotic resistance in humans.MethodsWe used geospatially tagged human gut metagenomes and household survey datasets to determine the association between antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) abundance and community-level coverage of improved drinking water points and improved sanitation facilities. Adjusted general linearized models with robust standard errors were used to estimate the relationship between ARG abundance in the human gut and access to water and sanitation.FindingsWe identified 1589 publicly available metagenomes from 26 countries. The average abundance of ARGs, in units of log10 ARG reads per kilobase per million (RPKM) mapped reads classified as bacteria, was highest in Africa compared to other World Health Organization (WHO) regions (one-way ANOVA pInterpretationWhile additional studies to investigate casual effects are needed, increasing access to water and sanitation could be an effective strategy to curb the proliferation of antibiotic resistance in low- and middle-income countries.FundingBill & Melinda Gates FoundationResearch in ContextEvidence before this studyAntibiotic resistance is a growing global health threat that disproportionately affects low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In 2019, an estimated 5 million deaths were associated with antibiotic resistance, with the highest death rate in western sub-Saharan Africa. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions (e.g., household drinking water treatment, flush toilet, hand washing facilities with soap) can reduce diarrheal and respiratory infections, as reported in previous meta-analyses. Estimates, based on probability modeling, suggest improvements in water and sanitation could decrease antibiotic use for diarrheal disease treatment by 47-50% and 69-72%, respectively. Improving WASH infrastructure could theoretically contribute to the control of antibiotic resistance by preventing the release of antibiotics, resistant organisms, or antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) into the environment, thus decreasing the burden of antibiotic-resistant infections. One global analysis across 73 countries suggested that improved infrastructure, including WASH services, was associated with reduced antibiotic resistance prevalence in isolates, however the independent effect of WASH access was not assessed.We searched PubMed for evidence on the impact of WASH interventions (excluding those related to animals and agriculture) on antibiotic resistance using the following keyword chain: (water OR sanitation OR hygiene OR WASH) AND (antimicrobial OR antibiotic) AND resistance) NOT (“OneHealth” OR “One Health” OR animal OR livestock). We selected reviews and systematic reviews (n=1420) to be screened for relevance to WASH and antibiotic resistance. The reference lists of included reviews were then searched for individual studies. We also consulted international agency guidelines and online resources from the Joint Programming Initiative on Antimicrobial Resistance, the International Scientific Forum on Hygiene, ReAct, Resistomap, and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine AMR Centre.Studies focusing on centralized water or wastewater treatment technologies in high income countries (HICs) reported variable removal of antibiotics (53 to >90%), antibiotic-resistant bacteria (90-99.9%) and ARGs (90-99.9%) from waste streams. Other studies were conducted on hand hygiene, which has proven effective at reducing human infections and antibiotic use. No studies were identified on the effect of on-site sanitation systems (e.g., pour-flush toilets, pit latrines), which serve an estimated 2.7 billion people globally, or fecal sludge management interventions on antibiotic resistance.Added value of this studyIn this study, we used 1589 publicly available human gut metagenomes from around the world to assess the abundance of ARGs as a function of access to improved drinking water and sanitation infrastructure. This analysis provides new evidence of differences in the abundance of antibiotic resistance in the human gut across the world and finds that decreased gut abundance of ARGs is associated with increased access to improved drinking water and sanitation.Implications of all the available evidenceCurrent approaches to controlling antibiotic resistance in humans predominantly focus on antibiotic stewardship; however, this approach is challenging in LMICs where infectious illnesses are generally more prevalent and unregulated antibiotic usage is common. Along with efforts to provide other known social benefits, such as reducing infectious disease and improving gender equality, improving access to safe drinking water and sanitation could contribute to reducing the burden of antibiotic resistance. This work highlights improving access to adequate water and sanitation as a potentially effective strategy, although additional studies designed to rigorously investigate the casual relationship between WASH and antibiotic resistance are needed.

The primary intent of this study is to examine media development in Ethiopia the post 1991. The study constituted qualitative data such as document analysis, an in-depth interview, and the researcher's critical study review. The main finding of the research has shown that in the last 30 years of Ethiopian mass media development, different types of mass media have started to appear and the sector, despite the multiple ups and downs. . Despite the very positive constitutional provisions, capacity limitation restricted laws are still highly monopolized and polarised, particularly among the public, community (state), private, and diaspora media. Emergent domestic media outlets use their ethnicity, religion, group, tribe, and political afflation to activate the polarised discourse by marginalizing others and their extreme views that often lack journalistic ethical standards. In addition, new channels balance and challenge the overpowering role of government and Diaspora-funded media. The research findings reveal that the Ethiopian government has exerted direct and indirect influence over the broadcast media through co-opting the political economy of the state, most of which were employing political-oriented regulatory bodies and regulations on the mainland., Abyssinia Journal of Business and Social Sciences , Vol. 7 No. 1 (2022)

Lead (Pb) from different sources accumulate in the irrigation water, irrigated soil and in different parts of plants. Reports show contradictory findings and high variability of lead accumulation and associated public health risks. We hypothesized that lead accumulation in irrigation water, soil and edible plants is high enough to be a public health risk. By using the standard procedures for meta-analysis, 24 studies were qualified. The studies included in the meta-analysis are concentrated in few countries with strong authors' key words co-occurrence relationship. The mean concentration of Pb in the irrigation wastewater ranged from 0.0196 ± 0.01 mg/l to 52.4 ± 0.02 mg/l in wastewater and about 50% of the values are beyond the limits for irrigation water standard. The study also showed that the concentration of Pb in the irrigated soil vary significantly from a minimum of 0.04 ± 2.3 mg/l in Ethiopia to a maximum of 441 ± 19.8 mg/l in Iran (P < 0.01). Based on effect size analysis, the weight of the studies ranged from 0.1 to 5.4% indicating that the studies' contribution to the overall effect is barely different. The heterogeneity test statistics also indicates considerable variability between the studies (I2 = 98%, P-value < 0.001). The subgroup analysis showed large between-studies heterogeneity in both groups (Tau2 = 28.64; T2 = 98%). A total of 44 crops were studied, of which 38 were leafy and non-leafy vegetables. Most popular crops including spinach, cabbage and lettuce are most frequently studied crops. In all crops, the Pb level in crops produced by using untreated wastewater are beyond the WHO limit for edibility. In all of the studies, the pollution load index (PLI) and soil accumulation factor (SAF) is much higher indicating that there is a buildup of Pb concentration in wastewater irrigated soil. The plant concentration factor (PCF) calculated shows the high Pb accumulation potential of the edible parts of the crops. The health risk index (HRI) calculated shows that in all of the studied crops from India, Iraq, Morocco and Egypt are much higher than one indicating the high health risk of consumption.

Airbnb’s disruptive impacts on tourism destinations have been well acknowledged but systematic examination is still lacking. This study investigates these impacts on host communities from the persp...

The study investigates media regulatory bodies in Ethiopia. The research implemented a qualitative approach, mainly document analysis and in-depth interviews, whereby a purposive sampling technique was used to generate relevant data. The research finds out that more than 60 regulatory bodies, directly and indirectly, control Ethiopian media activities. The Ethiopian government established these media regulatory bodies (1991–2021). As a result, the tight control system of the Ethiopian media stems from an excessive number of regulations and regulatory bodies that have the power to control, shape, and inspect all media activities. The regulatory function prescribes the conditions that must be complied with to avoid unfair media practices and protect the government, audiences, and the public against the dangers inherent in such bad practices. In contrast, Media organizations' significant loss of independence due to the restrictive rules and regulatory bodies and journalists' self-censorship has increased. In the light of these measures, the Ethiopian media cannot ensure journalists' independence through institutional and professional accountability. As a result, media provide single-source and government-dominated information. The main recommendation of the research is that the government should suspend and revise the regulations of several regulatory bodies that discourage journalists and media houses from accessing freedom of speech and information. Therefore the government should change an unfriendly regulatory environment and a media model shift parallel with the public interest than the political economy interest., Abyssinia Journal of Business and Social Sciences , Vol. 6 No. 2 (2021)

Background Watershed resource conservation is important for the wellbeing of the environment and communities. Understanding farmers’ socioeconomics and watershed conservation practices help in determining necessary interventions to address environmental threats. The study area is important at regional and national level due to the hydroelectric dam of the mega power project. This study deals with the farmers’ socio economic and conservation practices of Gilgel Gibe watershed. The study targeted 305 households in 4 districts of Jimma Zone surrounding the Gilgel Gibe Reservoir I. Semi-structured questionnaire was administered via interviews and focus group discussions led by trained survey interviewers. Result The findings of the study indicated that majority of farmers in the watershed have adequate knowledge, positive attitude and bad practice towards watershed conservation. To achieve better means of subsistence and improve their living condition farmers are forced to put stress on natural resource, degrading watershed and increase pollution loads that affect water quality of tributaries and reservoir. Conclusion Based on the present scenario, we forwarded stakeholders to establish team from the elders, officials at woreda and zonal level to initiate commitment, coordinate conservation activity and promote households’ income generating activities at homestead level like conservation agriculture.

Background:Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) from chlorinated drinking water have been linked to an increased risk of cancer in the bladder, stomach, colon, and rectum. No studies showed the independent trends and prevalence of these cancers in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence and trends of disinfection byproducts-related cancers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Methods:Data were collected from the Addis Ababa Cancer Registry. Spatial data sets were produced and classified into households receiving chlorinated surface water and less chlorinated groundwater. The Cochran-Armitage trend test was used to evaluate whether there was a disinfection byproducts-related cancers (DBRCs) trend among communities receiving chlorinated water. Negative binomial regression was used to analyze the incidence rate.Results:A total of 11, 438 cancer cases were registered between 2012 and 2016, and DBRCs accounted for approximately 17%. The majority of the total cancer cases were female; 7,706 (67%). The prevalence of DBRCs was found to be higher in communities supplied with chlorinated water. From 2012 to 2016, the trend of colon cancer increased (β = 10.3, P value = .034); however, esophageal cancer decreased (β = −6.5, P value = .018). Approximately 56% of colorectal cancer patients and 53% of stomach cancer patients are known to be using chlorinated surface water for drinking regularly. In addition, approximately 57.1% and 54% of kidney and bladder cancer patients, respectively, used chlorinated surface water.Conclusion:The prevalence of DBRCs in this study was found to be high. The colon cancer trend increased substantially from 2012 to 2016. The prevalence of DBRCs was higher in communities supplied with chlorinated surface water. Similarly, the prevalence of DBRCs was higher among males than females. Further study is required to validate the association between DBRCs and water chlorination.

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-ehi-10.1177_1687814020966927 for Drinking Water Source, Chlorinated Water, and Colorectal Cancer: A Matched Case-Control Study in Ethiopia by Nebiyou Tafesse, Massimiliano Porcelli, Sirak Robele Gari and Argaw Ambelu in Environmental Health Insights

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-ehi-10.1177_11786302211064432 for Drinking Water Source, Chlorinated Water, and Colorectal Cancer: A Matched Case-Control Study in Ethiopia by Nebiyou Tafesse, Massimiliano Porcelli, Sirak Robele Gari and Argaw Ambelu in Environmental Health Insights

Ecological control of blackflies (Simulium damnosum) can be an alternative or additional tool to enhance onchocerciasis elimination efforts. However, limited research is conducted on the ecology of blackflies in Ethiopia. In this study, we determined the habitat preference of blackfly larvae and their relationship with aquatic macroinvertebrate predators in the Omo Gibe river basin of southwest Ethiopia. Environmental and biological data were collected from 150 sampling sites during both dry and wet seasons in 2019. Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) were used to identify factors affecting the occurrence and abundance of S. damnosum larvae. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to investigate the relationship between environmental and biological variables and the abundance of S. damnosum larvae. The findings of this study indicated the abundance of S. damnosum larvae increased with increasing turbidity, alkalinity and altitude, but decreased with increasing concentrations of five-day Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5), orthophosphate and magnesium ion. Both the presence and abundance of S. damnosum larvae decreased with the increasing abundance of stonefly larvae (Perlidae). Simulium damnosum larvae were found less likely in the presence of mayfly larvae (Baetidae) and were less abundant where Chironomidae are abundant. In conclusion, the findings of this study showed that the habitat preference of S. damnosum larvae is determined by environmental factors and that the presence and abundance of the larvae are affected by macroinvertebrate predators. It is essential to establish buffer zones as a part of watershed management to retain pollutants and prevent them from entering directly into water courses to improve water quality and the assemblages of macroinvertebrate predators and enhance biocontrol of blackflies.

Knowledge on the effects of habitat and flow alterations is basis for sustainable stream habitat conservation. This study explores the effects of hydrological and stream habitat alterations on the macroinvertebrates in Dinki watershed headwater streams, central highlands of Ethiopia. A total of 86 macroinvertebrate and water composite samples were collected over 25 sampling reaches in four-round sampling effort. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was computed to assess variations in mean values of the three dependent variables (taxa abundance, richness, and diversity) across the independent variables, study sites (Dens, Gedamoch, Hagere-Selam, and Dinki). The mean differences in macroinvertebrate and environmental variables between sampling sites were computed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Likewise, a principal component analysis (PCA) was computed to ordinate sampling sites in relation to macroinvertebrates. Furthermore, the resistance and resilience scores were calculated to quantify the invertebrates’ persistence and rate of recovery to habitat and hydrological alterations. The MANOVA indicated a significant spatial variation in taxa abundance. Both the reduced flow and spates had declined assemblage structures in all sampling sites. The PCA also showed that the stream habitat condition influenced the distribution of macroinvertebrates. In general, macroinvertebrate assemblages in both the pre-and-post disturbance events were higher in the forested Gedamoch sites, indicating the role of stream habitat conservation to buffer hydrological disturbances. As a result, management priorities aiming to protect and restore stream condition is a sound mitigation tool to maintain stream condition and its resilience to ecological disturbances.

Breast milk is often used as an environmental bioindicator since it serves as an important medium to accumulate organochlorine pesticides. The main aim of this study is to determine the level of organochlorine pesticides in human breast milk collected from three districts of southwestern Ethiopia (Asendabo, Deneba, and Serbo) at three times points baselines (1st month), midline ( six months), and end line (12 months) and risk of infants’ exposure. A longitudinal study was conducted to assess pesticide residues in human breast milk samples and evaluate the risk-exposure of infants to these pesticides from consumption of mother’s milk in Ethiopia. Breast milk samples were collected from 168 mothers at three time points and pesticides were extracted using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method. The level of pesticide residues in human milk samples and exposure of infants to the pesticides was evaluated by calculating the estimated daily intake and compared with the provisional tolerable daily intake of the pesticides under study. The results indicated that, from the eight organochlorine pesticides analyzed in 447 breast milk samples at three sampling times, DDT and its metabolites were detected. p,p′-DDE and p,p′-DDT were detected in all (100%) of the breast milk samples while, p,p-DDD, and o,p-DDT were detected in 53.9%, and 42.7%, respectively. The mean concentration of total DDT at three time points(baseline, midline and endline) were 2.25, 1.68 and 1.32 µg/g milk fat, respectively. The mean concentration of total DDT from the three districts was 1.85 µg/g milk fat which is above the maximum residue limit (MRL = 0.02 µg/g milk fat set by FAO/WHO). The mean ratio of DDT/DDE for the three areas was calculated less than five (