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The intracrystalline cation distributions in fourteen natural Zn-aluminate spinels were determined by means of X-ray single-crystal structural refinement, supported for some samples by Mössbauer spectroscopy.Zinc substitutes for Mg and subordinately Fe2+ and its relevant changes in content, from 0.10 to 0.96 atoms per formula unit (apfu), are not related to variations of cell parameter. The latter is determined mainly by the substitution Fe3+ ⇌ Al. In agreement with data from synthetic samples, a small but definite amount of Zn (up to 0.06 apfu) is located in the octahedral M site. Fe2+, when present, shows a preference for tetrahedral coordination.An improved value of the tetrahedral Zn(T)-O distance (1.960 Å) was obtained, integrating the set of interatomic distances used for the determination of cation distribution in spinels.

During research on the influence of temperature on cation partitioning in natural Mg-Al-Fe2+-Fe3+spinels, some crystals were accidentally oxidized during heat treatment. The oxidation product, studied by means of single-crystal X-ray diffraction, turned out to be a phase retaining theFd3mparent spinel structure, but with cell edgeaand oxygen coordinateuconsiderably smaller than the parent ones (a∼ 8.087 as compared with ∼ 8.111 Å;u∼ 0.2609vs.0.2617–0.2636) and with vacant sites due to oxidation.Assuming that the oxidation process must occur due to the addition of oxygen to the crystal boundary as cations are being preserved and rising in total valence, the site population was determined and compared with that of untreated and heated samples. It was found that, on oxidation, a charge enrichment in the tetrahedral site T had occurred, this phenomenon following that observed during heating at increasing temperatures also in other spinel series. This continuity was always in the direction of an increase in random charge distribution. Cation vacancies produced during oxidation were restricted to the octahedral site M.Examination of bulk sections by reflected light microscopy showed a few hematite lamellae as inclusions in the oxidized samples, not detectable by microprobe analysis or single-crystal structural refinement. However, hematite played a marginal part in oxidation. Vacancy-oxygen distances in oxidized spinels were determined from experimental data in the literature.

A natural Mg-Al-Fe spinel from the Balmuccia peridotite (Italian Western Alps) was annealed atTbetween 650 and 1150°C, under controlled oxygen activity, and quenched in H2O. Twenty-three cation distributions were calculated from XRD structural refinements in tandem with microprobe analysis, and verified by Mössbauer spectroscopy in the case of unheated samples.Unheated crystals showed essentially ordered distribution of Fe3+in octahedral and Fe2+in tetrahedral sites, the only intracrystalline disorder being represented by ∼0.12 atoms per formula unit of[4]Al and[6]Mg. Thermal runs and quenching maintained substantially ordered distribution of Fe2+and Fe3+up to ∼990°C and produced continuous[4]Mg-[6]Al exchange. Between 990 and 1150°C, the previous order of Fe2+-Fe3+appeared to change slightly,[6]Fe2+reaching ∼0.04 afu and[6]Mg ≅[4]Al ≅ 0.24 afu at the highestT. After quenching from this temperature, Fe2+still resided mainly in the T site. Some previously heated crystals underwent reordering on lowering of the temperature.Experimental data, integrated with existing literature, enabled cation-oxygen distance in this structure to be improved. Results from annealed samples allowed the formulation of an experimental thermometric function based on Mg-Al intracrystalline disorder.

Three natural spinels of different places of occurrence and compositions were investigated by means of microprobe chemical analysis, single crystal X-ray diffraction and Mössbauer spectroscopy. All cation distributions between T and M sites were calculated from microprobe and XRD experimental data, by means of a mathematical model with appropriate assumptions. Fe2+ and Fe3+ assignments calculated in this way were compared with those observed in Mössbauer spectra. The satisfactory agreement found proves, at least in the samples studied, the reliability of the model and the assumptions used. In the spinels examined, such results show Fe2+ and Fe3+ virtually ordered in T and M sites respectively. Mössbauer data also revealed Fe2+ in different tetrahedral sites due to the next-nearest neighbour effect, probably as a consequence of spinel genetic conditions.

We test the impact of explicit information on individual decisions in a public goods game experiment. In the Implicit (control) condition, participants make their decisions after seeing total contributions and their own contributions. In the Explicit (treatment) condition, a different set of subjects could also see the average contribution of others in their group, which is calculated for them. Although this should not have any effect, we observe a change in behaviour across the two conditions: participants are more likely to behave as defectors or co-operators in Implicit and more likely to behave as reciprocators in Explicit. Furthermore, we find these shifts in "type" are almost entirely the result of differences in female behavior, i.e., more women pursuing "unconditional" strategies of defection or cooperation in Implicit. We interpret our findings as evidence that women are more sensitive to cues about social norms, with important policy implications.

Twenty-seven single-crystal structural refinements were performed on synthetic spinels along the MgAl2O4 – Al8/3□1/3O4 join. The number of vacancies (from 0.09 to 0.22) was determined according to microprobe analysis. Results indicate that vacancies are limited only to octahedral sites, with a vacancy-to-oxygen distance refined to 2.113(3) Å. Mg is ordered in the tetrahedral site, and only for a 0 > 7.99 Å are the amounts of octahedral Mg significant. The decrease in a 0 shown by Al8/3□1/3O4-rich terms is essentially related to the strong decrease in the T–O distance, due to large amounts of tetrahedral Al. A linear relation between a 0 and the vacancy content V[unk] was derived satisfactorily fitting data in the literature, including end-members.

We focus on the role of conformity with social norms and concern with relative income in the decision to supply unpaid care for parents. Individuals have different propensities to be influenced by both relative income and social norms, and face a time constraint on the provision of both paid work (which increases their income) and unpaid care. We estimate our model with a sample drawn from the British Household Panel Survey to assess these effects empirically, estimating both the supply of unpaid care and the effect on utility of different preferences for relative income and unpaid care. We find that providing care decreases individual utility: long care hours are bad for carers (and care recipients). Women feature disproportionately amongst care providers and their motivations for care provision differ to men's, both in respect to the importance attached to relative income and to conformity with social norms. After controlling for other factors, men are more envious than women (attach more weight to relative income) and indi¤erent to social norms in relation to caring, whereas the opposite holds for women, so status races are bad for the supply of care within families and particularly men's supply. This is an issue as caring (in right amounts) can be good for carers too if they agree with caring norms, even when they prefer paid work to caring (as men do). We discuss implications for care provision and working arrangements.

We examine the impact of information regarding other people’s choices on individual choice in a public good experiment with two separate treatments. In the implicit treatment, subjects do not see the average contribution of others in their group, but they can calculate it from the information available. In the explicit treatment, subjects see the average contribution of others in their group. If subjects are rational calculating agents as suggested in mainstream economic theory there should be no difference in observed behavior across treatments: agents should use all available information to make decisions. What we see instead is quite different and consistent with the presence of social norms: first, players change their behavior in response to the change in displayed information; second, changes in individual behavior produce identical group outcomes, in terms of total payoffs or efficiency across the two treatments. How does this happen? The display of the average contribution of others results in behavior consistent with a focal point (Schelling, 1960), i.e., more subjects behave as reciprocators (conditioning their contributions on the contributions of others), and fewer behave as cooperators or free-riders (unconditionally contributing a lot or a little, respectively). This change in behavior differs by gender: women behave similarly to men when they see the average contribution by others; when they cannot, they behave differently, favoring unconditional strategies of free-riding or cooperation. Men’s behavior, in contrast to women’s adaption, does not adjust to social cues, as suggested by Croson and Gneezy (2009).

This contribution analyzes the variations in reported life satisfaction for men and women in the United Kingdom. While average levels of life satisfaction are similar for men and women, the variations in life satisfaction are more marked for women. Analyzing the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) for 1996–2007, the paper finds that hours of paid work increase life satisfaction for both men and women, while housework hours are statistically significant only for retired men and women. Childcare (for children ages 3 to 4 years) and caring for adults affect women's life satisfaction negatively but are statistically insignificant for men. Some of these differences might be explained by the fact that women and men in the sample assign differing weights to satisfaction with different life dimensions. Job satisfaction, in particular, matters much more to men than to women.

Diffraction patterns are explained using a matrix of identical coherent point sources, which emit elementary waves. Such a matrix is equivalent to a single point source, whose resultant wave is found by means of well known trigonometric formulas.

The expected response of individuals to policy changes usually requires that they use their resources in a different way, according to the changed relative opportunity cost of undertaking each that the policy effects. However, it has often been noted that the allocation of time to different activities does not respond smoothly, and rather appears to be influenced by a range of non economic factors that lead to opportunity costs and trade-offs being different for different individuals, depending not just on the constraints they face, but also on the activities they are already ‘specialised’ at. In this paper we use the British Household Panel Survey to examine how time packages - the allocation of weekly hours to a combination of paid and unpaid work and leisure - affect life satisfaction, and the marginal returns from additional hours spent in paid work, overtime, caring and housework. We observe that for men in general, the marginal benefits of an additional hour of paid work, or extra work (in the form of overtime or a second job) are positive, while an additional hour of caring has a negative effect on life satisfaction. For men who are leisure rich, however, the marginal benefits of an additional hour of housework are positive. Leisure rich men appear to gain satisfaction from doing housework, in a way that other men do not. The same applies to women. Women are in general less satisfied by taking on overtime or second jobs, presumably preferring to use that discretionary time at home in leisure pursuits or with children. For women doing full-time paid work, the marginal effect of an additional hour of extra work (overtime or a second job) is negative; for women already stretched by full-time paid work, extra hours are an unwelcome burden. We discuss the role that different kinds of constraints, including gender attitudes, play in determining our results and the implications for policy design.

The paper reviews the literature on social capital and development and identifies key properties of this concept that are then used in a model illustrating the potential welfare effects from social capital, in terms of both wellbeing and economic benefits. The model focuses on access to inputs into the growth process and identifies necessary conditions for benefits from social capital in terms of the availability of the right kind of intermediary making access to capital resources possible, and the presence of supportive institutions which make minimum human capital and complementary goods available.

Whilst there is an abundant supply of theoretical and empirical contributions in cooperative bargaining models on the transfer of material resources within couples and the labour supply patterns of individuals in couples, this literature has so far not been interested in measuring empirically the utilities of partners. Conversely the literature on hedonic wellbeing has recently moved on to assess couple’s happiness and the extent to which individuals in couples influence each other’s happiness without making reference to the problem of allocation of resources. The latter is however important to both the individual and couple happiness, and in the limit determine whether couples stay together. Here we address the role of the allocation of resources, particularly in the form of time use time and the effect it has on the joint and individual utilities in the couple.

The paper draws on recent research on the economics of prostitution focussing on the role of stigma in shaping the interaction between demand and supply and the resulting sub-markets in which this activity is typically organised. Here we extend the framework to consider the role of reputation and stigma in determining policy decisions regarding the regulation of prostitution and show how sub-optimal outcomes (from the point of view of the welfare of sex workers) may prevail.

We look at the educational choice of parents for their children, when the level of education a¤ects individual values. This approach may be applied to the analysis of temporal changes in values and attitudes in a community of immigrants.

An econometric model that explores the effect of personal characteristics and attitudes of clients on their demand for prostitution is estimated on data from a survey of clients of street sex workers in the US. The results reveal that clients of street sex workers in our sample have two diametrically opposite profiles: one for clients who declared never to have been with a sex worker or to have been only once, whom we label “experimenters”, and one for the more experienced ones that we name “regulars”. The experimenters correspond to a more machist type, with negative views of women, and of sex workers (who are believed to be different from other women but condemned at the same time), and viewing prostitution as a complement to stable relationships. The regulars have more liberal view of women, and of sex workers, the more they dislike control the more they demand, they like variety. Their demand also increases with age and with having a permanent job, which may indicate a positive income effect. These appear to be men who are happy to satisfy their sexual wants through sex workers, which they prefer to relationships. The users of condoms seem to fit the profile of the regulars, whereas the non-users fit that of the experimenters.

The article presents a review of current theoretical and empirical approaches to sex work, followed by the presentation of an original theoretical framework (Della Giusta et al., 2006), which is tested with an econometric model of the characteristics of demand for sex services by a sample of clients of street sex workers in the US. We present findings in relation to stigma and the relationship between paid and unpaid sex that corroborate our model’s hypotheses and are in line with findings from other empirical studies. Furthermore, we identify in our sample two diametrically opposite profiles: one for clients whom we label ‘experimenters’, and one for more experienced ones that we name ‘regulars,’ we also estimate attitudes toward risk, and draw implications in terms of both policy and future theoretical and empirical research.

The research agendas of psychologists and economists now have several overlaps, with behavioural economics providing theoretical and experimental study of the relationship between behaviour and choice, and hedonic psychology discussing appropriate measures of outcomes of choice in terms of overall utility or life satisfaction. Here we model the relationship between values (understood as principles guiding behaviour), choices and their final outcomes in terms of life satisfaction, and use data from the BHPS to assess whether our ideas on what is important in life (individual values) are broadly connected to what we experience as important in our lives (life satisfaction).

Our paper contributes to current debates around work-life balance and the efficiency and wellbeing costs associated with different models of work and childcare (Gregory and Connolly, 2008). It also contributes from a gender perspective to the life satisfaction literature by providing a test for the hypothesis that women and men with children attribute different meanings to overall life satisfaction. We begin by presenting a conventional model of life satisfaction for British parents in wave 8 of the British Household Panel Survey which includes childcare arrangements; and move on to discuss the possibility that women and men have a different understanding of what matters in life and what constitutes life satisfaction, and accordingly we explore the role of dimensions of life satisfaction in overall life satisfaction. Finally, we try to account for observed differences between women and men and explain some of the paradoxes encountered in the literature on women and work-life balance, and on policy based on happiness scores.

Contents:AcknowledgementsIntroduction Mark Casson and Marina Della Giusta1. Harald Baldersheim, Jan Bucek and Pawel Swianiewicz (2002), 'Mayors Learning across Borders: The International Networks of Municipalities in East-Central Europe'2. Ashok Deo Bardhan and Subhrajit Guhathakurta (2004), 'Global Linkages of Subnational Regions: Coastal Exports and International Networks'3. Rene Belderbos and Leo Sleuwaegen (1996), 'Japanese Firms and the Decision to Invest Abroad: Business Groups and Regional Core Networks'4. Mark Brayshay, Mark Cleary and John Selwood (2005), 'Interlocking Directorships and Trans-national Linkages within the British Empire, 1900-1930'5. Ronald S. Burt (1999), 'Private Games are too Dangerous'6. Mark Casson and Howard Cox (1997), 'An Economic Model of Inter-Firm Networks'7. Howard Cox, Simon Mowatt and Martha Prevezer (2003), 'New Product Development and Product Supply within a Network Setting: The Chilled Ready-Meal Industry in the UK'8. Niek de Jong and Rob Vos (1995), 'Regional Blocs or Global Markets? World Accounting Approach to Analyze Trade and Financial Linkages'9. Sarah Drakopoulou Dodd and Eleni Patra (2002), 'National Differences in Entrepreneurial Networking'10. Peter Sheridan Dodds, Duncan J. Watts and Charles F. Sabel (2003), 'Information Exchange and the Robustness of Organizational Networks'11. Mika Kallioinen (2004), 'Information, Communication Technology, and Business in the Nineteenth Century: The Case of a Finnish Merchant House'12. Douglas S. Massey (1987), 'Understanding Mexican Migration to the United States'13. Larry Neal and Stephen Quinn (2001), 'Networks of Information, Markets, and Institutions in the Rise of London as a Financial Centre, 1660-1720'14. M.E.J. Newman and Juyong Park (2003), 'Why Social Networks are Different from other Types of Networks'15. Lucy Newton (2003), 'Capital Networks in the Sheffield Region, 1850-1885'16. Rebeca Raijman, Silvina Schmmah-Gesser and Adriana Kemp (2003), 'International Migration, Domestic Work, and Care Work: Undocumented Latina Migrants in Israel'17. Kenneth D. Roberts and Michael D.S. Morris (2003), 'Fortune, Risk, and Remittances: An Application of Option Theory to Participation in Village-Based Migration Networks'18. Janet W. Salaff and Arent Greve (2004), 'Can Women's Social Networks Migrate?'19. Ma Angeles Serrano and Marian Boguna (2003), 'Topology of the World Trade Web'20. David A. Smith and Michael F. Timberlake (2001), 'World City Networks and Hierarchies, 1977-1997: An Empirical Analysis of Global Air Travel Links'21. Barney Warf (1995), 'Telecommunications and the Changing Geographies of Knowledge Transmission in the Late 20th Century'22. Tamar Diana Wilson (1998), 'Weak Ties, Strong Ties: Network Principles in Mexican Migration'Name Index

An econometric model that explores the effect of personal characteristics and attitudes of clients on their demand for prostitution is estimated on data from a survey of clients of street sex workers in the US. The results reveal that clients of street sex workers in our sample have two diametrically opposite profiles: one for clients who declared never to have been with a sex worker or to have been only once, whom we label “experimenters”, and one for the more experienced ones that we name “regulars”. The experimenters correspond to a more machist type, with negative views of women, and of sex workers (who are believed to be different from other women but condemned at the same time), and viewing prostitution as a complement to stable relationships. The regulars have more liberal view of women, and of sex workers, the more they dislike control the more they demand, they like variety. Their demand also increases with age and with having a permanent job, which may indicate a positive income effect. These appear to be men who are happy to satisfy their sexual wants through sex workers, which they prefer to relationships. The users of condoms seem to fit the profile of the regulars, whereas the non-users fit that of the experimenters.

This paper presents an economic model of prostitution, which differs from the existing literature in that it makes no restrictive assumptions regarding the gender, pay, and nature of forgone earning opportunities of prostitutes and clients, and applies the same behavioural hypotheses to both. Our model gives a central role to stigma and reputation effects for both clients and prostitutes. We discuss demand, supply, and equilibrium results, indicating the possible effects of different policies on the industry and its different markets.

This paper presents a model of prostitution as an economic activity characterised by stigma, whose supply is based on the availability of other earning opportunities. On the basis of available empirical evidence and findings from other studies, we put forward a rigorous economic analysis of the industry and its different markets making no restrictive assumptions regarding the gender, pay and nature of forgone earning opportunities of the prostitute, and applying the same behavioural hypotheses to prostitutes and clients.

This paper presents evaluation of cation distributions from diffraction data collected at high T, P, and is an extension of the spinel structure modelling procedure by Lavina et al. (2002). Optimised cation-to-oxygen distances are modified for thermal expansion and compressibility at T and P of interest following Hazen and Prewitt (1977) and Hazen and Yang (1999). The procedure is applied to literature data concerning hercynite, spinel s.s., Zn aluminate, Zn ferrite, magnetite and the (Fe3O4)1− x (MgAl2O4) x join. Calculated cation distribution is strongly affected by standard deviations in cell parameters and oxygen coordinates. The underestimated values often reported in the literature for powder profile refinements may strongly affect the cation distribution; however, if standard deviations are increased to physically realistic values, consistent results are obtained. For P up to 10 GPa, reasonable evaluations of cation distribution are obtained for spinel s.s., Zn aluminate and magnetite, whereas for Zn ferrite they are limited to 1.8 GPa. For P beyond 10 GPa, compressibility cannot be assumed to be linear; the relationship between cell parameter and pressure is well-defined, but the inaccuracy of oxygen coordinate prevents simple modelling of bond distances with pressure.

The fundamental approaches in which sexual therapy is currently conducted, mostly based on a behavioral and/or “tout court” cognitive assumptions, will be evaluated in the theoric framework of the post- rationalist paradigm to better understand the wide spectrum of diverse barriers deriving from the various symptoms etiologies - from an immediate and superficial culturally engendered anxiety to other clinical determinantes more related to the patients cognitive personality structures and personal meaning organizations - different psychological models used - from the first behavioral consolidation discovered by Masters and Johnson to the latest cognitive ones - and consequently the use of several tec-niques aimed at different therapeutic symptoms resolutions, from the traditional structured treatment format to a different epistemological model of psychotherapy, such as the post - rationalist cognitive one.

Single-crystal X-ray structure refinement of natural olivines equilibrated at high temperature under controlled oxygen fugacity (f O2) conditions, coupled with a structure-energy model were used to establish the influence of T, f O2 and bulk chemistry on intracrystalline disorder. The results are: 1) The k D (k D = [(Fe M1·Mg M2)/(Fe M2·Mg M1)]) factor describing site population on M1, M2 polyhedra increases from values lower than 1 at T below 400–600° C (depending on composition) to values higher than 1 at higher temperature. 2) The increase of k D with T is quite regular. 3) At constant temperature and pressure, k D increases with increasing fayalite content in the mixture; 4) Contrary to previous observations (Will and Nover 1979; Nover and Will 1981) varying f O2, within the stability range of the substance, has a negligible influence on intracrystalline disorder. 5) As ancillary results, the model confirms the defect scheme of Nakamura and Schmalzried (1983) for the investigated solids. Moreover, it shows that cationic vacancies are always created on M 1 site at the expense of Mg ions, while trivalent iron is always stabilized on M2 site. This explains the marked anisotropies observed in Fe-Mg interdiffusion (Buening and Busek 1973; Misener 1974; Schock et al. 1989).