Search

- Some fresh impact craters on Ganymede have the overall ejecta morphology similar to Martian double-layer ejecta (DLE), with the exception of the crater Nergal that is most like Martian single layer ejecta (SLE) craters (as is the terrestrial crater Lonar). Similar craters also have been identified on Europa, but no outer ejecta layer has been found on these craters. The morphometry of these craters suggests that the types of layered ejecta craters identified by are fundamental. In addition, the mere existence of these craters on Ganymede and Europa suggests that an atmosphere is not required for ejecta fluidization, nor can ejecta fluidization be explained by the flow of dry ejecta. Moreover, the absence of fluidized ejecta on other icy bodies suggests that abundant volatiles in the target also may not be the sole cause of ejecta fluidization. The restriction of these craters to the grooved terrain of Ganymede and the concentration of Martian DLE craters on the northern lowlands suggests that these terrains may share key characteristics that control the development of the ejecta of these craters. In addition, average ejecta mobility (EM) ratios indicate that the ejecta of these bodies are self-similar with crater size, but are systematically smaller on Ganymede and Europa. This may be due to the effects of the abundant ice in the crusts of these satellites that results in increased ejection angle causing ejecta to impact closer to the crater and with lower horizontal velocity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extensive evidence of an ocean over a silicate nucleus makes Europa a candidate for the emergence of a second evolutionary pathway of autochthonous life. We argue that the most urgent question in astrobiology is the origin of habitable ecosystems (a question in geochemistry), rather than the alternative search for the origin of life itself (a question in chemical evolution). Since certain Solar System bodies may share a similar geophysical past with Earth, our more modest approach forces upon us the question: Can available instrumentation be the 'pioneer' in the discovery of habitable ecosystems in geophysical environments similar to the early Earth? It will be shown that a central piece in this dilemma is the chemical element sulphur (S). The Europan non-ice surficial elements that distort the water-ice absorption bands were found to be widespread, patchy and, most likely, endogenous. The Galileo Mission discovered these patches, which were subsequently confirmed by the 2007 flyby of New Horizons. We argue that penetrators should be inserted into orbital probes in the future exploration of Jupiter's System. Penetrators provide what could be a key instrument in the exploration of Europa, given the adverse space weather in its environment due to the Jovian magnetosphere and radiation. Indeed, there are alternative views on the radiation-induced S-cycles produced on the surficial molecules that are present on the icy surface; however, S is common to both interpretations. Hence, mass spectrometry should be an essential part of any future payload. The largest S-fractionations are due to microbial reduction and not to thermochemical processes, allowing a test of the hypothesis for the origin of habitable ecosystems. The microbial fractionation of stable S-isotopes argue in favour of penetrators for the survey of the surfaces of both Europa and Ganymede. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ganymede has an intrinsic magnetic field which is generally considered to originate from a self-excited dynamo in the metallic core. Driving of the dynamo depends critically on the satellite''s thermal state and internal structure. However, the inferred structure based on gravity data alone has a large uncertainty, and this makes the possibility of dynamo activity unclear; variations in core size and composition significantly change the heat capacity and alter the cooling history of the core. The main objectives of this study is to explore the structural conditions for a currently active dynamo in Ganymede using numerical simulations of the thermal history, and to evaluate under which conditions Ganymede can maintain the dynamo activity at present. We have investigated the satellite''s thermal history using various core sizes and compositions satisfying the mean density and moment of inertia of Ganymede, and evaluate the temperature and heat flux at the core–mantle boundary (CMB). Based on the following two conditions, we evaluate the possibility of dynamo activity, thereby reducing the uncertainty of the previously inferred interior structure. The first condition is that the temperature at the CMB must exceed the melting point of a metallic core, and the second is that the heat flux through the CMB must exceed the adiabatic temperature gradient. The mantle temperature starts to increase because of the decay of long-lived radiogenic elements in the rocky mantle. After a few Gyr, radiogenic elements are exhausted and temperature starts to decrease. As the rocky mantle cools, the heat flux at the CMB steadily increases. If the temperature and heat flux at the CMB satisfy these conditions simultaneously, we consider the case as capable of driving a dynamo. Finally, we identify the Dynamo Regime, which is the specific range of internal structures capable of driving the dynamo, based on the results of simulations with various structures. If Ganymede''s self-sustained magnetic field were maintained by thermal convection, the satellite''s metallic core would be relatively large and, in comparison to other terrestrial-type planetary cores, strongly enriched in sulfur. The dynamo activity and the generation of the magnetic field of Ganymede should start from a much later stage, possibly close to the present. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present new polarimetric and photometric observations of high-albedo E-type Asteroid 44 Nysa in the BVRI wavebands at phase angles ranging from 0.41° to 7.49° during the 2005 opposition. A bimodal phase-angle dependence of polarization was found for Nysa in the V band. The polarization opposition effect was revealed in the form of a secondary minimum of negative polarization with amplitude ∼0.3% centered at a phase angle ∼0.8°. It is superimposed on the regular negative polarization branch with minimal polarization −0.30% at a phase angle 5.8°. We analyzed all available polarimetric data for E-type Asteroids 44 Nysa, 64 Angelina, and 214 Ashera and confirmed the presence of the polarization opposition effect for high-albedo asteroids at phase angle ∼1° with an amplitude ∼0.35%. The magnitude–phase curves reveal the presence of spike-like opposition effect of brightness for 44 Nysa in the BVRI spectral bands. 44 Nysa is the second high-albedo asteroid after 64 Angelina for which both the polarization opposition effect and the brightness opposition effect are detected. The differences between the parameters of the opposition effects for silicate surfaces (44 Nysa, 64 Angelina, Io) and icy surfaces (Europa, Ganymede, Iapetus, Saturn''s rings) are discussed. The specific morphological parameters of opposition effects, in particular the angular width of the polarization opposition effect is comparable to that of the brightness opposition effect, provide almost unequivocal evidence that they are caused by coherent backscattering. One of unexpected results of our investigation is that 44 Nysa becomes bluer with increasing phase angle, while 64 Angelina shows phase reddening. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Previously, radio Doppler data, generated with NASA''s Galileo spacecraft during its second encounter with Jupiter''s moon Ganymede, were used to infer the locations and magnitudes of mass anomalies on Ganymede using point-mass models. However, the point-mass solutions do not provide the vertical and horizontal extent of the anomalous mass concentrations. Here, we provide the results of a new study using spherical cap disks to model Ganymede''s mass anomalies. The spherical cap disk models not only provide the locations and magnitudes of the mass anomalies, but also their vertical and horizontal dimensions. The new models show that three disks, a positive mass located at (53.0° N, 127.0° W) and two negative masses located at (22.0° N, 87.0° W) and (49.0° N, 219.0° W), can explain the data. The magnitudes of the mass anomalies are on the order of 1018 kg. The diameters of the anomalies are a few thousand kilometers. The positive anomaly is about 100 meters thick and both negative anomalies have a thickness of less than a kilometer. We use the additional information provided by the disk models to investigate the viability of mass anomalies at Ganymede''s surface by comparing the diameters of the anomalies to the sizes of regiones and sulci and the anomalies'' thicknesses to accumulated layers of rock and clean ice on the surface. We find that the dimensions of the mass anomalies could be explained by concentrations of rock in the regio and rock-free ice in the sulci. These results confirm that mass anomalies may reside on or near Ganymede''s surface and that positive mass anomalies are contained within areas of dark terrain and negative mass anomalies within bright terrain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The tectonically and cryovolcanically resurfaced terrains of Ganymede attest to the satellite''s turbulent geologic history. Yet, the ultimate cause of its geologic violence remains unknown. One plausible scenario suggests that the Galilean satellites passed through one or more Laplace-like resonances before evolving into the current Laplace resonance. Passage through such a resonance can excite Ganymede''s eccentricity, leading to tidal dissipation within the ice shell. To evaluate the effects of resonance passage on Ganymede''s thermal history we model the coupled orbital–thermal evolution of Ganymede both with and without passage through a Laplace-like resonance. In the absence of tidal dissipation, radiogenic heating alone is capable of creating large internal oceans within Ganymede if the ice grain size is 1 mm or greater. For larger grain sizes, oceans will exist into the present epoch. The inclusion of tidal dissipation significantly alters Ganymede''s thermal history, and for some parameters (e.g. ice grain size, tidal Q of Jupiter) a thin ice shell (5 to 20 km) can be maintained throughout the period of resonance passage. The pulse of tidal heating that accompanies Laplace-like resonance capture can cause up to 2.5% volumetric expansion of the satellite and contemporaneous formation of near surface partial melt. The presence of a thin ice shell and high satellite orbital eccentricity would generate moderate diurnal tidal stresses in Ganymede''s ice shell. Larger stresses result if the ice shell rotates non-synchronously. The combined effects of satellite expansion, its associated tensile stress, rapid formation of near surface partial melt, and tidal stress due to an eccentric orbit may be responsible for creating Ganymede''s unique surface features. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Eccentric orbits in the third-body perturbed problem are evaluated in the context of planetary-moon missions. All possible motion in the doubly averaged problem is reviewed and concisely summarized via contour plots. Special attention is paid to the well-known class of orbits that cycle between low and high eccentricity while circulating in argument of periapse. Applying the doubly averaged assumptions, the maximum sustainable inclinations and eccentricities for long-term circulating ballistic orbits are found and discussed for the dimensioned systems at Ganymede, Europa, Titan, Enceladus, and several other planetary moons. The full-cycle periods of the circulations and librations are reduced to quadratures that are functions only of the two integrals of motion and the moon and orbiter mean motions. In the specific case of Ganymede, higher-fidelity models are considered to analyze the validity of the doubly averaged assumptions. Families of stable long-repeat-cycle periodic orbits are demonstrated in the unaveraged Hill-plus-nonspherical-potential model. Several point designs are considered in a full ephemeris model, and promising results include long-term ephemeris-stable orbits that enjoy maximum inclinations above 60 deg. These circulating "ball-of-yarn" orbits cycle between high and low eccentricities while distributing close approaches throughout the moon's surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: One of the great discoveries of NASA''s Galileo mission was the presence of an intrinsically produced magnetic field at Ganymede. Generation of the relatively strong (750 nT) field likely requires dynamo action in Ganymede''s metallic core, but how such a dynamo has been maintained into the present epoch remains uncertain. Using a one-dimensional, three layer thermal model of Ganymede, we find that magnetic field generation can only occur if the sulfur mass fraction in Ganymede''s core is very low (≲3%) or very high (≳21%), and the silicate mantle can cool rapidly (i.e. it has a viscosity like wet olivine). However, these requirements are not necessarily compatible with cosmochemical and physical models of the satellite. We therefore investigate an alternative scenario for producing Ganymede''s magnetic field in which passage through an eccentricity pumping Laplace-like resonance in Ganymede''s past enables present day dynamo action in the metallic core. If sufficient tidal dissipation occurs in Ganymede''s silicate mantle during resonance passage, silicate temperatures can undergo a runaway which prevents the core from cooling until the resonance passage ends. The rapid silicate and core cooling that follows resonance escape triggers dynamo action via thermal and/or compositional convection. To test the feasibility of this mechanism we couple our thermal model with an orbital evolution model to examine the effects of resonance passage on Ganymede''s silicate mantle and metallic core. We find that, contrary to expectations, there are no physically plausible scenarios in which tidal heating in the silicates is sufficient to cause the thermal runaway necessary to prevent core cooling. These findings are robust to variations in the silicate rheology, tidal dissipation factor of Jupiter (), structure of the ice shell, and the inclusion of partial melting in the silicate mantle. Resonance passage therefore appears unlikely to explain Ganymede''s magnetic field and we must appeal to the special conditions described above to explain the presence of the field. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The processes of the formation and dynamics of tenuous gaseous envelopes of icy moons in giant-planet systems are considered. Tenuous exospheres with relatively dense surface layers are likely to form around more massive icy satellites, such as, for example, the Galilean satellites Europa and Ganymede in the Jovian system. Escaping exospheres are formed in the case of low-mass icy moons, as happens for the icy satellite Enceladus in the Saturnian system. The main parent component of such gaseous envelopes is water vapor, which enters into the atmosphere as a result of thermal degassing processes, nonthermal radiolysis, and other active processes and phenomena on the icy surface of a satellite. A numerical kinetic model has been developed to study on a molecular level the processes of the formation, chemical evolution, and dynamics of tenuous gaseous envelopes dominated mainly by H2O. The ionization processes in such tenuous gaseous envelopes are caused by solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation and solar-wind and/or magnetospheric plasma. The primary processes when ultraviolet solar photons and plasma electrons affect the tenuous gas of the H2O-dominated atmosphere are responsible for the chemical diversity of the gaseous envelopes of icy moons. Ionization chemistry, including ion-molecular reactions, dissociative recombination of molecular ions, and the reactions of the charge exchange with magnetospheric ions, is important for the formation of chemical diversity in gaseous envelopes of icy satellites. The model considered in the study was used to numerically simulate the formation and development of chemical diversity in the tenuous gaseous envelope of Enceladus. The numerical results were compared to the direct Cassini measurements during its close flyby near Enceladus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Since their discovery in Voyager images, the origin of the bright polar caps of Ganymede has intrigued investigators. Some models attributed the polar cap formation to thermal migration of water vapor to higher latitudes, while other models implicated plasma bombardment in brightening ice. Only with the arrival of Galileo at Jupiter was it apparent that Ganymede possesses a strong internal magnetic field, which blocks most of the plasma from bombarding the satellite''s equatorial region while funneling plasma onto the polar regions. This discovery provides a plausible explanation for the polar caps as related to differences in plasma-induced brightening in the polar and the equatorial regions. In this context, we analyze global color and high resolution images of Ganymede obtained by Galileo, finding a very close correspondence between the observed polar cap boundary and the open/closed field lines boundary obtained from new modeling of the magnetic field environment. This establishes a clear link between plasma bombardment and polar cap brightening. High resolution images show that bright polar terrain is segregated into bright and dark patches, suggesting sputter-induced redistribution and subsequent cold trapping of water molecules. Minor differences between the location of the open/closed field lines boundary and the observed polar cap boundary may be due to interaction of Ganymede with Jupiter''s magnetosphere, and our neglect of higher-order terms in modeling Ganymede''s internal field. We postulate that leading-trailing brightness differences in Ganymede''s low-latitude surface are due to enhanced plasma flux onto the leading hemisphere, rather than darkening of the trailing hemisphere. In contrast to Ganymede, the entire surface of Europa is bombarded by jovian plasma, suggesting that sputter-induced redistribution of water molecules is a viable means of brightening that satellite''s surface. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The New Horizons spacecraft observed Jupiters icy satellites Europa and Ganymede during its flyby in February and March 2007 at visible and infrared wavelengths. Infrared spectral images map H2O ice absorption and hydrated contaminants, bolstering the case for an exogenous source of Europas ‘non-ice’ surface material and filling large gaps in compositional maps of Ganymedes Jupiter-facing hemisphere. Visual wavelength images of Europa extend knowledge of its global pattern of arcuate troughs and show that its surface scatters light more isotropically than other icy satellites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A multispecies, 2-D axisymmetric, kinetic model that accounts for all kinetic regimes is applied to the neutral atmosphere of Ganymede. Using reasonable interpretations of the limited observations, it is found that Ganymede has a two-part atmosphere, with H2O being dominant between the subsolar point and a subsolar latitude of about 45 degrees, and O2 dominating elsewhere at the lower altitudes. H2 is dominant everywhere above a few hundred kilometers. Except for a small region near the subsolar point, the atmosphere is quasicollisional or collisionless. The resulting nonequilibrium is manifest in the atmospheric constituents having generally different temperatures and bulk velocities. Escape rates are similar to those of Europa, but a less visible torus is expected. The escape rates are also highly latitude and species dependent. The effect on the atmosphere by a fast ion plasma is investigated and found to primarily affect the O2 scale height above a few hundred kilometers. It is also found that Lyman α emission from collision of electrons with H2 may be significant near the surface. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ganymede''s grooved terrain likely formed during an epoch of global expansion, when unstable extension of the lithosphere resulted in the development of periodic necking instabilities. Linear, infinitesimal-strain models of extensional necking support this model of groove formation, finding that the fastest growing modes of an instability have wavelengths and growth rates consistent with Ganymede''s grooves. However, several questions remain unanswered, including how nonlinearities affect instability growth at large strains, and what role instabilities play in tectonically resurfacing preexisting terrain. To address these questions we numerically model the extension of an icy lithosphere to examine the growth of periodic necking instabilities over a broad range of strain rates and temperature gradients. We explored thermal gradients up to 45 K km−1 and found that, at infinitesimal strain, maximum growth rates occur at high temperature gradients (45 K km−1) and moderate strain rates (10−13 s−1). Dominant wavelengths range from 1.8 to 16.4 km (post extension). Our infinitesimal growth rates are qualitatively consistent with, but an order of magnitude lower than, previous linearized calculations. When strain exceeds growth rates decrease, limiting the total amount of amplification that can result from unstable extension. This fall-off in growth occurs at lower groove amplitudes for high-temperature-gradient, thin-lithosphere simulations than for low-temperature-gradient, thick-lithosphere simulations. At large strains, this shifts the ideal conditions for producing large amplitude grooves from high temperature gradients to more moderate temperature gradients (15 K km−1). We find that the formation of periodic necking instabilities can modify preexisting terrain, replacing semi-random topography up to 100 m in amplitude with periodic ridges and troughs, assisting the tectonic resurfacing process. Despite this success, the small topographic amplification produced by our model presents a formidable challenge to the necking instability mechanism for groove formation. Success of the necking instability mechanism may require rheological weakening or strain localization by faulting, effects not included in our analysis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The possibility of an explosive mechanical instability of ice (the Bridgman effect) in the thick icy shells of Jupiter’s and Saturn’s satellites is discussed in principle. The Bridgman effect is an explosive instability of dielectric solid bodies, which disintegrate into microscopic fragments under a quasistatic uniaxial loading in open compression systems at high pressures. The explosive instabilities of ice recently discovered in laboratory experiments with the Bridgman effect are also expected to occur in the extensive deep layers of the shells of icy planetary satellites (for example, in the case of episodical formation of major cracks in their lithospheres due to tidal forces, nonsynchronous rotation of the satellites, or extremely powerful impacts). The depths of occurrence of mechanically unstable ice in the thick crusts of Ganymede, Europa, and Titan, taken as examples, are crudely estimated using a pure-ice model without a possible ammonia admixture. The estimated thickness of the explosive-instability zone in the icy crust of Ganymede (under the assumption that the crust is ∼75 km thick) ranges from ∼7 to ∼27 km at depths from ∼40 to ∼67 km, depending on the scaling parameter E = 0.2–1. This parameter relates the experimentally determined thicknesses of the ice samples in which the Bridgman effect occurs under laboratory conditions to the expected thicknesses of the explosively unstable layers in the envelopes of the icy satellites. Explosive effects are possible not throughout the entire thickness of the unstableice layer but only within some part of it, several centimeters to several tens of meters in thickness. According to the estimated location of the unstable layer in the crust of Europa (for an assumed crust thickness of ∼30 km), such a layer can exist only at scaling factors E < 0.6 at depths ranging from ∼21 to ∼28 km. For Titan, if its crust is ∼100 km thick, the thickness of the unstable layer is similarly estimated to range from ∼15 to ∼55 km at depths from ∼37 to ∼92 km for a scaling parameter E lying within the range 0.2–1. At E 0.2, which is quite possible, explosive instabilities of ice could also be expected on the Earth, in the icy shells of Antarctica and Greenland at depths from ∼1 to ∼1.5 km. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Radio Doppler data, generated with NASA''s Galileo spacecraft during its second encounter with Jupiter''s moon Ganymede, are used to infer the locations and magnitudes of mass anomalies on Ganymede. We construct models for both surface and buried anomalies. With only one flyby and no global coverage, a solution for mass anomalies cannot be uniquely determined. However, we are able to constrain acceptable solutions for mass anomalies to four broad regions—a near polar region and three that are roughly equatorial. If the mass anomalies are constrained to lie at the surface, the centers of the regions are located near the coordinates (77° N, 333° W), (36° N, 0° W), (33° N, 130° W), and (7° N, 194° W). If the mass anomalies are located at the deep ice–rock interface 800 km below the surface, the regions'' centers are approximately (65° N, 17° W), (32° N, 30° W), (37° N, 175° W), and (15° N, 211° W). For both models, the regions are up to a few thousand kilometers across. The magnitude of mass anomalies on the surface is on the order of 1017 kg. Mass anomalies at the ice–rock interface are on average no more than an order of magnitude larger (1018 kg). There are two positive and two negative mass anomalies in both the surface and ice–rock interface models. One of the positive mass anomalies at the surface is associated with Galileo Regio. The other positive surface mass anomaly is located at high northern latitudes with no obvious geological association. Negative surface mass anomalies lie near Uruk Sulcus and between Perrine Regio and Barnard Regio near Sicyan Sulcus and Phrygia Sulcus. The locations of the ice–rock interface mass anomalies lie approximately radially below the surface anomalies. Positive mass anomalies at the surface could be associated with the silicate-rich ice or accumulated silicate layers of the dark regions. Negative mass anomalies at the surface could be associated with the relatively clean, low-lying ice of sulci. Alternatively, Ganymede''s mass anomalies could be associated with the topography or other mass concentrations at the deep ice–rock interface. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present results of polarimetric observations of the Galilean satellites Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto at phase angles ranging from 0.19° to 2.22°. The observations in the UBVR filters were performed using a one-channel photoelectric polarimeter attached to 70-cm telescope of the Chuguev Observation Station (Ukraine) on November 19–December 7, 2000. We have observed the polarization opposition effect for Io, Europa, and Ganymede to be a sharp secondary spike of negative polarization with an amplitude of about −0.4% centered at phase angles of 0.2°–0.7° and superimposed on the regular negative polarization branch. Although these minima for Io, Europa, and Ganymede show many similarities, they also exhibit a number of distinctions. The polarization opposition effect appears to be wavelength-dependent, at least for Europa and Ganymede. No polarization opposition effect was found for Callisto. The results obtained are discussed within the framework of different mechanisms of light scattering. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A long-popular model for producing Ganymede''s bright terrain involves flooding of low-lying graben with liquid water, slush, or warm, soft ice. The model suffers from major problems, however, including the absence of obvious near-surface heat sources, the negative buoyancy of liquid water, and the lack of a mechanism for confining the flows to graben floors. We present new models for cryovolcanic resurfacing to overcome these difficulties. Tidal heating within an ancient Laplace-like orbital resonance (Showman and Malhotra 1997, Icarus 127, 93; Showman et al., 1997, Icarus 129, 367) provides a plausible heat source and could allow partial melting to occur as shallow as 5–10 km depth. Our favored mechanism for delivering this water to the surface invokes the fact that topography—such as a global set of graben—causes subsurface pressure gradients that can pump water or slush upward onto the floors of topographic lows (graben) despite the negative buoyancy of the liquid. These eruptions can occur only within the topographic lows; furthermore, as the low areas become full, the pressure gradients disappear and the resurfacing ceases. This provides an explanation for the observed straight dark-bright terrain boundaries: water cannot overflow the graben, so resurfacing rarely embays craters or other rough topography. Pure liquid water can be pumped to the surface from only 5–10 km depth, but macroscopic bodies of slush ascending within fractures can reach the surface from much greater depths due to the smaller negative buoyancy of slush. A challenge for these models is the short predicted gravitational relaxation timescale of topographic features at high heat flows; the resurfacing must occur before the graben topography disappears. We also evaluate alternate resurfacing mechanisms, such as pumping of liquid water to the surface by thermal expansion stresses and buoyant rise of water through a silicate-contaminated crust that is denser than liquid water, and conclude that they are unlikely to explain Ganymede''s bright terrain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The recently measured dimensionless moment of inertia (MoI) factor for Callisto of 0.3549±0.0042 (Anderson et al., 2001, Icarus, 153, 157–161) poses a problem: its value cannot be explained by a model in which Callisto is completely differentiated into an ice shell above a rock shell and an iron core such as its neighboring satellite Ganymede nor can it be explained by a model of a homogeneous, undifferentiated ice–rock satellite. We show that Callisto may be incompletely differentiated into an outer ice–rock shell in which the volumetric rock concentration is close to the primordial one at the surface and decreases approximately linearly with depth, an ice mantle mostly depleted of rock, and an about 1800 km rock–ice core in which the rock concentration is close to the close-packing limit. The ice–rock shell thickness depends on uncertain rheology parameters and the heat flow and can be roughly 50 to 150 km thick. We show that if Callisto accreted from a mix of metal bearing rock and ice and if the average size of the rocks was of the order of meters to tens of meters, then Callisto may have experienced a gradual, but still incomplete unmixing of the two components. An ocean in Callisto at a depth of 100–200 km is difficult to obtain if the ice is pure H2O and if the ice–rock lithosphere is 100 km or more thick; a water ocean is more plausible for ice contaminated by ammonia, methane or salts; or for pure H2O at a depth of 400–600 km. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We review basic mechanisms of magnetospheric dynamics taking the cases of Ganymede, Mercury, and Jupiter. The topics include; (1) Whether or not possible effect of the intrinsic time variability of the reconnection rate can be seen in Ganymede''s magnetosphere which is embedded in an almost fixed magnetic field of Jupiter. (2) How well the occurrence of reconnection is observationally founded for Mercury''s magnetosphere. (3) In what ways various types of Jovian aurora are related to specific features of magnetospheric dynamics. (4) By what mechanisms solar wind influences the activity of the Jovian magnetosphere. (5) How the energetic particles are supplied to the boundary region of the Jovian magnetosphere and escape to the interplanetary space keeping high energies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We describe an evolutionary turbulent one-dimensional model of the Jovian subnebula, based on the previous models of the solar nebula of Dubrulle (Icarus 106 (1993) 59), and of Drouart et al. (Icarus 140 (1999) 129), as well as on the evolutionary turbulent model of the subnebula of Saturn of Mousis et al. (Icarus 156 (2002a) 162). We show that the conversion of N2 to NH3 and that of CO to CH4 were inhibited in the Jovian subnebula, in conflict with the conclusions of Prinn and Fegley (Astrophys. J. 249 (1981) 308). We argue that grains from which ultimately formed Galilean satellites were initially produced in the cooling feeding zone of Jupiter prior to the formation of the subdisk surrounding the giant planet. It is assumed that hydrates of NH3 and clathrate hydrates of CO, CH4, and N2 formed in the feeding zone (Astrophys. J. Lett. 550 (2001a) L227; Astrophys. J. Lett. 559 (2001b) L183) were incorporated in planetesimals embedded in the cold outer part of the Jovian subnebula. Under the assumption that planetesimals which formed Ganymede and Callisto migrated from the outer region and did not outgas during this migration, the per mass abundances of NH3, N2, CO, and CH4 with respect to H2O in the interiors of these satellites are estimated. Calculated values depend upon the poorly known relative abundances of these species in the solar nebula. However, they provide an interpretation of the presence of NH3 suspected in subsurface oceans of Ganymede and Callisto, and which is consistent with the measurement of the internal magnetic field of these satellites measured by the Galileo mission (Geophys. Res. Lett. 24 (1997) 2155; J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 4609). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Discusses observations on the Galilean satellites, gathered from the Galileo mission in 2003. Potential explanation for the existence of magnetic fields in Ganymede; Nature of volcanism in Io; Absorption features of Callisto; Discussion on the presence of liquid-water oceans in Europa.

Calculations of the tidal responses of Ganymede and Callisto reveal that tidal amplitudes on these bodies may be as large as a few meters if a liquid ocean exists to decouple the surface ice from the interior. Tides on Ganymede''s surface can exceed 7 m peak-to-peak variation, while on Callisto the tidal amplitude can exceed 5 m in the presence of a liquid ocean. Without an ocean, tidal amplitudes are less than 0.5 m on Ganymede and less than 0.3 m on Callisto. An orbiting spacecraft using an altimeter for crossover analysis and Doppler tracking from Earth should be able to achieve sufficient accuracy to identify the tidal amplitude to within about a meter over the course of a few months (observing tens of tidal cycles). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Equilibrium models of heat transfer by heat conduction and thermal convection show that the three satellites of Jupiter—Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—may have internal oceans underneath ice shells tens of kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers thick. A wide range of rheology and heat transfer parameter values and present-day heat production rates have been considered. The rheology was cast in terms of a reference viscosity ν0 calculated at the melting temperature and the rate of change A of viscosity with inverse homologous temperature. The temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity k of ice I has been taken into account by calculating the average conductivity along the temperature profile. Heating rates are based on a chondritic radiogenic heating rate of 4.5 pW kg−1 but have been varied around this value over a wide range. The phase diagrams of H2O (ice I) and H2O + 5 wt% NH3 ice have been considered. The ice I models are worst-case scenarios for the existence of a subsurface liquid water ocean because ice I has the highest possible melting temperature and the highest thermal conductivity of candidate ices and the assumption of equilibrium ignores the contribution to ice shell heating from deep interior cooling. In the context of ice I models, we find that Europa is the satellite most likely to have a subsurface liquid ocean. Even with radiogenic heating alone the ocean is tens of kilometers thick in the nominal model. If tidal heating is invoked, the ocean will be much thicker and the ice shell will be a few tens of kilometers thick. Ganymede and Callisto have frozen their oceans in the nominal ice I models, but since these models represent the worst-case scenario, it is conceivable that these satellites also have oceans at the present time. The most important factor working against the existence of subsurface oceans is contamination of the outer ice shell by rock. Rock increases the density and the pressure gradient and shifts the triple point of ice I to shallower depths where the temperature is likely to be lower then the triple point temperature. According to present knowledge of ice phase diagrams, ammonia produces one of the largest reductions of the melting temperature. If we assume a bulk concentration of 5 wt% ammonia we find that all the satellites have substantial oceans. For a model of Europa heated only by radiogenic decay, the ice shell will be a few tens of kilometers thinner than in the ice I case. The underlying rock mantle will limit the depth of the ocean to 80–100 km. For Ganymede and Callisto, the ice I shell on top of the H2O–NH3 ocean will be around 60- to 80-km thick and the oceans may be 200- to 350-km deep. Previous models have suggested that efficient convection in the ice will freeze any existing ocean. The present conclusions are different mainly because they are based on a parameterization of convective heat transport in fluids with strongly temperature dependent viscosity rather than a parameterization derived from constant-viscosity convection models. The present parameterization introduces a conductive stagnant lid at the expense of the thickness of the convecting sublayer, if the latter exists at all. The stagnant lid causes the temperature in the sublayer to be warmer than in a comparable constant-viscosity convecting layer. We have further modified the parameterization to account for the strong increase in homologous temperature, and therefore decrease in viscosity, with depth along an adiabat. This modification causes even thicker stagnant lids and further elevated temperatures in the well-mixed sublayer. It is the stagnant lid and the comparatively large temperature in the sublayer that frustrates ocean freezing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We have numerically computed the orbital evolution of ∼103 particles representing high-speed ejecta from Gilgamesh, the largest impact basin on Ganymede. The integration includes the four Galilean satellites, Jupiter (including J2 and J4), Saturn, and the Sun. The integrations last 100,000 years. The particles are ejected at a variety of speeds and directions, with the fastest particles ejected at 1.4 times the escape speed vesc≡√ of 2GMG/RG of Ganymede. Ejecta with speeds v<0.96vesc follow suborbital trajectories. At v∼0.96vesc there is a transition characterized by complex behavior suggestive of chaos. For v>0.96vesc, most particles escape Ganymede and achieve orbits about Jupiter. Eventually most (∼71%) of the jovicentric particles hit Ganymede, with 92% of these hitting within 1000 years. The accretion rate scales as 1/t. Their impact sites are randomly distributed, as expected for planetocentric debris. We estimate that most of the resulting impact craters are a few kilometers across and smaller. The rest of the escaping ejecta are partitioned as follows: ∼3% hit Io; ∼10% hit Europa; ∼13% hit Callisto; 2% reach heliocentric space; and less than ∼1% hit Jupiter. Only two particles survived the entire 105-year integration. Ejecta from large impact events do not appear to be a plausible source of large craters on the Galilean satellites; however, such ejecta may account for the majority of small craters. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Reports digital elevation models of parts of the surface of Ganymede, derived from stereo pairs combining data from the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft, which reveal bright, smooth terrains that lie at roughly constant elevations 100 to 1,000 meters below the surrounding rougher terrains. Indication that the smooth terrains were formed by flooding by low-viscosity water-ice lavas; Speculation on the formation of bright terrain; Topic of volcanism.

An error was detected in the numerical code that has been used for the simulations of dynamo models with a ‘snow layer’, in Ganymede’s core which can explain the low observed quadrupole-to-dipole ratio in Ganymede’s magnetic field. After correcting the error it is found that the stability of such strongly dipolar dynamos is even larger than found before. In contrast to a previous conclusion, they exist in a wide range of thicknesses for the snow layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports the discovery , during the spacecraft Galileo's encounters with Ganymede, of an internal magnetic field. The impact of Ganymede's magnetic field upon Jupiter's magnetosphere; The lack of identification of a source.

Presents research which studied the surface materials of the Galilean satellites Callisto and Ganymede. Five absorption features; Analysis of reflectance spectra from Galileo mission near-infrared mapping spectrometer; Candidate materials; Primary surface constituents.

Reports the measurement of optical reflectance spectra of substances to test proposals for the origin of oxygen absorption bands in the visible reflectance spectrum of Ganymede's surface. The spectra of pure solid oxygen, condensed O2-H2O mixtures, and irradiated ice.

Io is the volcanically most active body in the Solar System and has a large surface heat flux. The geological activity is thought to be the result of tides raised by Jupiter, but it is not known whether the current tidal heat production is sufficiently high to generate the observed surface heat flow. Io’s tidal heat comes from the orbital energy of the Io–Jupiter system (resulting in orbital acceleration), whereas dissipation of energy in Jupiter causes Io’s orbital motion to decelerate. Here we report a determination of the tidal dissipation in Io and Jupiter through its effect on the orbital motions of the Galilean moons. Our results show that the rate of internal energy dissipation in Io (k2/Q = 0.015 ± 0.003, where k2 is the Love number and Q is the quality factor) is in good agreement with the observed surface heat flow, and suggest that Io is close to thermal equilibrium. Dissipation in Jupiter (k2/Q = (1.102 ± 0.203) × 10-5) is close to the upper bound of its average value expected from the long-term evolution of the system, and dissipation in extrasolar planets may be higher than presently assumed. The measured secular accelerations indicate that Io is evolving inwards, towards Jupiter, and that the three innermost Galilean moons (Io, Europa and Ganymede) are evolving out of the exact Laplace resonance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the discovery of mass anomalies on Ganymede, Jupiter's third and largest Galilean satellite. This discovery is surprising for such a large icy satellite. We used the radio Doppler data generated with the Galileo spacecraft during its second encounter with Ganymede on 6 September 1996 to model the mass anomalies. Two surface mass anomalies, one a positive mass at high latitude and the other a negative mass at low latitude, can explain the data. There are no obvious geological features that can be identified with the anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents the hydrated salt minerals in the Ganymede surface determined by the Galileo's near-infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS). Recognition on Ganymede as the largest satellite of jupiter; Thermal evolution of the Galilean satellites; Difference between the hydrated mineral spectra of Ganymede and Europa.

Presents research which measured submicrometer dust within a few radii of Jupiter's satellite Ganymede. Concentrations of dust in the ring systems of planets and along planetary orbits; Generation of individual dust grains; Directions, speeds and distribution of masses indicating dust from Ganymede; Ejection process resulting from hypervelocity impacts of dust onto Ganymede's surface; Dust near Callisto and Europa.