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Historians of the rise of popular education have often emphasised the role of national governments as sources of funding. However, for the case of England work by W.K. Jordan among others with probate records suggests that by the English Civil War substantial philanthropic funding was available for education. The presence of this philanthropy suggests a blurring of the line between private and public and the presence of both top-down and bottom-up forces at work. Moreover, parliamentary inquiries into educational charities in the early and mid-nineteenth century indicate their persistence as a source of funding for popular elementary schools. Counter to literature emphasising the importance of landed elites, both early modern and nineteenth-century evidence indicate the importance of other groups including merchants and clergy as sources of educational philanthropy. The formation of a national, government-funded system of elementary schooling in England during the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century incorporated elements of funding deriving from philanthropic sources with origins in earlier times. While there are parallels with other European countries, the extent of English educational philanthropy may be distinctive.

Sarah Black wanted to remedy Year 9's lack of knowledge about nineteenth-century politics. With just five lessons to work with, she decided to devise a sequence on Gladstone and Disraeli, shaping the sequence with an enquiry question that invited argument about change and continuity. Black analyses the status and function of different layers of knowledge within her sequence, evaluates the interaction of that knowledge with students' analyses of change and reflects on how she might have improved her enquiry question in order to help students to argue effectively about scale, direction and significance of change. (A list of references and notes is included.)

This essay offers an account of the beginnings of modern schooling. The Latin word "schola" began to mean "school" in the ninth century. But early practices associated with this newly distinct social phenomenon took several centuries to become codified, institutionalized and recognized. Until that happened, school was a label or brand-image used by purveyors of learning. Ideas about unified activity, method, order, discipline and efficiency formed the foundation of institutional codification. Beginning in the Renaissance and strengthened in the Reformation, codification reached a high point in the preparation of Comenius' "Didactica Magna" in the middle of the seventeenth century. And these assumptions about standardization and normalization have continued to nourish the appeal of modern schooling for at least another 300 years.

This article proposes a reading of Michel de Certeau's "The Writing of History" which derives an understanding of the concept of practice as authoritative to the establishment and development of Enlightenment rationality. It is seen as a new form of legitimation established in the redeployment of religious "formalities" in early modernity, supportive of the ostensible deliverance of the projects of reason.Subversive of its moral and ideological operations and geneses, this is an understanding of practice whose subject is the state. Practice, as de Certeau advances it, led to the development of a concept of education productive of a regulatory ambit of social utility, and the student as both a figure of the utile and its moral postulate.This article thematizes the authoritative formality of the concept of practice in its hegemonic origins from early modernity to the thought of Karl Marx. It provides a needed supplement to Marx's still provocative contribution to a persistent counternarrative (of practice as stark corrective to the ineffectual interpretive vagaries of "theory"), one which elides,and thus reinforces, significant prior,and no less persistent, functions of the concept of practice as here elaborated from de Certeau's "The Writing of History."

Not only in education, but also in other social practices, the history of "internationalisation" is correlative to the history of "nationalisation". In this broad sense, this article outlines four main constellations of the links between education and nationalisation/internationalisation dynamics. After a brief description of the creation of "nations" "within" communities in the Church and universities from the Middle Ages onwards, the article focuses on a context in which the modern "nations", understood as a difference between distinct communities, emerged at the turn of the nineteenth century. This classical form of internationalisation "between" separate units eventually led to the emergence of a supranational level of communication "above" nations, basically in the form of international organisations and meetings. These experiences determined the nature of international communication regarding education for many decades. "Nations" certainly enacted this first wave of internationalisation. The breakthrough of new media and a world-market economy during the late twentieth century seems, however, to have favoured a second wave of supranational practices and discourses about education "beyond" any national frame. The article outlines these four main constellations and analyses the main features of scholarship dealing with them.

Starting from a suggestion of Stephen Toulmin and through an interpretation of the criticism to which Neurath, one of the founders of the Vienna Circle, submits Descartes' views on science, the paper attempts to outline a pattern of modernity opposed to the Cartesian one, that has been obtaining over the last four centuries. In particular, it is argued that a new alliance has to be established between science and education, overcoming Descartes' banishment against education. In a Neurathian perspective education is a key-moment of the scientific enterprise without which science itself is in danger of going astray and no scientific outlook is promoted in the society at large. Such an anti-Cartesian attitude is a leitmotiv of the whole Neurath's production and characterizes his fundamental approach to the sense of modernity. For this reasons, despite all its shortcomings, Neurath's proposal represents a very promising option for a new agenda of the modernity away from Descartes' spell. By elaborating on Neurath's (and Dewey's) insights, the paper puts forward the idea that philosophy of science (such as it was originated by neopositivism in its Reichenbachian version) should give way to an educational philosophy of science which could allow us "to bring the genuine modern into existence".

Most people are familiar with television quiz shows that use such technologies as Audience Response Systems (ARS) and keypads known as "clickers." A similar technology has been available for teachers. Inserting questions into a PowerPoint presentation or running free-standing software, the class is asked to consider a question and select one of the available answers by pressing the appropriate number on a keypad--the accumulated totals are then displayed graphically for the entire class to see. This article discusses the ways in which clickers in a second-year university course introduces students to key themes in the history of Early Modern (fifteenth- to eighteenth-century) Britain. The author's experiential account of using clickers in the history classroom supports the findings of several more statistically sophisticated studies of their use in the teaching of other disciplines. While more technical studies are needed to fully understand the ways in which the use of ARS enhances learning in the history classroom, his experience shows that they can contribute to student understanding of, and engagement with, history. Demonstrating that history is not "all about facts;" that, beyond the basics, there are no necessarily "right" or "wrong" answers to the questions we ask about the past; and encouraging students to consider key issues of evidence, argument, method, and approach, clickers are a useful tool in offering students the opportunity to explore the complexities of the historian's craft. (Contains 7 figures and 11 notes.)

Paula Worth was searching not only for a rigorous question, capable of engendering genuine debate, but also for an engaging and enjoyable activity that would secure GCSE students' substantive knowledge. The answer--or rather the question--lay in counterfactual thinking: a carefully crafted game that she devised, based on the structure of a game by Jordan and Wood. Worth's game traced the events and decisions that led eventually to the collapse of Tsarist Russia. In this article Worth explains how the pursuit of "restrained" rather than "exuberant" counterfactuality allowed her students to analyse the consequences, and thus weigh up the relative significance, of different contributory causes. (Contains 5 figures.)

The Congress for Cultural Freedom is remembered as a paramount example of the "cultural cold wars." In this paper, I discuss the ways in which this powerful transnational organization sought to promote "science studies" as a distinct--and politically relevant--area of expertise, and part of the CCF broader agenda to offer a renewed framework for liberalism. By means of its Study Groups, international conferences and its periodicals, such as "Minerva," the Congress developed into an influential forum for examining the ways Big Science impacted the relations between science, society, and politics, thus constituting a semi-institutional niche for Science Studies before its professionalization within academia during the 1970s. I argue that the Congress contributed to the construction of public space in which the relations between science, society and politics were debated, and science was reconceptualized as a social activity. The vision of "science studies" the CCF-associated intellectuals promulgated was different from the science studies we know today. Yet, this alternative vision, in which the issues of science politics appeared inseparable from those of science policy, science organization, and science governance, constituted the "pre-history" of science studies today.

George Sarton had a strong influence on modern history of science. The method he pursued throughout his life was the method he had discovered in Ernst Mach's "Mechanics" when he was a student in Ghent. Sarton was in fact throughout his life implementing a research program inspired by the epistemology of Mach. Sarton in turn inspired many others (James Conant, Thomas Kuhn, Gerald Holton, etc.). What were the origins of these ideas in Mach and what can this origin tell us about the history of science and science education nowadays? Which ideas proved to be successful and which ones need to be improved upon? The following article will elaborate the epistemological questions, which Darwin's "Origin" raised concerning human knowledge and scientific knowledge and which led Mach to adapt the concept of what is "empirical" in contrast to metaphysical a priori assumptions a second time after Galileo. On this basis Sarton proposed "genesis and development" as the major goal of "Isis." Mach had elaborated this epistemology in "La Connaissance et l'Erreur" ("Knowledge and Error"), which Sarton read in 1913 (Hiebert 1905/1976; de Mey 1984). Accordingly for Sarton, history becomes not only a subject of science, but a method of science education. Culture--and science as part of culture--is a result of a genetic process. History of science shapes and is shaped by science and science education in a reciprocal process. Its epistemology needs to be adapted to scientific facts and the philosophy of science. Sarton was well aware of the need to develop the history of science and the philosophy of science along the lines of this reciprocal process. It was a very fruitful basis, but a specific part of it, Sarton did not elaborate further, namely the psychology of science education. This proved to be a crucial missing element for all of science education in Sarton's succession, especially in the US. Looking again at the origins of the central questions in the thinking of Mach, which provided the basis and gave rise to Sarton's research program, will help in resolving current epistemic and methodological difficulties, contradictions and impasses in science education influenced by Sarton. The difficulties in science education will prevail as long as the omissions from their Machian origins are not systematically recovered and reintegrated.

History courses based on chronological narratives in textbooks often assume a linear format through which students accumulate substantial amounts of surface-level information, with the various pieces of that information being disconnected from each other and from larger historical contexts. In addition, such narratives are often dry and lifeless, a situation that prevents students from understanding that the study of history is an ongoing, dynamic process. Using a modern American history course as its prototype, this article proposes that student engagement and learning can be heightened if teachers incorporate the use of iconic photographs into historical studies. In addition, such images portray modern American culture, providing a lens through which students can examine the contemporary cultural mindset in which they live.

Although the history of history education is an under-researched topic worldwide, the international literature about history education contains a clear image of the historical development of the school subject. This image basically consists of a sharp dichotomy between traditional history education, which was largely insensitive to topical affairs and focused on tradition; and modern history education, which placed topical affairs at the centre of attention and critically engaged pupils in the study of history. Despite being very pervasive, this image does not do justice to the complex relationship between past and present in history education. In this article I will attempt to reassess this one-dimensional image by examining the changing relationship between past and present in Dutch history textbooks published between 1945 and 1979. More specifically, the analysis concentrates on the question of how these textbooks dealt with matters of proximity and distance on multiple levels, and how this affected the relationship between past and present in the course of time. (Contains 63 footnotes.)

This article examines the distributional pattern of signs in the linguistic landscape of a neighbourhood in the commercial district of Phonm Penh, Cambodia. Informed by the frameworks of ethnolinguistic vitality and ethnocultural stereotypes, it discusses the developing multilingualism from socio-economic and historical perspectives. An analysis of the language distribution shows that Khmer, the national and official language of Cambodia is, unsurprisingly, numerically the most prominent language in the linguistic landscape, followed by English. The high visibility of English is remarkable given that it is a newcomer in a former Francophone space that subsequently experienced decades of a nationalistic language policy. Sometimes, the policy was marked by a strict prohibition of the teaching and use of foreign languages. The ascendancy of English has resulted in the gradual displacement of French in the past decade, although it is too early to write off the latter. Assistance leverage, globalisation, gentrification, a generational change in attitudes toward languages, the new language policy-in-education and the complex history of modern Cambodia explain the rapid "multilingualisation" and the rise of English in the graphic environment and in the socio-economic activities. (Contains 4 figures and 4 notes.)

This article sketches a post-Occidental interpretation of the historical/conceptual relationships between modern western education and European civilizational identity formation. Modern western education will be interpreted as a modern/colonial institution that emerged along with the sixteenth-century responses to the questions provoked by the breakup of medieval Christendom and the discovery of the Americas: What is man? Where does he come from? Where is he going? Modern western education and European civilizational identity, as distinct from Christendom, emerged together (simultaneous and interrelated) during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries within the initial formation of a global structural dynamic designed for governing the social world, both within and beyond Europe. Modern western education is a central institution within the ongoing disciplinary projects of modernity and its differentiated reproduction of particular subjectivities. This perspective problematizes the Euro-American historiography of modernity along with the contemporary historical self-understanding of modern western education. From this perspective, the self-understanding of modern western education (both metropolitan and colonial) emerged and remains largely embedded within the conceptual and historical framework identified here as Occidentalism. This article concludes with a proposal for rethinking education within an ecology of knowledges, articulated by Boaventura de Sousa Santos. Post-Occidental reasoning contributes to the recognition and inclusion of the multiplicity of knowledge systems occluded by the hegemony of western epistemology and Eurocentric education.

The subject of this paper is the construction of childhood as a time of happiness in different historical periods. It first analyses the construction of childhood as a time of happiness in the German romantic period in the eighteenth century. Secondly, the paper discusses the construction of happy mothers and children in "The Century of Childhood" (1900) by the Swedish writer Ellen Key and thirdly, the idea of happy children in educational programmes within the movement of 1968 in West Germany, especially in the so called "Kinderladen" and within the alternative milieu of the 1970s and 1980s, also inspired by the US psychotherapist Jean Liedloff and her famous book "In Search of Happiness Lost" (1977). The paper focuses on differences and similarities in the construction of the happy childhood. It shows that the discussion about children's happiness is part of the history of childhood and plays a decisive role in the pedagogical thought concerning childhood. The several discoveries of childhood in modern history were often connected with the idea of childhood as a happy time. In the twentieth century the discourse about children's happiness is linked with the history of the psychological self and his education. A tendency to psychologise the self is an impact of the discourse. (Contains 53 footnotes.)

What happens when people find themselves left out of communities? Who is missing and why does it matter? What can one do to narrow the gap? What is community? How has community been represented in theory? The quality of life of a population is an important concern in so many areas, and a significant part of our standard of living is measured by many social and economic factors. This paper will conceptualise ideas and theories of association and associated life, social capital, and civic community. The notion of community development and social constructions are most certainly crucial in the representation and debates surrounding this phenomenon. This paper will engage with the notions, discourses and thinking that encapsulate all aspects of community development.

The purpose of this learning activity was to teach undergraduate students about recreation and leisure experiences of the older members of the Lumbee Tribe who attended the local university. This activity utilized ethnographic interviews to teach students about the local community and college life for those from older generations. Ethnography is a valuable teaching tool for since it teaches students 1) how to conduct interviews, and 2) about contemporary history. In completing this activity, students were to learn what college was like in the past, what life was like in a rural, farming area, and about the contemporary history of leisure and recreational activities. The activity discusses the procedures undertaken by the instructor and the students and emergent domains. Recommendations for future use of the activity include: Finding informants with a connection to the institution, pre-selecting informants for the students, and proving an individual component for the group assignment.

Western historians working in the first half of the twentieth century established a scheme for writing design history that continues to influence the global histories of today. The historians Douglas McMurtrie, Lucien Febvre, Henri-Jean Martin and Lawrence Wroth believed that the modern history of visual communication began with the advent and spread of typographic printing in fifteenth-century Europe. Within their historical narratives, printing leaves Europe to reappear in other parts of the world as a benign instrument of cultural conversion. These scholars used their histories to assert the privileges of European expansion, and they viewed indigenous design as any form of communication technology practiced outside of Europe after the export of printing. They clung to the notion that American peoples were destined to develop cultural histories that duplicated the European historical trajectory. In their eyes, the history of print culture belonged to Europe, and their histories today read as attempts to silence the "strangeness" of non-Western cultural difference. In this article, I examine design histories of the Americas from the first three centuries of New World settlement and describe the ways that Western historians have misrepresented indigenous American cultures by suppressing local forms of visual language and communication technology. In opposition to the dominant strand of Western design historiography, I present evidence that local meanings and values migrated with the products that colonial administrators printed overseas for European audiences. I question the degree to which design historians of the Americas have positioned indigenous peoples as subordinate subjects of print culture rather than as agents of cultural difference and productive assimilation. The primary significance of this contribution to this special issue is to contest the worldview of graphic design history as a singular and unified field of representation, and to encourage greater engagement with indigenous design histories in the contemporary movement toward cross-cultural design research and collaboration. (Contains 4 figures.)

The federal Bilingual Education Act (BEA; 1968) augured a new era in the national politics of diversity, schooling, and state, and California became symbolic of the problems and promise of bilingual pedagogy. This article explores how the BEA was pivotal not only in conceiving a federal commitment to the educational achievement of limited-English-speaking children but also in spurring state and local action. Yet close attention reveals how philosophically and fiscally limited were the terms of the federal act. California had been experimenting with bilingual education in many districts, where innovative programs operated independently of state or federal involvement. On one hand, the emerging legislative structure embodied by the federal BEA pushed districts and states to question the received attitudes about Mexican American underachievement that permeated their practice. On the other hand, the BEA supplanted earlier, locally developed programs, increasing oversight and enforcement and often casting districts as villains and at times even checking adventurous earlier programs. In the 1960s, Californians as well as national politicians and educators engaged in an unprecedented, bipartisan dialogue about bilingual education, in which California conservatives earnestly advocated albeit moderate programs during these early but crucial years in the modern history of bilingual education. (Contains 5 footnotes.)