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Chapter 4 showed that the Categorical-Instrumental Imperative — a principle that I have argued solves the problem of possible future selves — can be restated as follows: The Kingdom of Human and Sentient Ends Formulation: voluntarily aim for its own sake, in every relevant action, to abstract away from the interests (or ends) of particular human or nonhuman sentient being(s), acting instead on interests (or ends) it is instrumentally rational for all human and nonhuman sentient beings to universally agree to share given their different voluntary, involuntary, and semivoluntary interests, where relevant actions are determined recursively as actions it is instrumentally rational for one’s present and possible future selves to universally agree upon as such in cases where one’s present self wants to know and advance their future interests — and then, when the future comes, voluntarily choose your having acted as such.

The concept of self-interest remains underdeveloped in sociology although central to economics. Recent methodological and social trends render sociological indifference to the concept untenable. The term has enjoyed historical predominance in the West since the sixteenth century. While it is seen in modern economics as a singular motivating force, Adam Smith regarded self-interest in economic action as necessarily moderated by sympathy. In addition to its problematic economic conceptualization self-interest has an experiential basis in unequal power relations. An alternative to the concept of self-interest is presented by Amartya Sen in his account of commitment; its inconsistencies, however, render Sen's statement unsatisfactory. Differences between present and future interests indicate that the distinction between self-interested and other-interested action is not sustainable.

Jeff McMahan appeals to what he calls the “Time-relative Interest Account of the Wrongness of Killing” to explain the wrongness of killing individuals who are conscious but not autonomous. On this account, the wrongness of such killing depends on the victim’s interest in his or her future, and this interest, in turn, depends on two things: the goods that would have accrued to the victim in the future; and the strength of the prudential relations obtaining between the victim at the time of the killing and at the times these goods would have accrued to him or her. More precisely, when assessing this interest, future goods should be discounted to reflect reductions in the strength of such relations. Against McMahan’s account I argue that it relies on an implausible “actualist” view of the moral importance of interests according to which satisfactions of future interests only have moral significance if they are satisfactions of actual interests (interests that will in fact exist). More precisely, I aim to show that the Time-relative Interest Account (1) does not have the implications for the morality of killing that McMahan takes it to have, and (2) implies, implausibly, that certain interest satisfactions which seem to be morally significant are morally insignificant because they are not satisfactions of actual interests.

Many whole classes of rights are common to adults and children; many are exclusive possessions of adults; perhaps none at all are necessarily peculiar to children. When a stranger has interfered wrongfully with the child's bodily and property interests and violated his or her rights just as surely as if the aggressor had punched an adult and forcibly helped him to her purse. Rights that are common to adults and children in this way we can call "A-C-rights". Children are not legally capable of defending their own future interests against present infringement by their parents, so that task must be performed for them, usually by the state in its role of 'parens patriae'. American courts have long held that the state has a "sovereign power of guardianship" over minors and other legally incompetent persons that confers upon it the right, or perhaps even the duty, to look after the interests of those who are incapable of protecting themselves.

Plagiarism: Noun. The practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own. A scientific publication is the final culmination of honest, responsible and ethical research. Unpublished research amounts to nothing, and this is what is the essence behind “publish or perish;” a motto, which the Indian Journal of Ophthalmology stands by. There is nothing wrong with this dictum as long as it emphasizes on quality and not quantity. Research results in the form of manuscripts can make it into print, only after withstanding the scrutiny of peer-review. The quest for knowledge and new research often builds on the results of previously published and validated research. Therefore, while quoting results of previous studies, it is essential to provide the correct reference and give credit to previous researchers. Even while paraphrasing, it is imperative to acknowledge properly the original source.[1] However, at times; it has been observed that authors, without the mentioning the original author(s) use substantial portions of previously published articles. This is blatant plagiarism, and such infringement of copyright is not just frowned upon, but it considered a form of thievery. In recent years, the same mantra “publish or perish” has shown its darker side too. It has driven many an academic to mindlessly churn out manuscripts without giving a thought to whether it really is advancing science. More the number of publications and subsequent citations, the more embellished one's resume is considered. Authors often submit identical or near-identical data sets to different journals at the same time; which often the editor or reviewer may not pick until one paper has already made it out into print. Such duplicate publications are a form of “self-plagiarism” – or “stealing from one's own self.” This subset, so to speak of plagiarism has many forms. Authors may at times add more numbers to previously published data sets and publish new papers with slightly modified results and appropriately tweaked aims. This subtle form of plagiarism too is unethical. As is “salami slicing” where many similar papers are “sliced off” from the same data set, primarily as an attempt to increase the number of publications.[1,2] Moving away from plagiarism and toward originality, this issue of IJO has an abundance of original ideas and concepts. Ajay et al. in a unique original study have written about the choices and interests of the budding ophthalmologists “Ophthalmic Surgical Training in Karnataka and Southern India - present status and future interests from a survey of final year residents.” Nair and Javed in their comprehensive review on mitomycin-C (MMC) in dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR) have presented the evidence in a balanced way, suggesting that the use of adjunctive MMC may actually improve the success rate of DCR surgery. To summarize, editors and reviewers now have at their disposal, plagiarism detection software that can pick up plagiarism. However, the ultimate plagiarism detector is the researcher's conscience. Originality, honesty and sound ethics are the three pillars on which research and scientific publishing can move forward.

One of the most contentious ethical issues in the neonatal intensive care unit is the withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment from infants who may otherwise survive. In practice, one of the most important factors influencing this decision is the prediction that the infant will be severely intellectually disabled. Most professional guidelines suggest that decisions should be made on the basis of the best interests of the infant. It is, however, not clear how intellectual disability affects those interests. Why should intellectual disability be more important than physical disability to the future interests of an infant? Is it discriminatory to base decisions on this? This paper will try to unravel the above questions. It seems that if intellectual disability does affect the best interests of the child it must do so in one of three ways. These possibilities will be discussed as well as the major challenges to the notion that intellectual disability should have a role in such decisions. The best interests of the child can be affected by severe or profound intellectual disability. It is, though, not as clear-cut as some might expect.

The aim of this paper is to consider whether some seats in a democratically elected legislative assembly ought to be reserved for representatives of future generations. In order to examine this question, I will propose a new democratic model for representing posterity. It is argued that this model has several advantages compared with a model for the democratic representation of future people previously suggested by Andrew Dobson. Nevertheless, the democratic model that I propose confronts at least two difficult problems. First, it faces insoluble problems of representative legitimacy. Second, one might question whether this model provides a reasonably effective way to represent future interests compared with existing representative democratic institutions. Despite such problems, it is argued that political representation of posterity can be defended on the basis of fundamental ideas and ideals in recent theory of deliberative democracy. The first reason for this is that in a number of cases democratic decisions cannot be regarded as normatively legitimate from the point of view of deliberative democracy, unless posterity is given a voice. The second reason is that representation of posterity can contribute to more rational and impartial deliberations and decisions in legislative assemblies.

What are our political obligations to future generations? How does morality suggest that we weight current interests against future interests? Do politics or markets place greater weight upon interests in the very distant future? How should we discount future costs and benefits?

Underage marriage is marriage committed by underage children or adolescents in which it must obtain the permission from the Judges of the Religious Court. This study aims at describing and exploring underage marriage dispensations based on the decision of the religious court judges in the Province of Central Java. This research uses juridical-normative method with qualitative and descriptive research type. The data of this research is secondary data that are related directly to the research object. Technique of collecting data is literature study, i.e. various main and supporting materials related to the problem. Data analysis techniques are processed and discussed using deductive methods. The results of the research indicate that the judges' ruling only concerns with the doctrine of positive law with the aim at obtaining clear legal status. Therefore, their decision does not take intoaccount the aspects of the future interests of children and women

Sustainability for SMEs is a process of development target to be achieved by increasing the competitiveness in theglobal market. In this context, the purpose of this study is to investigate the SMEs in Turkey within the framework ofmanagement issues and corporate governance viewpoint and to present an outline of possible solutions. Anotherpurpose of this study is to contribute management literature in terms of shedding lights on the relations ofsustainability and management practices on SMEs to raise awareness. In order to conduct this study method ofdetailed literature review is used. Detected management issues and solutions are examined into four main categories,which are (a) the lack of awareness of the sustainability and failure of implementation of this concept to themanagement practices, (b) lack of understanding of the relationship between the expectations of stakeholders onsustainability and company's future interests, (c) lack of the vision about sustainability and presence of unclearlydefined rules, roles and processes within the companies, (d) lack of skills to analyze the short and long term effects tothe company of not taking sustainability concept into decision making mechanisms.

Paternalism is a recurrent theme in applied ethics because of the enduring tensions that make themselves felt between the principles of autonomy and beneficence in areas of societal concern such as public health, consumer protection and education. Though education is not inherently paternalistic, paternalistic acts are typical in education, especially of young children. The paper explores how far paternalism should be allowed in the context of education and by what other considerations it is limited. It identifies the time dimension as the key variable which distinguishes paternalistic interventions in education from other types of paternalism and provides a prima facie legitimation for thwarting the present interests of children for the protection and furtherance of their future interests. A number of rules (“tendency rules”) are formulated that may be of help in cases in which the principles of self-determination and best interest conflict.

Both social cooperation and self-control require reciprocation. In social cooperation situations a single person's cooperative act, if not reciprocated by others, would be unreinforced both immediately and in the long term. Similarly, a single act of self-control (refusing a single cigarette, for example), if not followed up by other such acts, would also be unreinforced immediately and in the long term. The present experiments varied probability of reciprocation in a prisoner's dilemma-like game that could resemble a social cooperation or a self-control situation. Participants earned points by playing against a computer. The computer offered the participant a choice between 5 or 6 points (‘cooperation’ by the computer) or between 1 or 2 points (‘defection’ by the computer). The participant's choice of the lesser alternative (‘cooperation’) or the greater alternative (‘defection’) on the current trial led, respectively, to cooperation or defection by the computer on the next trial with a probability (probability of reciprocation, PR) which could vary. When PR was greater than 63%, consistent cooperation maximized the participant's earnings. When PR was less than 63%, defection maximized earnings. Three conditions were studied: PR signaled by spinners; PR unsignaled; PR unsignaled with participants believing that they were playing with another person, not the computer. With PR = 100% (‘tit-for-tat’) and PR = 50%, the modal participant maximized earnings under all three conditions. With PR = 75%, participants maximized earnings only when PR was signaled. These results indicate that differences between people's tendency to cooperate with other people (social cooperation) and their tendency to cooperate with their own future interests (self-control) may lie in differences in subjective PR. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

If formal educators are to play a role in preparing future citizens for making decisions about health and environmental risks, then they must be willing and able to incorporate risk education. This article presents 10 goals for risk education. It also describes current risk education practices, future interests, and perceived barriers to risk education of Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin Grades 6–12 science teachers. Data were collected through a mail questionnaire (1,336 surveys were returned, adjusted return rate = 80%) and in-depth telephone interviews (completed with 45 teachers, return rate = 90%). Many teachers had covered some aspect of risk education and were interested in enhancing their efforts. Results also suggest that teachers need to be made aware of risk education resources and provided with training, particularly regarding psychological influences on risk decisions.

During the South African war, 1899–1902, the apparent inability of the British army to overcome the Boers disillusioned many of its officers, some of whom criticized various aspects of the war. The origins of this critique are traced to changes within British society caused by economic depression, which affected the landowning class from which most officers came, by urbanization and by the influx of Jewish capitalists into high society. Experience in South Africa intensified this anti-urban, anticapitalist and antisemitic ethos among officers, many of whom were disgusted by the ‘money-mad’ inhabitants of Johannesburg and by the apparent power and authority of the Jewish mineowners. Others were disturbed by the methods used against the Boers, such as farm burning and concentration camps, and were concerned that South Africa would be handed over to Jewish capitalists. Some officers regarded the Boers not only as honourable foes but also as ideal soldiers, the result of their rural upbringing. This was a type, many believed, that was disappearing in Britain because of urbanization. By 1902, many officers wanted the Boers to be offered lenient terms which would preserve a society whose assimilation was considered vital to the future interests of the British empire.

Human impatience and the inconsistency between affective and cognitive views of “otherness” undermine the foundations of sustainable forest management. Modern economies have induced institutions that reinforce this tendency, including through academic institutions where apologists for discounting flourish. It was not always so. The ethos of societies and nations supported long-term productivity against short-term interest. Individualistic ethics also internalised long-term well-being within present mental constructs. Rapid change and imposition of unfamiliar codes threaten the stability of future-protective institutions. Local sustainability may be at the expense of sustainability elsewhere. Current models of self-interest have been projected as possessing intrinsic ethical merit. Justification of discounting by financial institutions is undermined by the institutions’ actual performance. The law may accidentally assist sustainability by its universality. Commonality of interest is only efficacious for future interests if supported by a further ethical requirement, but our conforming with this requirement may encourage later generations to do so too. Some reinforcement of conscience-based behaviour may be derived from religion, mutual censure, art, academic integrity and pre-commitment, and by regarding sustainability as a present good. These seem frail motivations, but offer the best hope for future generations.

The author describes his work in the field of toys and play, particularly their relationship to education. He recounts how he moved from a preoccupation with the toy as object, through a deep interest in play as a contextualized activity, to a growing concern with simulation/games for adult training. This has brought a renewed breadth and depth to the first two areas, and his future interests will include an exploration of the relationships between play and simulation/games.

The US has been not reinvesting its earnings back into its economy and people since very long. And at the same time have been over spending on domestic front (Leonhardt, 2011) along with wasting huge resources into some adventures in Asia and Africa and in some other military campaigns (Johnson & Sehgal, 2011). It is simple economics but the US (political and administrative classes) is not ready to understand it. Since long the US has been investing billions of dollars in so called strategic future interests and plans for 21th century and so. But it is miserably failing to plan for its present.

The patent system is broken and in dire need of reform; so says the popular press, scholars, lawyers, judges, congresspersons, and even the President. One common complaint is that patents are now failing as property rights because their boundaries are not as clear as the fences that demarcate real estate — patent infringement is neither as determinate nor as efficient as trespass is for land. This Essay explains that this is a fallacious argument, suffering both empirical and logical failings. Empirically, there are no formal studies of trespass litigation rates; thus, complaints about the patent system’s indeterminacy are based solely on an idealized theory of how trespass should function, which economists identify as the “nirvana fallacy.” Furthermore, anecdotal evidence and other studies suggest that boundary disputes between landowners are neither as clear nor as determinate as patent scholars assume them to be. Logically, the comparison of patent boundaries to trespass commits what philosophers call a “category mistake.” It conflates the boundaries of an entire legal right (a patent), not with the boundaries of its conceptual counterpart (real estate), but with a single doctrine (trespass) that secures real estate only in a single dimension (physical fences). As all law students learn in their first-year Property courses, estate boundaries are defined along the dimensions of time, use, and space, as represented in doctrines like future interests, easements, nuisance, and restrictive covenants, among others. The proper conceptual analog for patent boundaries is “estate boundaries,” not fences. In sum, the trespass fallacy is driving widely accepted critiques of today’s patent system that are empirically unverified and conceptually misleading.

U.S. National Security Strategy identifies the Global Commons as shared sea, air, and space domains which exist outside of exclusive national jurisdiction. Cyberspace, as yet a nascent domain, may be evolving into a new Global Commons as it acquires the five distinguishing characteristics such domains share. The international regimes created by treaties are voluntary affairs and states accept their constraints primarily to preserve their future interests when they lack the capability to exert control or enforce a sovereignty claim. However claims to the global commons and their governing regimes are not immutable. On the contrary, technological progress, resource scarcity and most recently, climate change, are making global commons more accessible and more desirable. The result is inexorable pressure for states to expand their sovereignty. To do so, states must be able to demonstrate sustained presence and possess the capability to act within the domain. As there exists no formal process to transition international regimes to recognized sovereignty claims, states must undertake the essential activity of engagement in order to preserve their interests among the regime stakeholders and be properly positioned to affect an expansion of national sovereignty into a global commons. This paper advocates a holistic approach, advancing a campaign plan for the global commons.

I suspect that many of us have experience with periodically refurbishing property and relationships. Even in this era of acquire, use, and discard, we find those treasured items that have the patina of affectionate engagement and realize that we want them to remain in our lives, but in a form that is more functional and better suited to our present and future interests. These items have core elements that are simply irreplaceable, and once refurbished they will provide form, function, and pleasure that simply cannot be duplicated elsewhere. Mayo Clinic Proceedings is currently undergoing a period of refurbishing that in relative terms rivals the 1963-1964 decision to remove the journal from the Mayo Clinic Section of Scientific Publications and make the journal an independent body under the leadership of an Editor-in-Chief and Editorial Board. In absolute terms, the refurbishing of Mayo Clinic Proceedings that will occur in 2011 and 2012 will greatly exceed any prior initiatives. The journal will retain its core values and pursuit of quality, and portions of its cover will remain colored with Pantone Matching System 151 ink (the unique orange color used for many years), but almost every other aspect of the journal has been, and will continue to be, under review. I will share some of these features with you, the readers, and explain how the refurbished journal should provide functionality and enjoyment unprecedented in the journal's history.

The IGU Sydney Conference made 1988 a memorable year for Australian geographers. It provided us with unique opportunities to meet old friends and colleagues and to forge contacts with new acquaintances; and, through our involvement in the huge range of activities associated with the meeting, it involved many of us in a global network of geographers, the benefits of which we continue to reap. Our 1988 visitors, primarily from the northern hemisphere, also benefited. Through publications, seminars and excursions Australian geography and Australian geographers came to the attention of their overseas counterparts with new intensity. During the period from 1988 our experiences as editors of Australian Geographical Studies have suggested that this momentum has been maintained. Australian geographers continue to make a highly significant contribution to scholarly debates in all major contemporary research areas. However what are these areas? Are they static or changing? And what can Australian Geographical Studies tell us not only about these trends but also about what they might mean for future interests of Australian geographers? In presenting a summary of the journal's activities and offerings over the last three and a half years we consider these questions in two different ways. First we present an analysis of the topics which honours and post-graduate geography students have been studying for their theses over the last decade. These are taken from the biennial geography thesis lists which David Wadley and his collaborators have painstakingly compiled for the journal throughout this period. Secondly we look at the manuscripts submitted to us during our period as editors.

This article analyses the structural challenges facing the new government of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in its reconstruction and development programme for sustainable peace and security. It takes into account the DRC's strategic importance in the Central and Southern African region and the African continent, as well as the present and future interests of its neighbours. The DRC has reached several agreements with its neighbours – Rwanda, Uganda and Angola – regarding this issue, but the question remains; will these relations guarantee the achievement of peace and security in the country? Africa Insight Vol. 38 (1) 2008: pp. 185-196

Trade in agriculture is linked to a whole range of economic, environmental, societal and future interests. For this reason, international regulation of trade in agricultural goods is highly contentious. While mainly directed towards an opening of markets, the WTO Agreement on Agriculture also has some entry points for ‘non trade concerns’. However, the agreement still looks like a casual patchwork that allows rather unsystematic ally for exemptions, without explicitly exposing the grounds that allow for them. The question arises of how the agreement could be drafted in a more structured way, in order to make sure that the economic objectives are efficiently pursued, and at the same time that human rights and environmental concerns are adequately taken account of? The concept of sustainable development provides for a methodical ‘seven step’ framework that gives guidance on integrated decision making processes. In this paper, this framework is partially applied to the Agreement on Agriculture. This working paper served as an introductory note to a brainstorming workshop on the subject that took place on 27 March 2009 at the World Trade Institute, University of Bern.

The rules of law governing estates in land and future interests are boiled down as much as possible, but hopefully not more so.

The American law of estates and future interests is tremendously complex. This complexity is unjustifiable because it serves no modern purpose. Many of the distinctions between types of interests in the current system of ownership are vestiges of ancient English feudal concepts and owe their place in the law solely to historical accident. This article develops a proposed model law designed to simplify and modernize the basic property ownership system. The proposals made here differ substantially from prior suggestions for legislative reform, and reflect issues of enactability and retroactivity that previously have been neglected in the literature. The article both builds on and critiques the recently-released preliminary draft of Division VII of the Restatement Third, Property (Wills and Other Donative Transfers), and explains why a model law will be more effective than a Restatement in achieving modernization and reform of the estates and future interests system.

In Chapter 4 I argued for the developmental, cultural, and social needs of Muslim children. Now I will endeavor to wed those needs to the attendant duties and prerogatives of Muslim parents to educate their children as they deem appropriate, without transgressing on the children’s immediate or future interests. This point needs underscoring, especially in light of the fact that so many children in Islamic schools are children of immigrants. Later in this chapter, I will examine why Muslim parents place their children in Islamic schools, as well as how they participate in their children’s education. Chief among these parents’ aims is the provision of a total Islamic environment for their children’s education, including the reinforcements necessary for a strong cultural identity. What makes Muslim parents arguably unique in the discussions surrounding parents and religious schools—be they Jewish, Catholic, or Protestant—is their recent immigrant status (though as I demonstrated in Chapter 2, the socioeconomic status of Muslims is on the whole strikingly different between Europe and North America).

1. In this essay, I explore an aspect of consequentialism that cannot altogether be ignored by rival theories of normative ethics, namely the range of the parties affected by current actions, and the importance of taking these parties into account. Even those rival theories that discount some interests need a clear understanding of the nature of the interests that they proceed to discount. 2. Affected interests include the future interests of actual people and human foetuses, plus those of actual non-human creatures, and also those of future people and other creatures who cannot yet be identified. Human actions will playa large role in determining not only which humans there will be but also which non-humans; for all of these we can considerably influence the quality of life, and thus have responsibilities for the foreseeable impacts of what we do. 3. Where we make a comparable and discoverable difference to people's quality of life, we are no less responsible if they are situated in the future than in the present. Further, if we accept that the foreseeable costs of a hundred years hence matter as much as costs of the same kind in the present, then the scale of current responsibilities turns out to be vast. Those who grant this are for practical purposes consequentialists already. 4. Donald Brown has shown how there is a strong case from human interests for stabilising greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere, further strengthened by biocentric and/or ecocentric considerations. Pace Brown, a biocentric approach can weigh human interests (such as development ones) against non-human interests, and need not forbid all species extinctions; but in fact this approach still cannot justify increases to GHG concentrations. Emissions required for Third World development need to be matched by reduced emissions in developed countries. Biocentric consequentialism thus generates defensible policies. Also, as Brown holds, developed countries have obligations to support a strict international climate change agreement, with national quotas based on equal per capita emissions entitlements world-wide.1. En este ensayo voy a explorar un aspecto del consecuencialismo que no debería ser ignorado completamente por las teorías rivales de la ética normativa, a saber, la extensión del ámbito de los individuos afectados por nuestras acciones presentes, y la importancia de tener en cuenta a los mismos. Incluso aquellas teorías rivales que descuentan algunos intereses necesitan una clara comprensión de la naturaleza de los intereses que están dispuestos a desechar. 2. Los intereses afectados incluyen los intereses futuros de personas actuales y de fetos humanos, además de aquellos relativos a criaturas actuales no humanas, y también los de personas futuras y otras criaturas que no pueden ser reconocidos todavía. Las acciones humanas jugarán un importante rol a la hora de determinar no sólo qué humanos existirán, sino incluso qué no-humanos; podemos incluso influir considerablemente en la calidad de vida de todos ellos, y asumir así responsabilidades en relación a los impactos previsibles resultantes de nuestras acciones. 3. En la medida que establezcamos diferencias comparativas y constatables respecto a la calidad de vida de la gente, conviene advertir que no somos menos responsables de los individuos del futuro que del presente. Es más, si aceptamos que los costes previsibles (de nuestras acciones) para dentro de un millón de años importan tanto como los costes del mismo tipo en el presente, entonces la escala de nuestras responsabilidades actuales se hace más vasta. 4. Donald Brown ha mostrado cómo hay un fuerte debate entre los diversos intereses humanos a la hora de establecer cuáles han de ser las concentraciones de gas invernadero en la atmósfera; dicho debate ha sido reanima" do aún más por consideraciones biocéntricas y/o ecocéntricas. Pace Brown, una aproximación biocéntrica puede contra" pesar intereses humanos (tales como los que afectan al desarrollo) con intereses no humanos, y no tendría por qué prohibir todas las extinciones de especies; pero de hecho esta aproximación no podría justificar de ningún modo el incremento de las concentraciones de gases invernadero. Las emisiones requeridas para el desarrollo del Tercer Mundo necesitan ser contrapesadas con la reducción de emisiones en los países desarrollados. El consecuencialismo biocéntrico genera así políticas defendibles. También, como Brown subraya, los países desarrollados tienen obligación de apoyar un estricto acuerdo internacional sobre el cambio climático, con cuotas nacionales basadas en habilitaciones (entitlements) a una igual cantidad de emisiones per capita para todo planeta.

With today's Worldwide Web technology it is possible to make virtually any document available for access on a controlled basis for members of technical associations, such as the IEEE. The question is, what is it that members want enough to actually use and be willing to pay for? A surrogate for test marketing products and determining the result by trial and error is conducting surveys which ask the potential customers what they would like to have delivered to them online. With this as the objective, questionnaires were sent to a random sample of 2000 members, of whom 1043 responded. The responses characterized their present use of the Internet, their future interests, and desirable new features and services. These results provide insights into why actual usage of online publications has been far less than expected. For example, there are some clues that members want access to more information electronically than what they typically obtain by subscribing to individual print publications. It may be that a very broad offering of material, either with a bulk discount or per item charge, is the way of the future.

Background Although advance care planning (ACP) in hospitals is important, the best means of promoting it in Japan remain to be clarified. Aim The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of end-of-life care teams (EOLCTs) for both cancer and non-cancer patients. The secondary aim was to evaluate the usefulness of narrative life reviews and ACP conducted by full-time EOLCT nurses using qualitative analysis. Methods We conducted the ‘three-pillar strategy for decision making’ for the families of 209 patients. There are three large pillars, (1) patient9s wishes; (2) family9s wishes; and (3) medical judgment. There are also three key pillars in regard to patients9 wishes: (1) ‘Present’: Regardless of the patient9s competence/incompetence, any subtle signs shown by the patient must be noted; (2) ‘Past’: ACP and narrative life reviews must be checked; and (3) ‘Future’: The best future interests must be considered. The patient9s wish is the most important pillar. Results Intervention by the three-pillar strategy in EOLCT decision making tended to increase the number of home deaths in accordance with patients9 wishes in collaboration with the home care support ward. Narrative life reviews by nurses led to enhancement of ACP. Discussion The most important finding was that patients9 and their families9 wishes were respected. Conclusion The three-pillar strategy used by EOLCT in decision making was useful in enhancing hospitals9 ACP.

Has a child been treated unfairly if the only it can exist is by having a n awful life? a principle of parental responsibility show how the child is wronged. Is it wrong to bring children who will have serious diseases and disabilities into the world? In particular, is it unfair to them? The notion that existence itself can be an injury is the basis for a recent new tort known as "wrongful life."[1] this paper considers Feinberg's theory of harm as the basis for a claim of wrongful life,' and concludes that rarely can the stringent conditions imposed by his analysis be met. Another basis for maintaining that it is morally wrong to have children under extremely adverse conditions is suggested: a principle of parental responsibility. We also argue that having children under such conditions may be unfair to the children, even if they have not been (in Feinberg's sense) harmed. Finally, we consider when conditions are sufficiently awful that having children might be viewed as incompatible with being a good parent and unfair to the child. Minimal Birthrights On one very plausible conception of rights, the function of rights is to protect interests. To understand the claim that there can be a right not to be born, we must explain how someone can have an interest in not being born. Born children clearly have all kinds of interests, including an interest in healthy existence. A child who was injured in utero, and is subsequently born, has been harmed even if it is maintained that at the time of the injury there was no being with any interests at all. In fact, it is possible for a child to be harmed by negligence that occurs prior to that child's conception, when no being, not even an embryo, existed f although it must be admitted that courts have been extremely reluctant to acknowledge preconception torts). By contrast, wrongful life suits do not claim merely that the infant plaintiff was harmed before birth. They claim that the child was harmed by being born, implying an interest in not having been brought into existence. Someone can be said to have an interest in not being born if his or her existence is inexorably and irreparably such that life is not worth living. Joel Feinberg explains the right not to be born this way: Talk of a "right not to be born" is a compendious way of referring to the plausible moral requirement that no child be brought into the world unless certain very minimal conditions of well-being are assured. When a child is brought into existence even though those requirements have not been observed, he has been wronged thereby. (p. 101) Feinberg goes on to suggest that these "minimal conditions of well-being" amount to a requirement that we not doom the child's future interests to total defeat. The advance dooming of a child's most basic interest - those essential to the existence and advancement of any ulterior interest - deprives the child of what might be called his birthrights. And if you cannot have that to which you have a birthright, you are wronged if you are brought to birth. Is the infant plaintiff in a wrongful life suit also harmed by being born? In Harm to Others Feinberg offers an analysis of harming as the "thwarting, setting back, or defeating of an interest." To have an interest in something is to have a "stake" in it: "In general, a person has a stake in X ... when he stands to gain or lose depending on the nature or conditions of X": One's interests, then, taken as a miscellaneous collection, consist of all those things in which one has a stake.... [These] are distinguishable components of a person's well-being: he flourishes or languishes as they flourish or languish. What promotes them is to his advantage or in his interest; what thwarts them is to his detriment or against his interest. (p. 34) Applying this analysis to the case of prenatal harms, Feinberg concludes that harm can be caused to a person before his birth "in virtue of the later interests of the child that can already be anticipated" (p. …

During the last decade there have been enormous advances in the transplantation of vital organs - in particular, the kidney, lung, heart, liver and pancreas. Unfortunately, efforts to provide the benefits of these operations to patients have been severely hindered by limitations in the supply of organs -limitations which, in the view of the author, are a consequence of regulation prohibiting the use of market incentives to increase the supply. We conclude that the law should be changed to allow the use of incentives to induce the donation of both present and future interests in cadaver organs.

During the last decade there have been enormous advances in the transplantation of vital human organs-in particular, the kidney, lung, heart, liver, pancreas, and small intestine. Unfortunately, efforts to provide the benefits of these operations to patients have been severely hindered by limitations in the supply of organs-limitations that are a consequence of regulation prohibiting the use of market incentives to increase the supply. Markets for organs could take various forms: sales by living donors; sales of future interests in organs, to be removed on the death of the donor; and sales of organs of a recently deceased person by the family of the deceased. Two additional issues relate to the design of a market: the geographic scope of the market and rules of liability for the sale of diseased or defective organs.

The principles of sustainable development are widely accepted, but, given the conflicts of interest that occur over time and space, their resolution is likely to be problematic. Nowhere is this more evident than in the field of tourism. There is probably no other economic activity which cuts across so many sectors, levels and interests. The relationship between tourism development, socio-economic development and the environment is circular and cumulative. Most tourism activity places additional pressures on the environmental resources upon which it is based, compromising the present and future interests of tourist and host populations as well as of tourism organizations. Without adequate environmental protection, prospects for development will be undermined. There is an essential need to build on the positive links between the environment and tourism and to break the negative links. The latter will not be easy, however, owing to the conflicts of interest that occur. The positive links may be described as win-win situations, benefiting environment and development prospects alike. Negative links are also likely to occur however. To break these, trade-offs will have to be made between conservational and developmental goals. An identification of the extent and nature of these trade-offs will be facilitated by environmental accountancy procedures which include environmental auditing.