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The formation and guidance of specialized endothelial tip cells is essential for both developmental and pathological angiogenesis. Notch-1 signalling regulates the generation of tip cells, which respond to gradients of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A). The molecular cues and signalling pathways that control the guidance of tip cells are poorly understood. Bidirectional signalling by Eph receptors and ephrin ligands represents one of the most important guidance cues involved in axon path finding. Here we show that ephrin-B2 reverse signalling involving PDZ interactions regulates endothelial tip cell guidance to control angiogenic sprouting and branching in physiological and pathological angiogenesis. In vivo, ephrin-B2 PDZ-signalling-deficient mice (ephrin-B2DeltaV) exhibit a reduced number of tip cells with fewer filopodial extensions at the vascular front in the mouse retina. In pathological settings, impaired PDZ signalling decreases tumour vascularization and growth. Mechanistically, we show that ephrin-B2 controls VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2 internalization and signalling. Importantly, internalization of VEGFR2 is necessary for activation and downstream signalling of the receptor and is required for VEGF-induced tip cell filopodial extension. Together, our results suggest that ephrin-B2 at the tip cell filopodia regulates the proper spatial activation of VEGFR2 endocytosis and signalling to direct filopodial extension. Blocking ephrin-B2 reverse signalling may be an attractive alternative or combinatorial anti-angiogenic therapy strategy to disrupt VEGFR2 function in tumour angiogenesis.

Dendritic spines are small protrusions emerging from dendrites that receive excitatory input. The process of spine morphogenesis occurs both in the developing brain and during synaptic plasticity. Molecules regulating the cytoskeleton are involved in spine formation and maintenance. Here we show that reverse signaling by the transmembrane ligands for Eph receptors, ephrinBs, is required for correct spine morphogenesis. The molecular mechanism underlying this function of ephrinBs involves the SH2 and SH3 domain-containing adaptor protein Grb4 and the G protein-coupled receptor kinase-interacting protein (GIT) 1. Grb4 binds by its SH2 domain to Tyr392 in the synaptic localization domain of GIT1. Phosphorylation of Tyr392 and the recruitment of GIT1 to synapses are regulated by ephrinB activation. Disruption of this pathway in cultured rat hippocampal neurons impairs spine morphogenesis and synapse formation. We thus show an important role for ephrinB reverse signaling in spine formation and have mapped the downstream pathway involved in this process.

The hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are characterized by cognitive decline and behavioral changes. The most prominent brain region affected by the progression of AD is the hippocampal formation. The pathogenesis involves a successive loss of hippocampal neurons accompanied by a decline in learning and memory consolidation mainly attributed to an accumulation of senile plaques. The amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been identified as precursor of Aβ-peptides, the main constituents of senile plaques. Until now, little is known about the physiological function of APP within the central nervous system. The allocation of APP to the proteome of the highly dynamic presynaptic active zone (PAZ) highlights APP as a yet unknown player in neuronal communication and signaling. In this study, we analyze the impact of APP deletion on the hippocampal PAZ proteome. The native hippocampal PAZ derived from APP mouse mutants (APP-KOs and NexCreAPP/APLP2-cDKOs) was isolated by subcellular fractionation and immunopurification. Subsequently, an isobaric labeling was performed using TMT6 for protein identification and quantification by high-resolution mass spectrometry. We combine bioinformatics tools and biochemical approaches to address the proteomics dataset and to understand the role of individual proteins. The impact of APP deletion on the hippocampal PAZ proteome was visualized by creating protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks that incorporated APP into the synaptic vesicle cycle, cytoskeletal organization, and calcium-homeostasis. The combination of subcellular fractionation, immunopurification, proteomic analysis, and bioinformatics allowed us to identify APP as structural and functional regulator in a context-sensitive manner within the hippocampal active zone network., Author Summary More than 20 years ago, the amyloid precursor protein (APP) was identified as the precursor protein of the Aβ peptide, the main component of senile plaques in brains affected by Alzheimer’s disease. However, little is known about the physiological function of amyloid precursor protein. Allocating APP to the proteome of the structurally and functionally dynamic presynaptic active zone highlights APP as a hitherto unknown player within the presynaptic network. The hippocampus is the most prominent brain region for learning and memory consolidation, and a vulnerable target for neurodegenerative disease, e. g. Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore, our experimental design is focused on the hippocampal neurotransmitter release site. Currently, the underlying mechanism of how APP acts within presynaptic networks is still elusive. Within the scope of this research article, we constructed a network of APP within the presynaptic active zone and how deletion of APP affects these individual networks. We combine bioinformatics tools and biochemical approaches to address the dataset provided by proteomics. Furthermore, we could unravel that APP executes regulatory functions within the synaptic vesicle cycle, cytoskeletal rearrangements and Ca2+-homeostasis. Taken together, our findings offer a new perspective on the physiological function of APP in the central nervous system and may provide a molecular link to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease.

Diffuse invasion of the surrounding brain parenchyma is a major obstacle in the treatment of gliomas with various therapeutics, including anti-angiogenic agents. Here we identify the epi-/genetic and microenvironmental downregulation of ephrinB2 as a crucial step that promotes tumour invasion by abrogation of repulsive signals. We demonstrate that ephrinB2 is downregulated in human gliomas as a consequence of promoter hypermethylation and gene deletion. Consistently, genetic deletion of ephrinB2 in a murine high-grade glioma model increases invasion. Importantly, ephrinB2 gene silencing is complemented by a hypoxia-induced transcriptional repression. Mechanistically, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α induces the EMT repressor ZEB2, which directly downregulates ephrinB2 through promoter binding to enhance tumour invasiveness. This mechanism is activated following anti-angiogenic treatment of gliomas and is efficiently blocked by disrupting ZEB2 activity. Taken together, our results identify ZEB2 as an attractive therapeutic target to inhibit tumour invasion and counteract tumour resistance mechanisms induced by anti-angiogenic treatment strategies., Ephrins are transmembrane proteins involved in cell-cell communication, and implicated in cancer cell growth and progression. Here, the authors show that EphrinB2 expression is reduced in glioma cells both by genetic and epigenetic alterations and under hypoxia, through a HIF1α-mediated direct regulation of ZEB2, which enhances invasion and anti-angiogenic resistance.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the NADPH oxidase have been proposed to play an important role in the carotid body (CB) oxygen sensing process (Cross et al. 1990). Up to now it remains unclear whether hypoxia causes an increase or decrease of CB ROS levels. We transfected CBs with the ROS sensitive HSP-FRET construct and subsequently measured the intracellular redox state by means of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy. In a previous study we found both increasing and decreasing ROS levels under hypoxic conditions. The transition from decreasing to increasing ROS levels coincided with the change of the caging system from ambient environment caging (AEC) to individually ventilated caging (IVC) (Bernardini A, Brockmeier U, Metzen E, Berchner-Pfannschmidt U, Harde E, Acker-Palmer A, Papkovsky D, Acker H, Fandrey J, Type I cell ROS kinetics under hypoxia in the intact mouse carotid body ex vivo: a FRET based study. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00370.2013 , 2014). In this work we analyze hypoxia induced ROS reaction of animals from an IVC system that had been exposed to AEC conditions for 5 days. The results further support the hypothesis of an important impact of the caging system on CB ROS reaction.

Angiogenesis produces primitive vascular networks that need pruning to yield hierarchically organized and functional vessels. Despite the critical importance of vessel pruning to vessel patterning and function, the mechanisms regulating this process are not clear. Here we show that EphrinB2, a well-known player in angiogenesis, is an essential regulator of endothelial cell death and vessel pruning. This regulation depends upon phosphotyrosine-EphrinB2 signalling repressing c-jun N-terminal kinase 3 activity via STAT1. JNK3 activation causes endothelial cell death. In the absence of JNK3, hyaloid vessel physiological pruning is impaired, associated with abnormal persistence of hyaloid vessels, defective retinal vasculature and microphthalmia. This syndrome closely resembles human persistent hyperplastic primary vitreus (PHPV), attributed to failed involution of hyaloid vessels. Our results provide evidence that EphrinB2/STAT1/JNK3 signalling is essential for vessel pruning, and that defects in this pathway may contribute to PHPV.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the NADPH oxidase have been proposed to play an important role in the carotid body (CB) oxygen sensing process (Cross et al. 1990). Up to now it remains unclear whether hypoxia causes an increase or decrease of CB ROS levels. We transfected CBs with the ROS sensitive HSP-FRET construct and subsequently measured the intracellular redox state by means of Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy. In a previous study we found both increasing and decreasing ROS levels under hypoxic conditions. The transition from decreasing to increasing ROS levels coincided with the change of the caging system from ambient environment caging (AEC) to individually ventilated caging (IVC) (Bernardini A, Brockmeier U, Metzen E, Berchner-Pfannschmidt U, Harde E, Acker-Palmer A, Papkovsky D, Acker H, Fandrey J, Type I cell ROS kinetics under hypoxia in the intact mouse carotid body ex vivo: a FRET based study. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00370.2013 , 2014). In this work we analyze hypoxia induced ROS reaction of animals from an IVC system that had been exposed to AEC conditions for 5 days. The results further support the hypothesis of an important impact of the caging system on CB ROS reaction.

Nerve cells are continuously generated from stem cells in the adult mammalian subventricular zone (SVZ) and hippocampal dentate gyrus. We have previously noted that stem/progenitor cells in the SVZ and the subgranular layer (SGL) of the dentate gyrus express high levels of plasma membrane-bound nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2), an ectoenzyme that hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates. We inferred that deletion of NTPDase2 would increase local extracellular nucleoside triphosphate concentrations perturbing purinergic signaling and boosting progenitor cell proliferation and neurogenesis. Using newly generated mice globally null for Entpd2, we demonstrate that NTPDase2 is the major ectonucleotidase in these progenitor cell-rich areas. Using BrdU-labeling protocols, we have measured stem cell proliferation and determined long-term survival of cell progeny under basal conditions. Brains of Entpd2 null mice revealed increased progenitor cell proliferation in both the SVZ and the SGL. However, this occurred without noteworthy alterations in long-term progeny survival. The hippocampal stem cell pool and the pool of the intermediate progenitor type-2 cells clearly expanded. However, substantive proportions of these proliferating cells were lost during expansion at around type-3 stage. Cell loss was paralleled by decreases in cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation in the doublecortin-positive progenitor cell population and by an increase in labeling for activated caspase-3 levels. We propose that NTPDase2 has functionality in scavenging mitogenic extracellular nucleoside triphosphates in neurogenic niches of the adult brain, thereby acting as a homeostatic regulator of nucleotide-mediated neural progenitor cell proliferation and expansion. Stem Cells 2015;33:253–264

Identification of protein-protein interactions is crucial for unraveling cellular processes and biochemical mechanisms of signal transduction. Here we describe, for the first time, the application of the tandem affinity purification (TAP) and LC-MS method to the characterization of protein complexes from transgenic mice. The TAP strategy developed in transgenic mice allows the emplacement of complexes in their physiological environment in contact with proteins that might only be specifically expressed in certain tissues while simultaneously ensuring the right stoichiometry of the TAP protein versus their binding partners and represents a novelty in proteomics approaches used so far. Mouse lines expressing TAP-tagged 14-3-3zeta protein were generated, and protein interactions were determined. 14-3-3 proteins are general regulators of cell signaling and represent up to 1% of the total brain protein. This study allowed the identification of almost 40 novel 14-3-3zeta-binding proteins. Biochemical and functional characterization of some of these interactions revealed new mechanisms of action of 14-3-3zeta in several signaling pathways, such as glutamate receptor signaling via binding to homer homolog 3 (Homer 3) and in cytoskeletal rearrangements and spine morphogenesis by binding and regulating the activity of the signaling complex formed by G protein-coupled receptor kinase-interactor 1 (GIT1) and p21-activated kinase-interacting exchange factor beta (betaPIX).

Solid tumours are exposed to microenvironmental factors such as hypoxia that normally inhibit cell growth. However, tumour cells are capable of counteracting these signals through mechanisms that are largely unknown. Here we show that the prolyl hydroxylase PHD3 restrains tumour growth in response to microenvironmental cues through the control of EGFR. PHD3 silencing in human gliomas or genetic deletion in a murine high-grade astrocytoma model markedly promotes tumour growth and the ability of tumours to continue growing under unfavourable conditions. The growth-suppressive function of PHD3 is independent of the established PHD3 targets HIF and NF-κB and its hydroxylase activity. Instead, loss of PHD3 results in hyperphosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Importantly, epigenetic/genetic silencing of PHD3 preferentially occurs in gliomas without EGFR amplification. Our findings reveal that PHD3 inactivation provides an alternative route of EGFR activation through which tumour cells sustain proliferative signalling even under conditions of limited oxygen availability., Little is known on how solid tumours overcome growth inhibitory signals within its hypoxic microenvironment. Here Henze et al. show that oxygen sensor PHD3 is frequently lost in gliomas, and that this loss hyperactivates EGFR signaling to sustain tumour cell proliferation and survival in hypoxia.

Homeobox genes (Hox) encode for transcription factors, which regulate cell proliferation and migration and play an important role in the development of the cardiovascular system during embryogenesis. In this study, we investigated the role of HoxA9 for endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis in vitro and identified a novel target gene, the EphB4 receptor. Inhibition of HoxA9 expression decreased endothelial cell tube formation and inhibited endothelial cell migration, suggesting that HoxA9 regulates angiogenesis. Because Eph receptor tyrosine kinases importantly contribute to angiogenesis, we examined whether HoxA9 may transcriptionally regulate the expression of EphB4. Downregulation of HoxA9 reduced the expression of EphB4. Chromatin-immunoprecipitation revealed that HoxA9 interacted with the EphB4 promoter, whereas a deletion construct of HoxA9 without DNA-binding motif (Δaa 206-272) did not bind. Consistently, HoxA9 wild-type overexpression activated the EphB4 promoter as determined by reporter gene expression. HoxA9 binds to the EphB4 promoter and stimulates its expression resulting in an increase of endothelial cell migration and tube forming activity. Thus, modulation of EphB4 expression may contribute to the proangiogenic effect of HoxA9 in endothelial cells.

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) has previously been allocated to an organellar pool residing in the Golgi apparatus and in endosomal compartments, and in its mature form to a presynaptic active zone-localized pool. By analyzing homozygous APP knockout mice we evaluated the impact of APP on synaptic vesicle protein abundance at synaptic release sites. Following immunopurification of synaptic vesicles and the attached presynaptic plasma membrane, individual proteins were subjected to quantitative Western blot analysis. We demonstrate that APP deletion in knockout animals reduces the abundance of the synaptic vesicle proteins synaptophysin, synaptotagmin-1, and SV2A at the presynaptic active zone. Conversely, deletion of the additional APP family members, APLP1 and APLP2 resulted in an increase in synaptophysin, synaptogamin-1, and SV2A abundance. When transmembrane APP is lacking in APPsα-KI/APLP2-KO mice synaptic vesicle protein abundance corresponds to that in APP -KO mice. Deletion of the synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2) A and B had no effect on APP and synaptophysin abundance but decreased synaptotagmin-1. Our data suggest that APP controls the abundance of synaptic vesicle proteins at the presynaptic release sites and thus impacts synaptic transmission.

Mammalian plexins constitute a family of transmembrane receptors for semaphorins and represent critical regulators of various processes during development of the nervous, cardiovascular, skeletal, and renal system. In vitro studies have shown that plexins exert their effects via an intracellular R-Ras/M-Ras GTPase-activating protein (GAP) domain or by activation of RhoA through interaction with Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor proteins. However, which of these signaling pathways are relevant for plexin functions in vivo is largely unknown. Using an allelic series of transgenic mice, we show that the GAP domain of plexins constitutes their key signaling module during development. Mice in which endogenous Plexin-B2 or Plexin-D1 is replaced by transgenic versions harboring mutations in the GAP domain recapitulate the phenotypes of the respective null mutants in the developing nervous, vascular, and skeletal system. We further provide genetic evidence that, unexpectedly, the GAP domain-mediated developmental functions of plexins are not brought about via R-Ras and M-Ras inactivation. In contrast to the GAP domain mutants, Plexin-B2 transgenic mice defective in Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor binding are viable and fertile but exhibit abnormal development of the liver vasculature. Our genetic analyses uncover the in vivo context-dependence and functional specificity of individual plexin-mediated signaling pathways during development.

The proper functioning of the dopaminergic system requires the coordinated formation of projections extending from dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN), ventral tegmental area (VTA) and retrorubral field to a wide array of forebrain targets including the striatum, nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex. The mechanisms controlling the assembly of these distinct dopaminergic cell clusters are not well understood. Here, we have investigated in detail the migratory behavior of dopaminergic neurons giving rise to either the SN or the medial VTA using genetic inducible fate mapping, ultramicroscopy, time-lapse imaging, slice culture and analysis of mouse mutants. We demonstrate that neurons destined for the SN migrate first radially and then tangentially, whereas neurons destined for the medial VTA undergo primarily radial migration. We show that tangentially migrating dopaminergic neurons express the components of the reelin signaling pathway, whereas dopaminergic neurons in their initial, radial migration phase express CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), the receptor for the chemokine CXC motif ligand 12 (CXCL12). Perturbation of reelin signaling interferes with the speed and orientation of tangentially, but not radially, migrating dopaminergic neurons and results in severe defects in the formation of the SN. By contrast, CXCR4/CXCL12 signaling modulates the initial migration of dopaminergic neurons. With this study, we provide the first molecular and functional characterization of the distinct migratory pathways taken by dopaminergic neurons destined for SN and VTA, and uncover mechanisms that regulate different migratory behaviors of dopaminergic neurons.

Summary FLRTs are broadly expressed proteins with the unique property of acting as homophilic cell adhesion molecules and as heterophilic repulsive ligands of Unc5/Netrin receptors. How these functions direct cell behavior and the molecular mechanisms involved remain largely unclear. Here we use X-ray crystallography to reveal the distinct structural bases for FLRT-mediated cell adhesion and repulsion in neurons. We apply this knowledge to elucidate FLRT functions during cortical development. We show that FLRTs regulate both the radial migration of pyramidal neurons, as well as their tangential spread. Mechanistically, radial migration is controlled by repulsive FLRT2-Unc5D interactions, while spatial organization in the tangential axis involves adhesive FLRT-FLRT interactions. Further, we show that the fundamental mechanisms of FLRT adhesion and repulsion are conserved between neurons and vascular endothelial cells. Our results reveal FLRTs as powerful guidance factors with structurally encoded repulsive and adhesive surfaces., Highlights • Distinct FLRT surfaces mediate homophilic adhesion and Unc5-dependent repulsion • Neurons expressing Unc5 and FLRT integrate adhesive and repulsive FLRT signals • FLRTs direct radial migration and tangential spread of cortical neurons • FLRT3 controls retinal vascularization, Cortical development depends on a balance of adhesive and repulsive interactions between cells. Seiradake et al. show how FLRT proteins fine-tune adhesion and repulsion between cells migrating through the neocortex. Vascular cells are also guided by FLRT using structurally conserved mechanisms.

Remyelination in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions often remains incomplete despite the presence of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Amongst other factors, successful remyelination depends on the phagocytic clearance of myelin debris. However, the proteins in myelin debris that act as potent and selective inhibitors on OPC differentiation and inhibit CNS remyelination remain unknown. Here, we identify the transmembrane signalling protein EphrinB3 as important mediator of this inhibition, using a protein analytical approach in combination with a primary rodent OPC assay. In the presence of EphrinB3, OPCs fail to differentiate. In a rat model of remyelination, infusion of EphrinB3 inhibits remyelination. In contrast, masking EphrinB3 epitopes using antibodies promotes remyelination. Finally, we identify EphrinB3 in MS lesions and demonstrate that MS lesion extracts inhibit OPC differentiation while antibody-mediated masking of EphrinB3 epitopes promotes it. Our findings suggest that EphrinB3 could be a target for therapies aiming at promoting remyelination in demyelinating disease.

The brain-specific isoform carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1C (CPT1C) has been implicated in the hypothalamic regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis. Nevertheless, its molecular function is not completely understood, and its role in other brain areas is unknown. We demonstrate that CPT1C is expressed in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus and is located in the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the neuron, even inside dendritic spines. We used molecular, cellular, and behavioral approaches to determine CPT1C function. First, we analyzed the implication of CPT1C in ceramide metabolism. CPT1C overexpression in primary hippocampal cultured neurons increased ceramide levels, whereas in CPT1C-deficient neurons, ceramide levels were diminished. Correspondingly, CPT1C knock-out (KO) mice showed reduced ceramide levels in the hippocampus. At the cellular level, CPT1C deficiency altered dendritic spine morphology by increasing immature filopodia and reducing mature mushroom and stubby spines. Total protrusion density and spine head area in mature spines were unaffected. Treatment of cultured neurons with exogenous ceramide reverted the KO phenotype, as did ectopic overexpression of CPT1C, indicating that CPT1C regulation of spine maturation is mediated by ceramide. To study the repercussions of the KO phenotype on cognition, we performed the hippocampus-dependent Morris water maze test on mice. Results show that CPT1C deficiency strongly impairs spatial learning. All of these results demonstrate that CPT1C regulates the levels of ceramide in the endoplasmic reticulum of hippocampal neurons, and this is a relevant mechanism for the correct maturation of dendritic spines and for proper spatial learning.

The mouse retina has long been regarded as an easily accessible and advantageous system to investigate important questions of developmental angiogenesis. The protocol presented here profits from the suitability of the mouse retina as experimental model and describes an ex vivo culture technique of mouse retina explants that allows the quantitative assessment of angiogenic responses to pharmacological manipulations. The technique involves the extraction of the retina from the intact eye, the immediate flat mounting of the tissue on a hydrophilic membrane and the acute stimulation or inhibition of angiogenic processes of the developing vessels in their physiological context ex vivo. The number of filopodia structures found at the growing front of the vascular plexus serves as a quantitative readout. This method offers an easily manageable and highly reproducible way to elucidate the complex molecular mechanisms that underlie tip cell function and guidance during the highly orchestrated process of angiogenic sprouting.

The 14-3-3 family of proteins interacts with various cellular phosphoproteins and regulates multiple cell signaling cascades. Identification of 14-3-3 interactors is important to define 14-3-3 functions in various biological pathways. The binding partners of protein 14-3-3 in testis are not known. The main goal of this study was to identify the 14-3-3 interactome in testis to determine the 14-3-3 regulated cellular processes in testis. We used transgenic mice expressing tandem affinity tagged 14-3-3zeta (TAP-14-3-3zeta) driven by the ubiquitin promoter to isolate 14-3-3 binding proteins. The 14-3-3 complexes in testis were isolated using a two-step tandem affinity purification (TAP) followed by identification with liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A total of 135 proteins were found to be associated with 14-3-3 in vivo in testis. Comparison of the testis 14-3-3 proteome with known 14-3-3 binding proteins showed that 71 of the proteins identified in this study are novel 14-3-3 interactors. Eight of these novel 14-3-3 interacting proteins are predominantly expressed in testis. The 14-3-3 interactors predominant in testis are: protein phosphatase1gamma2 (PP1gamma2), spermatogenesis associated 18 (SPATA18), phosphoglycerate kinase-2 (PGK2), testis specific gene A-2 (TSGA-2), dead box polypeptide 4 (DDX4), piwi homolog 1, protein kinase NYD-SP25 and EAN57. The fact that some of these proteins are indispensable for spermatogenesis suggests that their binding to 14-3-3 may be important for their function in germ cell division and maturation. These findings are discussed in context of the putative functions of 14-3-3 in spermatogenesis.

Cerebral ischemia stimulates endogenous neurogenesis. However, the functional relevance of this phenomenon remains unclear because of poor survival and low neuronal differentiation rates of newborn cells. Therefore, further studies on mechanisms regulating neurogenesis under ischemic conditions are required, among which ephrin-ligands and ephrin-receptors (Eph) are an interesting target. Although Eph/ephrin proteins like ephrin-B3 are known to negatively regulate neurogenesis under physiological conditions, their role in cerebral ischemia is largely unknown. We therefore studied neurogenesis, brain injury and functional outcome in ephrin-B3(-/-) (knockout) and ephrin-B3(+/+) (wild-type) mice submitted to cerebral ischemia. Induction of stroke resulted in enhanced cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation around the lesion site of ephrin-B3(-/-) compared to ephrin-B3(+/+) mice. However, prominent post-ischemic neurogenesis in ephrin-B3(-/-) mice was accompanied by significantly increased ischemic injury and motor coordination deficits that persisted up to 4 weeks. Ischemic injury in ephrin-B3(-/-) mice was associated with a caspase-3-dependent activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1). Whereas inhibition of caspase-3 had no effect on brain injury in ephrin-B3(+/+) animals, infarct size in ephrin-B3(-/-) mice was strongly reduced, suggesting that aggravated brain injury in these animals might involve a caspase-3-dependent activation of STAT1. In conclusion, post-ischemic neurogenesis in ephrin-B3(-/-) mice is strongly enhanced, but fails to contribute to functional recovery because of caspase-3-mediated aggravation of ischemic injury in these animals. Our results suggest that ephrin-B3 might be an interesting target for overcoming some of the limitations of further cell-based therapies in stroke.

This protocol details a culture technique for neonatal mouse retina that allows the assessment and quantification of acute responses of developing blood vessels to pharmacological manipulation. The technique has proven to be a useful tool for elucidating the molecular mechanisms that underlie the guidance of tip cells in the complex scenario of the angiogenic sprouting process. This culture setting allows the acute stimulation or inhibition of cellular functions of endothelial cells in their physiological environment ex vivo. Compared with other existing techniques, such as retinal injections in animals, the explant culture described here is an easily manageable and highly flexible alternative that allows pharmacological manipulations of the developing retina vessels. The technique involves swift extraction of retina from intact eye and retinal flat mounting on a hydrophilic membrane with minimum disturbance of the tissue. The responses of tip endothelial cell sprouting activity and filopodial extension to different angiogenic and angioinhibitory factors can be evaluated within only 4 h. The whole process for the retinal explant cultures and stimulation can be completed in 10 h.

The spatial organization of transmembrane receptors is a critical step in signal transduction and receptor trafficking in cells. Transmembrane receptors engage in lateral homotypic and heterotypic cis-interactions as well as intercellular trans-interactions that result in the formation of signalling foci for the initiation of different signalling networks. Several aspects of ligand-induced receptor clustering and association with signalling proteins are also influenced by the lipid composition of membranes. Thus, lipid microdomains have a function in tuning the activity of many transmembrane receptors by positively or negatively affecting receptor clustering and signal transduction. We review the current knowledge about the functions of clustering of transmembrane receptors and lipid–protein interactions important for the spatial organization of signalling at the membrane.

It has long been known that the secreted factor Reelin is crucial for proper neuronal migration during the development of the cortex. However, the mechanistic actions leading to a Reelin response are less well known. Acker-Palmer and colleagues reveal that the axonal guidance cue ephrin B2 acts as a co-factor with Reelin receptors to initiate signalling cascades important to produce the proper lamination of the cortex. This additional role for ephrin B2 expands the functions for this developmental protein beyond proper axonal targeting to cell migration. Coordinated migration of neurons in the developing and adult brain is essential for its proper function. The secreted glycoprotein Reelin (also known as RELN) guides migration of neurons by binding to two lipoprotein receptors, the very-low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) and apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2, also known as LRP8)1. Loss of Reelin function in humans results in the severe developmental disorder lissencephaly2 and it has also been associated with other neurological disorders such as epilepsy, schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease3. The molecular mechanisms by which Reelin activates its receptors and controls cellular functions are largely unknown. Here we show that the neuronal guidance cues ephrin B proteins are essential for Reelin signalling during the development of laminated structures in the brain. We show that ephrin Bs genetically interact with Reelin. Notably, compound mouse mutants (Reln+/−; Efnb3−/− or Reln+/−; Efnb2−/−) and triple ephrin B1, B2, B3 knockouts show neuronal migration defects that recapitulate the ones observed in the neocortex, hippocampus and cerebellum of the reeler mouse. Mechanistically, we show that Reelin binds to the extracellular domain of ephrin Bs, which associate at the membrane with VLDLR and ApoER2 in neurons. Clustering of ephrin Bs leads to the recruitment and phosphorylation of Dab1 which is necessary for Reelin signalling. Conversely, loss of function of ephrin Bs severely impairs Reelin-induced Dab1 phosphorylation. Importantly, activation of ephrin Bs can rescue the reeler neuronal migration defects in the absence of Reelin protein. Together, our results identify ephrin Bs as essential components of the Reelin receptor/signalling pathway to control neuronal migration during the development of the nervous system.