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A semiconductor nanomaterial was prepared and its degradation efficiency on zearalenone (ZEN) was investigated. The photocatalytic material, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), was synthesized by the conventional thermal cracking method, and its structure was analyzed by (X-ray diffraction) XRD, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The photocatalytic degradation experiments showed that g-C3N4 induced photocatalytic effects under ultraviolet light (254 nm, including 185 nm), releasing reactive oxygen radicals to degrade ZEN. The experimental conditions for the photocatalytic degradation of ZEN were explored. The results showed that the degradation rate of ZEN was 96.0% when the mass of the photocatalytic material , the wavelength of the UV lamp, the initial concentration and the irradiation time were 20 mg, 254 nm (50 W), 0.5 μg/mL and 60 min, respectively. Meanwhile, the experimental conditions for the photocatalytic degradation of ZEN powder samples were optimized. The results showed that the degradation rate of ZEN was 80.0% when the mass of the photocatalytic material, the wavelength of the UV lamp, and the irradiation time were 800 mg, 254 nm (50 W) and 50 min, respectively. The results could provide a theoretical reference and practical basis for the photocatalytic degradation of ZEN.

为提高十六烷基二甲基苄基氯化铵改性蒙脱土（1627-MMT）脱除玉米油中玉米赤霉烯酮（ZEN）的效率，在对比不同改性蒙脱土对玉米油中ZEN脱除效果的基础上，以ZEN吸附脱除率为考察指标，采用单因素实验和响应面实验优化1627-MMT脱除玉米油中ZEN的工艺条件（1627-MMT添加量、吸附时间、吸附温度），并测定脱毒前后玉米油的理化性质及总甾醇和总生育酚含量变化。结果表明：相比其他3种改性蒙脱土，1627-MMT的ZEN脱除效果最佳；1627-MMT脱除玉米油中ZEN的最优工艺条件为1627-MMT添加量5%、吸附温度105 ℃、吸附时间23 min，在此条件下ZEN吸附脱除率为（89.16±0.10）%，脱毒后玉米油中ZEN含量为349.64 μg/kg,符合欧盟标准限量要求（≤400 μg/kg）；脱毒后玉米油的红值下降了72.34%，酸值下降了41.67%，过氧化值下降了42.00%，总甾醇和总生育酚的保留率分别为92.07%和85.34%，脂肪酸组成及含量无明显变化。综上，1627-MMT不仅可有效脱除玉米油中ZEN，还可降低玉米油的酸值、过氧化值及色泽，并对玉米油中的甾醇、生育酚含量及脂肪酸组成影响较小,在玉米油中ZEN 的脱除中具有一定的应用潜力。In order to improve the removal efficiency of zearalenone (ZEN) from corn oil by hexadecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride modified montmorillonite (1627-MMT),on the basis of comparing the removal effects of different modified montmorillonites on ZEN in corn oil, using the removal rate of ZEN as index, the process conditions (1627-MMT dosage, adsorption time and adsorption temperature) of removing ZEN from corn oil by 1627-MMT were optimized by single factor experiment and response surface methodology, and the physicochemical properties of corn oil, contents of total sterol and total tocopherol before and after detoxification were determined.The results showed that compared with the other three modified montmorillonites, 1627-MMT showed the best ZEN removal effect, and the optimal ZEN removal conditions were obtained as follows: 1627-MMT dosage 5%, adsorption temperature 105 ℃, and adsorption time 23 min. Under the optimal conditions, the removal rate of ZEN was (89.16±0.10)%, and ZEN content in corn oil after detoxification was 349.64 μg/kg, meeting the EU standard limit requirements (≤400 μg/kg). After adsorption, the red value of corn oil decreased by 72.34%, the acid value decreased by 41.67%, the peroxide value decreased by 42.00%, the retention rates of total sterol and total tocopherol were 92.07% and 85.34%, respectively, and there was no significant change in the fatty acid composition and content. In conclusion, 1627-MMT can not only effectively remove ZEN from corn oil, but also reduce the acid value, peroxide value and color of corn oil, and have little impact on the contents of sterol and tocopherol and fatty acid composition in corn oil,which has certain application potential in the removal of ZEN from corn oil.

The constant increase in contamination of agricultural products with mycotoxins makes it urgent to develop new methods for their sorption, isolation, and determination. Molecular imprinting is a promising method for recognizing and isolating target molecules based on specifi c sorption mechanism. The work considers the possibility of obtaining and practical use of mycotoxin–specifi c selective sorbents based on imprinted polyaniline structures using a structural analogue of the mycotoxin zearalenone – 4-hydroxycoumarin. The optimal carrier for the synthesis of molecularly imprinted polymers has been selected. The specifi city of 4-hydroxycoumarin sorption from model solutions has been studied. The practical possibility of sorption and extraction of ZEA from an artifi cially contaminated wheat extract has been demonstrated.

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that extensively contaminates food and feed, posing a significant threat to public health. However, the mechanisms behind ZEN-induced intestinal immunotoxicity remain unclear. In this study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to ZEN at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day b.w. for a duration of 14 days. The results demonstrated that ZEN exposure led to notable pathological alterations and immunosuppression within the intestine. Furthermore, ZEN exposure caused a significant reduction in the levels of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and liver X receptor (LXR) (P

Levilactobacillus brevis PYN10_6_2, a lactic acid bacterial strain previously isolated from Tenebrio molitor larval feces, possesses the ability to convert zearalenone (ZEN) to α-/β-Zearalenol (α-/β-ZEL). However, the genes involved in the ZEN reduction reaction and the biosafety of this strain remain unknown. In this study, we sequenced, assembled, and annotated the whole genome of L. brevis PYN10_6_2. Genomic sequencing was conducted using short-read sequencing on the Illumina HiSeq X Ten platform and long-read sequencing on the PacBio RS II Single Molecule Real-Time (SMRT) platform. The assembled genome consisted of one circular chromosome, four circular plasmids, with a total size of 2,745,725 bp and a G + C content of 45.52 %. Annotation identified 2,660 coding sequences, 5 rRNAs, 66 tRNAs, and a single CRISPR locus. Average nucleotide identity (ANI) between L. brevis PYN10_6_2 and L. brevis DSM 20054T yielded a value of 98.94 %. Further in-depth analysis revealed 182 antibiotic resistance genes, 237 putative virulence genes, 2 prophages, and 10 genomic islands. Additionally, functional annotation through COG and KEGG databases revealed the presence of three genes encoding 3α- and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3α-/3β-HSD) within the bacterial chromosome. This comprehensive genomic characterization provides valuable insights into the genetic basis of L. brevis PYN10_6_2′s ZEN-reducing ability and its biosafety profile.

Zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites are a potent component with estrogenic potential that can enter milk. ZEN and its metabolites have the ability to disturb the function of endocrine glands. The aim of this systematic review was to estimate the level of ZEN and its metabolites in milk. This study was performed with these keywords; zearalenone, ZEN, bovine milk, ruminant milk, milk, dairy products, and milk product in various databases. 946 manuscripts were collected from databases and at the end, 17 manuscripts were reviewed according to the inclusion criteria. ZEN was identified in 59 % of studies. The most common methods of analysis were UHPLC, HPLC and ELISA. Meta-analysis was performed with CMA (Comprehensive Meta-Analysis) software. No publication bias was observed in meta- analysis. But, heterogeneity was recorded between studies. The measurement method was identified as one of the sources of heterogeneity through meta-regression tests and subgroup analysis. Furthermore, in meta- analysis test, the total estimate of milk contamination with this mycotoxin was 0.036±0.017 µg/L. So far, the permissible limit for this compound in milk has not been announced, but these compounds have the ability to disturb the endocrine glands in low amounts. Therefore, it is necessary to regularly measure and control this mycotoxin and its metabolite in milk with valid methods.

A certified reference material (CRM, KRISS 108-01-002) for zearalenone in corn flour was developed to assure reliable and accurate measurements in testing laboratories. Commercially available corn flour underwent freeze-drying, pulverization, sieving, and homogenization. The final product was packed in amber bottles, approximately 14 g per unit, and preserved at –70 °C. 13C18-Zearalenone was used as an internal standard (IS) for the certification of zearalenone by isotope-dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (ID-LC‒MS/MS) and for the analysis of α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, and zearalanone by LC‒MS/MS. The prepared CRM was sufficiently homogeneous, as the among-unit relative standard deviation for each mycotoxin ranged from 2.2 to 5.7 %. Additionally, the stability of the mycotoxins in the CRM was evaluated under different temperature conditions and scheduled test periods, including storage at −70°C, −20°C, and 4°C and room temperature for up to 12 months, 6 months, and 1 month, respectively. The content of each target mycotoxin in the CRM remained stable throughout the monitoring period at each temperature. Zearalenone content (153.6 ± 8.0 µg/kg) was assigned as the certified value. Meanwhile, the contents of α-zearalenol (1.30 ± 0.17 µg/kg), β-zearalenol (4.75 ± 0.33 µg/kg), and zearalanone (2.09 ± 0.16 µg/kg) were provided as informative values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of certain moulds, prevalent in 60–80% of food crops and many processed products but challenging to eliminate. Consuming mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed can lead to various adverse effects on humans and livestock. Therefore, testing mycotoxin residue levels is critical to ensure food safety. Gold standard analytical methods rely on liquid chromatography coupled with optical detectors or mass spectrometers, which are high-cost with limited capacity. This study reported the successful development of a microfluidic "lab-on-a-chip" device to enrich and detect zearalenone in food samples based on the fluorescence quenching effect of quantum dots and selective affinity of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). The dummy template and functional polymer were synthesized and characterized, and the detailed microfluidic chip design and optimization of the flow conditions in the enrichment module were discussed. The device achieved an enrichment factor of 9.6 (±0.5) in 10 min to quantify zearalenone spiked in food with high recoveries (91–105%) at 1–10 mg kg−1, covering the concerned residue levels in the regulations. Each sample-to-answer test took only 20 min, involving 3 min of manual operation and no advanced equipment. This microfluidic device was mostly reusable, with a replaceable detection module compatible with fluorescence measurement using a handheld fluorometer. To our best knowledge, the reported device was the first application of an MIP-based microfluidic sensor for detecting mycotoxin in real food samples, providing a novel, rapid, portable, and cost-effective tool for monitoring mycotoxin contamination for food safety and security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Food Safety & Quality is the property of Journal of Food Safety & Quality Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) feeds on wheat bran and is considered both a pest and an edible insect. Its larvae contain proteins and essential amino acids, fats, and minerals, making them suitable for animal and human consumption. Zearalenone (ZEA) is the mycotoxin most commonly associated with Fusarium spp. It is found in cereals and cereal products, so their consumption is a major risk for mycotoxin contamination. One of the most important effects of ZEA is the induction of oxidative stress, which leads to physiological and behavioral changes. This study deals with the effects of high doses of ZEA (10 and 20 mg/kg) on survival, molting, growth, weight gain, activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), and locomotion of mealworm larvae. Both doses of ZEA were found to (i) have no effect on survival, (ii) increase molting frequency, SOD, and GST activity, and (iii) decrease body weight and locomotion, with more pronounced changes at 20 mg/kg. These results indicated the susceptibility of T. molitor larvae to high doses of ZEA in feed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Science & Technology of Cereals, Oils & Foods is the property of Science & Technology of Cereals, Oils & Foods Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Contamination by fungi and the toxins they secrete is a worldwide health concern. One such toxin is zearalenone (Zea), which is structurally similar to the hormone estrogen, interferes with its action on the reproductive system, and is therefore classified as an endocrine disruptor. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of hispidin and magnesium nanoparticles (MgONPs) against zearalenone-induced myotoxicity, which causes polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in rats. A three-month exposure study was performed using female Wistar rats (n = 42) with an average weight of 100–150 g. The animals were divided into six groups (I to VI) of seven rats each. Group I was administered distilled water as a negative control. Group II was exposed to Zea 0.1 mg/kg b.w. through gavage daily. Group III was treated with 0.1 mg/kg of hispidin through gavage daily. Group IV was given 150 µg/mL MgONPs orally each day. Group V was treated with Zea 0.1 mg/kg b.w. + 0.1 mg/kg hispidin orally each day. Group VI was treated with Zea 0.1 mg/kg b.w. and the combination treatment of 0.1 mg/kg hispidin + 150 µg/mL MgONPs through gavage every day. The effectiveness of hispidin and MgONPs against Zea toxicity was evaluated in terms of ovarian histological changes, gene expression, oxidative stress biomarkers, biochemical variables, and hormone levels. The findings showed that exposure to Zea promotes PCOS in rats, with Zea-treated rats displaying hyper-ovulation with large cysts; elevated testosterone, luteinizing hormone, insulin, and glucose; and reduced sex hormone-binding globulin. In addition, qRT-PCR for aromatase (Cyp19α1) showed it to be downregulated. Treatment with hispidin improved the histopathological and hormonal situation and rescued expression of Cyp19α. Our data indicate the potential therapeutic effects of hispidin against Zea-induced Fungal Toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to assess whether selenium-chitosan (Se-CTS) can protect porcine endometrial epithelial cells (PEECs) against damage and apoptosis induced by zearalenone (ZEA) via modulating the JNK/SAPK signaling pathway. The cell cycle, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and apoptosis rates of porcine endometrial epithelial cells were determined, as well as the expression levels of genes related to the SAPK/JNK signaling pathway. The results showed that 3.0 µmol/L Se-CTS decreased the percentage of ZEA-induced G1 phase in PEECs (P < 0.01), whereas 1.5 and 3.0 µmol/L Se-CTS increased the percentage of ZEA-induced percentage of G2 phase of PEECs (P < 0.01). Further, Se-CTS at 1.5 and 3.0 µmol/L improved the ZEA-induced decrease in MMP (P < 0.01), whereas Se-CTS at 0.5, 1.5, and 3.0 µmol/L reduced the increase in ROS levels and apoptosis rate induced by ZEA in PEECs (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). Furthermore, 3.0 µmol/L Se-CTS ameliorated the increase in the expression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), apoptosis signal–regulated kinase (ASK1), and c-Jun induced by ZEA (P < 0.01) and the reduction in mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4 (MKK4) and protein 53 (p53) expression (P < 0.01), while 1.5 µmol/L Se-CTS improved the expression of ASK1 and c-Jun induced by ZEA (P < 0.05). The results proved that Se-CTS alleviates ZEA-induced cell cycle stagnation, cell mitochondrial damage, and cell apoptosis via decreasing ZEA-produced ROS and modulating the JNK/SAPK signaling pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is still considerable controversy about the relative risk of mycotoxin exposure associated with the consumption of organic and conventional cereals. Using validated protocols, we carried out a systematic literature review and meta-analyses of data on the incidence and concentrations of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium, Claviceps, Penicillium, and Aspergillus species in organic and conventional cereal grains/products. The standard weighted meta-analysis of concentration data detected a significant effect of production system (organic vs. conventional) only for the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, with concentrations ~50% higher in conventional than organic cereal grains/products (p < 0.0001). Weighted meta-analyses of incidence data and unweighted metaanalyses of concentration data also detected small, but significant effects of production system on the incidence and/or concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxins, zearalenone, enniatin, beauvericin, ochratoxin A (OTA), and aflatoxins. Multilevel meta-analyses identified climatic conditions, cereal species, study type, and analytical methods used as important confounding factors for the effects of production system. Overall, results from this study suggest that (i) Fusarium mycotoxin contamination decreased between the 1990s and 2020, (ii) contamination levels are similar in organic and conventional cereals used for human consumption, and (iii) maintaining OTA concentrations below the maximum contamination levels (3.0 µg/kg) set by the EU remains a major challenge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the objective is to immobilize molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) onto the surface of magnetic carbon nanoparticles (Fe3O4@SiO2@C) to develop an effective method for the adsorption of zearalenone (ZEN). The prepared products were characterized by FT-IR, SEM, TEM, XRD, VSM, TGA, and BET. The content of zearalenone in corn samples was monitored by HPLC. The results indicate that the particle size of magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (MMIPs) is approximately 200 nm. The adsorption mechanism of MMIPs was confirmed by static adsorption and dynamic adsorption experiments. The maximum adsorption capacity was 1.56 mg/g, and the adsorption equilibrium was reached within 50 min. The scatchard model showed that MMIPs had two binding sites, a high-affinity binding site and a low-affinity site. Kinetic second-order fitting indicates that MMIPs are mainly through chemisorption. In the actual sample application, the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) were 0.3 mg/L and 0.9 mg/L, respectively. The recovery of corn with the standard addition of ZEN was 73.6–88.1%, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) was 2.86–5.63%. The results demonstrated that MMIPs possess the advantages of straightforward operation, high precision, and cost-effectiveness, rendering them suitable for rapid ZEN detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin widely present in crops and food, poses a major threat to animal and human health. The consumption of ZEA-contaminated food or feed causes intestinal damage. Therefore, exploring how to mitigate the intestinal damage caused by its ZEA is becoming increasingly important. Resveratrol (RSV), a polyphenol compound, mainly exists in Vitis vinifera, Polygonum cuspidatum, Arachis hypogaea, and other plants. It has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. The primary objective of this study was to assess the defensive effects of RSV and its molecular mechanism on the intestinal mucosal injury induced by ZEA exposure in mice. The results showed that RSV pretreatment significantly reduced serum DAO and that D-lactate levels altered intestinal morphology and markedly restored TJ protein levels, intestinal goblet cell number, and MUC-2 gene expression after ZEA challenge. In addition, RSV significantly reversed serum pro-inflammatory factor levels and abnormal changes in intestinal MDA, CAT, and T-SOD. Additional research demonstrated that RSV decreased inflammation by blocking the translocation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) p65 and decreased oxidative stress by activating the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway and its associated antioxidant genes, including NQO1, γ-GCS, and GSH-PX. In summary, RSV supplementation attenuates intestinal oxidative stress, inflammation, and intestinal barrier dysfunction induced by ZEA exposure by mediating the NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Mycotoxins, which are secondary metabolites of fungi, have several adverse effects on both animal and human organisms. Because of climate change, mycotoxins are gradually spreading from the south to the north and west in Europe, causing a growing risk for feed and food. The toxic influences of mycotoxins are intensively studied in domestic animals, but much less is known about the game species. Reproductive abnormalities have been observed in a valuable game species, the fallow deer. We supposed mycotoxin contamination to be one of the possible causes because it is known to be dangerous even at low toxin levels, especially for young animals. As the mycotoxin exposure of the fallow deer living in a forest–agriculture complex habitat is not known, our goals were (i) to determine the mycotoxin presence in hinds; (ii) to detect the spatial and individual variability in mycotoxin levels; and (iii) to reveal the mycotoxin concentration in the fetuses in relation to their mothers. A total of 72 fallow deer embryos and their mothers were sampled in seven forested regions in Hungary in the 2020/2021 hunting season. Mycotoxin metabolites were analyzed by ELISA from the liver tissue. We detected the studied mycotoxins (Aflatoxin, Zearalenone, Fumonisin B1, DON, T2/HT2-toxin) in 41–96% of fallow deer hinds and 3–98% of the fetuses. All mycotoxins were passed into the fetus, but only Fumonisin B1 rarely passed. The individual variability of mycotoxin levels was extremely high, which obscured the spatial differences among the study sites. We concluded a possible accumulation of ZEA and DON in the fetuses because of the higher concentrations in the fetus than in the hind. These results reflect the potential threats of mycotoxins to the population dynamics and reproduction of wild fallow deer. Reproductive abnormalities have been observed in fallow deer populations in Hungary. We supposed mycotoxin contamination to be one of the possible causes because multi-mycotoxin contamination is known to be dangerous even at low toxin levels, especially for young animals. We investigated the spatial pattern of mycotoxin occurrences and the relationship between maternal and fetal mycotoxin levels. A total of 72 fallow deer embryos and their mothers were sampled in seven forested regions in Hungary in the 2020/2021 hunting season. We analyzed Aflatoxin (AF), Zearalenone (ZEA), Fumonizin B1 (FB1), DON, and T2-toxin concentrations in maternal and fetal livers by ELISA. AF was present in 70% and 82%, ZEA in 41% and 96%, DON in 90% and 98%, T2-toxin in 96% and 85%, and FB1 in 84% and 3% of hind and fetus livers, respectively. All mycotoxins passed into the fetus, but only Fumonizin B1 rarely passed. The individual variability of mycotoxin levels was extremely high, but the spatial differences were moderate. We could not prove a relation between the maternal and fetal mycotoxin concentrations, but we found an accumulation of ZEA and DON in the fetuses. These results reflect the possible threats of mycotoxins to the population dynamics and reproduction of wild fallow deer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanoenzymes have been widely used to construct biosensors because of their cost-effectiveness, high stability, and easy modification. At the same time, the discovery of deep eutectic solvents (DES) was a great breakthrough in green chemistry, and their combination with different materials can improve the sensing performance of biosensors. In this work, we report an immunosensor using CuCo2O4 nanoenzyme combined with flow injection chemiluminescence immunoassay for the automated detection of zearalenone (ZEN). The immunosensor exhibited excellent sensing performance. Under the optimal conditions, the detection range of ZEN was 0.0001–100 ng mL−1, and the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.076 pg mL−1 (S/N = 3). In addition, the immunosensor showed excellent stability with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 2.65% for 15 repetitive injections. The method has been successfully applied to the analysis of real samples with satisfactory recovery results, and can hence provide a reference for the detection of small molecules in food and feed.Highlights: 1. A novel FI-CL immunoassay based on CuCo2O4 nanoenzyme with deep eutectic solvent was developed. 2. DES is a new type of green solvent, which has good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low toxicity. 3. Excellent catalytic activity towards luminol-H2O2 was implemented by CuCo2O4 nanoenzyme with lower prices. 4. The proposed immunosensor provides an economical, rapid, sensitive, and specific method for zearalenone detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Food Science & Technology & Economy is the property of Grain Science & Technology & Economy Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background Zearalenone (ZEA), a natural food contaminant, is reported to act as a mycoestrogen due to its estrogen-mimicking properties. According to studies, ZEA has a greater potential for estrogenic activity compared to any other naturally occurring non-steroidal estrogen. ZEA has been found in the endometrium of individuals with reproductive problems and the serum of children facing early puberty. These studies suggested a possible link between ZEA exposure and endometrial toxicity; nonetheless, no thorough research has been done. This study assessed the endometrium's response to chronic ZEA exposure. Methods Four groups of CD-1 female mice were exposed to control, estradiol (E2), and two different doses of ZEA for 90 days. At the end of treatment, blood and uterus were collected, and samples were used for inflammatory cytokines level, immunochemical, histopathological, and biophysical analysis. Results Our data indicated that the uterus showed a change in body/organ weight ratio, while other organs did not have any notable changes. Immunochemical and histological studies showed hyperplasia and a higher number of glands in the endometrium after ZEA and E2 exposure. Similarly, proliferation markers such as proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), Ki-67, and inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 8 (IL-8), and interferon-gamma (IFN-?) levels were found to be higher in the E2 and ZEA-exposed groups. Conclusion Our finding conclude that ZEA targets the uterus and cause inflammation due to increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and proliferation mediators, as well as systemic toxicity denoted by a strong binding affinity with serum proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxin binders, in combination with enzymes degrading some mycotoxins, contribute to feed detoxification. Their use reduces economic losses and the negative impacts of mycotoxins on animal health and productivity in farm animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a mycotoxin detoxifier on the expression of the ATP-binding cassette efflux transporters ABCB1 mRNA and ABCC2 mRNA, which transport xenobiotics and thus have a barrier function, in the tissues of pigs exposed to low doses of deoxynivalenol (DON, 1 mg/kg feed) and zearalenone (ZEN, 0.4 mg/kg feed) for 37 days. The levels of expression were determined by an RT-PCR, and the effect of the mycotoxin detoxifier (Mycofix Plus3.E) was evaluated by a comparison of results between healthy pigs (n = 6), animals treated with DON and ZEN (n = 6), and a group that received both mycotoxins and the detoxifier (n = 6). A significant downregulation of ABCB1 mRNA and ABCC2 mRNA was observed in the jejunum (p < 0.05). A tendencies toward the downregulation of ABCB1 mRNA and ABCC2 mRNA were found in the ileum and duodenum, respectively. The mycotoxin detoxifier restored the expression of ABCB1 mRNA to the level found in healthy animals but did not restore that of ABCC2 mRNA to the level of healthy animals in the jejunum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a novel multicomponent substance against combined exposure to the mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in weaned piglets. Methods: In total, 60 piglets at the age of 28 days were equally allocated to four experimental groups (A–D), consisting of eight female and seven male piglets each (15 animals per group, for a total trial duration of 42 days). Animals from group A received typical weaner feed without mycotoxins or the test product [multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA)]. Group B animals received the same weaner feed contaminated with 0.992 mg ZEN/kg feed and 0.531 mg OTA/kg feed without the addition of the MMDA. Animals in group C received the same contaminated feed as group B with the addition of 1.5 g MMDA/kg feed, whereas group D received the same feed as group B with the inclusion of 3 g MMDA/kg feed. Clinical signs and performance parameters [body weight (BW), average daily weight gain (ADWG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR)] were evaluated, while mycotoxin residues were also assessed in the liver and kidney tissues. Results: Findings showed improved FCR in the group that received the greatest dose of the test product (3 g MMDA/kg feed) compared to the group that received the lower dose (1.5 g MMDA/kg feed). A few hematological and biochemical parameters were slightly altered, predominantly within normal limits. The residue analysis demonstrated a reduction of OTA in liver samples, a-ZEL in the liver and total tested samples, and a total of ZEN and metabolite contents in all samples of the group that received the greatest MMDA dose in comparison to the group that received the toxins without the addition of the test product. Discussion: Therefore, a positive effect of the MMDA at the greatest dosage regime on reducing bioavailability and tissue deposition of ZEN and OTA, with a particularly positive effect on FCR in weaned pigs, is suggested under concurrent ZEN and OTA exposure in vivo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) produced by toxigenic fungi is widely present in cereals and its downstream products. The danger of ZEA linked to various human health issues has attracted increasing attention. Thus, powerful ZEA-degrading or detoxifying strategies are urgently needed. Biology-based detoxification methods are specific, efficient, and environmentally friendly and do not lead to negative effects during cereal decontamination. Among these, ZEA detoxification using degrading enzymes was documented to be a promising strategy in broad research. Here, two efficient ZEA-degrading lactonases from the genus Gliocladium, ZHDR52 and ZHDP83, were identified for the first time. This work studied the degradation capacity and properties of ZEA using purified recombinant ZHDR52 and ZHDP83. Results: According to the ZEA degradation study, transformed Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) PLySs cells harboring the zhdr52 or zhdp83 gene could transform 20 µg/mL ZEA within 2 h and degrade > 90% of ZEA toxic derivatives, α/β-zearalanol and α/β-zearalenol, within 6 h. Biochemical analysis demonstrated that the optimal pH was 9.0 for ZHDR52 and ZHDP83, and the optimum temperature was 45 °C. The purified recombinant ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 retained > 90% activity over a wide range of pH values and temperatures (pH 7.0–10.0 and 35–50 °C). In addition, the specific activities of purified ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 against ZEA were 196.11 and 229.64 U/mg, respectively. The results of these two novel lactonases suggested that, compared with ZHD101, these two novel lactonases transformed ZEA into different products. The slight position variations in E126 and H242 in ZDHR52/ZEA and ZHDP83/ZEA obtained via structural modelling may explain the difference in degradation products. Moreover, the MCF-7 cell proliferation assay indicated that the products of ZEA degradation using ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 did not exhibit estrogenic activity. Conclusions: ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 are alkali ZEA-degrading enzymes that can efficiently and irreversibly degrade ZEA into non-estrogenic products, indicating that they are potential candidates for commercial application. This study identified two excellent lactonases for industrial ZEA detoxification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fusarium culmorum is a major wheat pathogen, and its secondary metabolites (mycotoxins) cause damage to plants, animals, and human health. In the era of sustainable agriculture, eco-friendly methods of prevention and control are constantly needed. The use of plant extracts as biocontrol agents has gained popularity as they are a source of active substances that play a crucial role in fighting against phytopathogens. This study evaluated the impact of Lamium album on wheat seed germination and seedling growth. In a pot experiment, the effect of L. album on wheat seedlings artificially inoculated with F. culmorum was evaluated by measuring seedling growth parameters, and by using chromatographic methods, ergosterol and mycotoxins levels were analyzed. The results showed that the phytotoxic effect of L. album flower extracts on wheat seed germination and seedling growth was concentration dependent. The radicle length was also reduced compared to the control; however, L. albumdid not significantly affect the dry weight of the radicle. A slight phytotoxic effect on seed germination was observed, but antifungal effects on artificially infected wheat seedlings were also confirmed with the reduction of ergosterol level and mycotoxins accumulation in the roots and leaves after 21 days of inoculation. F. culmorumDNA was identified in the control samples only. Overall, this study is a successful in planta study showing L. album flower extract protection of wheat against the pathogen responsible for Fusarium crown and root rot. Further research is essential to study the effects of L. album extracts on key regulatory genes for mycotoxin biosynthetic pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), produced by Fusarium fungi, are frequently found in the cereal-rich diet of pigs and can modulate the immune system. Some enzymes or bacteria present in the digestive tract can de-epoxydize DON to deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) and biotransform ZEN into hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN). The effects of these metabolites on immune cells, particularly with respect to the vaccine responses, are poorly documented. The aim of this study was to address the impact of DON and ZEN and their respective derivatives, on proliferation, and antibody production of porcine B cells in vitro. Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), isolated from healthy pigs, were stimulated with the Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8-agonist Resiquimod (R848) or the TLR/1/2-agonist Pam3Cys-SKKKK in combination with DON [0.1-1.6 µM] or DOM-1 [1.6 µM and 16 µM] and ZEN [2.5-40 µM] or HZEN [40 µM]. Results: A strong decrease in B-cell proliferation was observed at DON concentrations equal to or exceeding 0.8 µM and at ZEN concentrations equal to or exceeding 20 µM. Treatment with 1.6 µM DON or 40 µM ZEN led to almost a complete loss of live CD79a+ B cells. Moreover, CD21 expression of proliferating IgG+ and IgM+ B-cell subsets was decreased at DON concentrations equal to and exceeding 0.4 µM and at ZEN concentrations equal to or exceeding 10 µM. ELISpot assays revealed a decrease of IgG-secreting B cells at concentrations of and exceeding 0.4 µM and at ZEN concentrations equal to and exceeding 10 µM. ELISA assays showed a decrease of IgM, IgG, and IgA secretion at concentrations equal to or exceeding 0.4 µM DON. ZEN reduced IgM secretion at 20-40 µM (both R848 and Pam3Cys-SKKKK), IgG secretion at 40 µM (both R848 and Pam3Cys-SKKKK) and IgA secretion at 20-40 µM. Discussion: Our in vitro experiments show that while DON and ZEN impair immunoglobulin production and B-cell proliferation, this effect is abrogated by HZEN and DOM-1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zearalenone （ZEA） is one of the common mycotoxins in feed, which mainly affects the reproductive system, gastrointestinal function, immune system, and cell viability of pigs. When pigs ingest ZEA-contaminated feed, it is easy to cause abortion in sows, abnormal sperm motility in boars, intestinal dysfunction and intestinal inflammation, reduce immune function and inflammatory reactions in liver, kidneys, and other organs, and cause abnormal cell proliferation, oxidative damage and other cytotoxicity, resulting in serious losses to pig breeding industiy. The paper introduces the physicochemical properties of ZEA, the limit standard in cereal feed, and the main metabolic process in pigs. The clinical harm and possible pathogenic mechanism of ZEA to pigs are emphatically expounded by the aspects of reproductive toxicity, intestinal toxicity, immunotoxicity and cytotoxicity. The main methods to reduce the toxicity of ZEA and the prevention and control measures are put forward, which provide references for promoting the healthy development of pig industry and ensuring the safety of feed and meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins present in cereals are a worldwide problem and are a result of the presence of mycotoxin producing fungi. A strategy to reduce these fungi and mycotoxin levels in contaminated grains is with the use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or Bacillus spp., which can degrade or bind toxins. In this study, LAB and Bacillus spp. were isolated from mycotoxin contaminated wheat grains and, together with additional plant-derived strains, an antifungal screening against Fusarium graminearum was performed. Furthermore, these strains were screened for their ability to reduce zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Finally, the mode of action of the most promising microorganisms was investigated by analyzing toxin reduction with viable and dead cells, cell extracts and supernatants. Out of 212 tested strains, 70 showed high antifungal activity and 42 exhibited the ability to detoxify more than 90% ZEA, i.e., Bacillus licheniformis (19), B. megaterium (13), and Levilactobacillus brevis (10). None of the tested strains were able to decrease DON. The mode of action of ZEA reduction could not be fully elucidated. Neither dead cells (<20%), nor cell extracts nor supernatants could reduce ZEA in high amounts, which exclude high binding capacity and the involvement of extra- or intra-cellular enzymes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin found in many agricultural products and can cause reproductive disorders, mainly affecting spermatogenesis in male animals. Rutin (RUT) is a natural flavonoid compound recognized for its significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and estrogenic properties. The present study aimed to determine the protective role of RUT against ZEN-induced reproductive toxicity in male mice. Twenty-four adult Kunming male mice were divided into four groups: control, RUT (500 mg/kg RUT), ZEN (10 mg/kg ZEN), ZEN + RUT (500 mg/kg RUT + 10 mg/kg ZEN), with six replicates per treatment. The results indicated that RUT mitigated ZEN-induced disruption in spermatogenic cell arrangement, decreased spermatozoa count, and increased sperm mortality in the testes. RUT significantly restored ZEN-induced reduction in T, FSH, LH, and E2 serum levels. Moreover, RUT mitigated ZEN-induced apoptosis by increasing the mRNA expression level of bcl-2, decreasing the mRNA expression level of kiss1-r, and decreasing the protein expression level of caspase 8 in reproductive tissues. These findings indicate the protective role of RUT against ZEN-induced reproductive toxicity in male mice by regulating gonadotropin and testosterone secretions to maintain normal spermatogenesis via the HPG axis, which may provide a new application direction for RUT as a therapeutic agent to mitigate ZEN-induced reproductive toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a limited research focus on evaluating the detrimental effects of prolonged zearalenone (ZEN) intake on dairy cows' health under controlled conditions. This experiment was conducted to evaluate whether the length of exposure to a ZEN-contaminated total mixed ration (TMR) at a level of 9.45 mg per day can negatively influence animal health parameters, such as milk composition, rumen and fecal fermentation, and the chewing activity of lactating dairy cows. For this experiment, we used 18 lactating Simmental cows that were fed a diet of 60% forage and 40% concentrate (on dry matter basis) for 26 consecutive days. The first 4 days were for adaptation prior to the first sampling day (day 0). The sampling events took place on day 0 (baseline) without ZEN, followed by day 1, day 7, day 14, and day 21 (with toxin). Dry matter intake (DMI) and ruminating chews per minute increased on the third week of ZEN inclusion; meanwhile, ruminating, eating, and drinking times were not affected. Most milk composition variables were also unaffected. Rumen fluid osmolality increased on day 21 and total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) of ruminal fluid decreased on day 7. Fecal SCFA increased on day 21 and the acetate-to-propionate ratio increased from day 1 onwards, showing the influence of toxin intake. Animal health parameters, like heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature, were negatively influenced by ZEN intake, all increasing consistently on days 4 and 6, 9 and 12, and 16 and 18, respectively. The liver enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase decreased in response to ZEN intake on day 7. A total daily ZEN intake at the level of 9.45 mg did not show detrimental effects on DMI. Nevertheless, certain health parameters were negatively affected, including body temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate, starting from the 7th day of ZEN intake, with additional signs of possible loss of water balance on the last sampling day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a common non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin found in a range of animal feeds and poses a serious threat to the reproductive health of farm animals and humans. However, the mechanism underlying ZEA-induced reproductive toxicity in sheep remains unknown. Granulosa cells are crucial for egg maturation and the fertility of female sheep. In this study, we aimed to examine the impact of different ZEA concentrations on sheep follicular granulosa cells and to elucidate the potential molecular mechanism underlying ZEA-induced toxicity using transcriptome sequencing and molecular biological approaches. Treating primary sheep follicular granulosa cells with different concentrations of ZEA promoted the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased lipid peroxidation products, led to cellular oxidative stress, decreased antioxidant enzyme activities, and induced cell apoptosis. Using transcriptome approaches, 1395 differentially expressed genes were obtained from sheep follicular granulosa cells cultured in vitro after ZEA treatment. Among them, heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) was involved in 11 biological processes. The protein interaction network indicated interactions between HMOX1 and oxidative and apoptotic proteins. In addition, N-acetylcysteine pretreatment effectively reduced the ZEA-induced increase in the expression of HMOX1 and Caspase3 by eliminating ROS. Hence, we suggest that HMOX1 is a key differential gene involved in the regulation of ZEA-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in follicular granulosa cells. These findings provide novel insights into the prevention and control of mycotoxins in livestock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivatives are estrogenic mycotoxins known to pose significant health threats to humans and animals. Especially, the derivative α-zearalanol (α-ZAL) is over 10 times more toxic than ZEN. Simultaneous degradation of ZEN and its derivatives, especially α-ZAL, using ZEN lactone hydrolases (ZHDs) is a promising solution to eliminate their potential hazards to food safety. However, most available ZHDs exhibit limited activity toward the more toxic α-ZAL compared to ZEN. Here, we identified a broad-substrate spectrum ZHD, named ZHDAY3, from Exophiala aquamarina CBS 119918, which could not only efficiently degrade ZEN but also exhibited 73% relative activity toward α-ZAL. Through rational design, we obtained the ZHDAY3(N153H) mutant, which exhibited the highest specific activity (253.3 ± 4.3 U/mg) reported so far for degrading α-ZAL. Molecular docking, structural comparative analysis, and kinetic analysis collectively suggested that the shorter distance between the side chain of the catalytic residue His242 and the lactone bond of α-ZAL and the increased binding affinity to the substrate were mainly responsible for the improved catalytic activity of ZHDAY3(N153H) mutant. This mechanism was further validated through additional molecular docking of 18 mutants and experimental verification of six mutants. IMPORTANCE The mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivatives pose a significant threat to food safety. Here, we present a highly promising ZEN lactone hydrolase (ZHD), ZHDAY3, which is capable of efficiently degrading both ZEN and the more toxic derivative α-ZAL. Next, the ZHDAY3(N153H) mutant obtained by single-point mutation exhibited the highest specific activity for degrading α-ZAL reported thus far. We further elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the enhanced hydrolytic activity of ZHDAY3(N153H) toward α-ZAL. These findings represent the first investigation on the molecular mechanism of ZHDs against α-ZAL and are expected to provide a significant reference for further rational engineering of ZHDs, which will ultimately contribute to addressing the health risks and food safety issues posed by ZEN-like mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that extensively contaminates food and feed, posing a significant threat to public health. However, the mechanisms behind ZEN-induced intestinal immunotoxicity remain unclear. In this study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to ZEN at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day b.w. for a duration of 14 days. The results demonstrated that ZEN exposure led to notable pathological alterations and immunosuppression within the intestine. Furthermore, ZEN exposure caused a significant reduction in the levels of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and liver X receptor (LXR) (P < 0.05). Conversely, it upregulated the levels of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) markers (P < 0.05) and decreased the presence of 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-HC) in the intestine (P < 0.05). It was observed that ApoE or LXR agonists were able to mitigate the immunosuppressive effects induced by ZEN. Additionally, a bioinformatics analysis highlighted that the downregulation of ApoE might elevate the susceptibility to colorectal, breast, and lung cancers. These findings underscore the crucial role of the 27-HC/LXR/ApoE axis disruption in ZEN-induced MDSCs proliferation and subsequent inhibition of T lymphocyte activation within the rat intestine. Notably, ApoE may emerge as a pivotal target linking ZEN exposure to cancer development. [Display omitted] • ZEN induces intestinal immunosuppression by inhibiting T lymphocyte activation. • ZEN inhibits LXR/ApoE activation and promotes MDSCs proliferation by downregulating 27-HC. • ZEN may promote the occurrence and progression of colorectal cancer by downregulating ApoE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi that may cause serious health problems in humans and animals. Zearalenone is an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that leads to huge economic losses in the food industry and livestock husbandry. Contamination of food and feed with zearalenone has reproductive problems, carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, and other cytotoxic effects. At present, microorganisms and enzymes derived from microbial strains have been widely used for the degradation of zearalenone in food and feed. Researchers have developed biodegradation of zearalenone by the use of microbial and their enzyme derivatives, which offers harmless products and is environmentally friendly. Development of recombinant enzymes improves enzymatic detoxification of zearalenone to a non-toxic product without damaging the nutritional content. This review summarizes biodegradation and detoxification strategies of zearalenone using microorganisms and enzyme derivatives to nontoxic products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Curcumin (CUR) is a compound extracted from turmeric that has a variety of functions including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. As an estrogen-like mycotoxin, zearalenone (ZEN) not only attacks the reproductive system, but also has toxic effects on the liver. However, whether CUR can alleviate ZEN-induced liver injury remains unclear. This paper aims to investigate the protective effect of CUR against ZEN-induced liver injury in mice and explore the molecular mechanism involved. BALB/c mice were randomly divided into control (CON) group, CUR group (200 mg/kg b. w. CUR), ZEN group (40 mg/kg b. w. ZEN) and CUR+ZEN group (200 mg/kg b. w. CUR+40 mg/kg b. w. ZEN). 28 d after ZEN exposure and CUR treatment, blood and liver samples were collected for subsequent testing. The results showed that CUR reversed ZEN-induced hepatocyte swelling and necrosis in mice. It significantly reduced the serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels in mice (p < 0.05). In addition, CUR significantly reduced hepatic ROS, malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide and apoptosis levels in mice (p < 0.05). Quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot results showed that CUR significantly reduced the expression of Bax and Caspase3, and reversed the increase of Nrf2, HO-1 and NQO1 expression in the liver of mice induced by ZEN (p < 0.05). In conclusion, CUR alleviated ZEN-induced liver injury in mice by scavenging ROS and inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway.

Wheat is a vital global cereal crop, but its susceptibility to contamination by mycotoxins can render it unusable. This study explored the integration of two novel non-destructive detection methodologies with convolutional neural network (CNN) for the identification of zearalenone (ZEN) contamination in wheat. Firstly, the colorimetric sensor array composed of six selected porphyrin-based materials was used to capture the olfactory signatures of wheat samples. Subsequently, the colorimetric sensor array, after undergoing a reaction, was characterized by its near-infrared spectral features. Then, the CNN quantitative analysis model was proposed based on the data, alongside the establishment of traditional machine learning models, partial least squares regression (PLSR) and support vector machine regression (SVR), for comparative purposes. The outcomes demonstrated that the CNN model had superior predictive performance, with a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 40.92 μ g ∙ kg−1 and a coefficient of determination on the prediction (RP2) of 0.91. These results affirmed the potential of integrating colorimetric sensor array with near-infrared spectroscopy in evaluating the safety of wheat and potentially other grains. Moreover, CNN can have the capacity to autonomously learn and distill features from spectral data, enabling further spectral analysis and making it a forward-looking spectroscopic tool.

In this study, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) was employed to analyze the prevalence of 10 mycotoxins in 140 samples from the Chinese market, aiming to assess the exposure of Chinese individuals to these mycotoxins through the consumption of wine, baijiu, and huangjiu. Mycotoxins were detected in 98% of the samples, with fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) exhibiting positive rates exceeding 50%. Regarding the exposure of the Chinese population to mycotoxins resulting from alcoholic beverage consumption, fruit wine intake made a relatively significant contribution to aflatoxin exposure, while baijiu showed a relatively significant contribution to ZEN exposure (1.84%). The analysis of the correlation between grape variety, wine region, and mycotoxin content demonstrated that FBs, ZEN, and DON were significantly influenced by grape variety and wine region. This research holds great significance in protecting human life and health, as well as in the production of safer alcoholic beverages.

Aim. To study the potential of bacteria strains P. chlororaphis BZR 245‐F and Pseudomonas sp. BZR 523‐2 to inhibit the growth of Fusarium ear blight pathogens through the example of the fungus F. graminearum and to reduce the accumulation of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in vitro. Materials and Methods. Antifungal metabolites of Pseudomonas bacteria were analysed by thin layer chromatography and bioautography. An experiment on the effect of liquid culture and supernatant of bacteria on the growth and toxin production of the fungus F. graminearum in vitro was carried out on wheat grain. Analysis of grain for mycotoxins was carried out by HPLC‐HRMS. Results. The ability of strains P. chlororaphis BZR 245‐F and Pseudomonas sp. BZR 523‐2 to produce antifungal metabolites was found, while inhibiting the growth of the fungus F. graminearum 60318 in vitro. The content of DON decreases both under the action of the liquid culture and supernatant of P. chlororaphis BZR 245‐F bacteria by 60 % and 70 %, respectively, and the liquid culture and supernatant of Pseudomonas sp. BZR 523‐2 bacteria by 75 % and 90 %, respectively. The accumulation of ZEN is also significantly suppressed under the influence of liquid cultures and supernatants of bacterial strains. The amount of ZEN decreases under the influence of liquid culture and supernatant of P. chlororaphis BZR 245‐F bacteria by 80 % and 95 %, respectively. Liquid culture and supernatant of Pseudomonas sp. BZR 523‐2 bacteria inhibited the accumulation of ZEN by 60 % and 84 %, respectively. Conclusion. The results obtained through the study of the effect of liquid cultures and supernatants of P. chlororaphis BZR 245‐F and Pseudomonas sp. BZR 523‐2 strains on the growth and toxin production of the fungus F. graminearum 60318 in vitro allow us to consider these strains as potential producers of effective biofungicides against toxin‐producing fungi. Further studies of these bacterial strains in vitro and in vivo on plants are needed.

This study used Armillaria mellea 07-22 as the experimental strain to degrade zearalenone (ZEN) by fungal biological fermentation. The degradation effects of Armillaria mellea on ZEN were studied, including the degradation effects of different concentrations of ZEN by the strain and the effects of different culture time, culture temperature, initial pH value and inoculation amount on the degradation of ZEN by the strain. Then the degradation mechanism was explored, the degradation effects of mycelium, fermentation supernatant and cell contents on ZEN were analyzed, and the effects of different fermentation time, pH values, and metal ions on degradation of ZEN by fermentation supernatant were studied, and the correlation between degradation effect and laccase production activity of the strain was illustrated. The results showed that Armillaria mellea 07-22 had a good degradation effect on ZEN. When the ZEN concentration was 5 μg/mL, the optimal degradation conditions were culture time of 8 days, culture temperature of 27 ℃, initial pH of 7.0, and inoculation amount of 10%. At this time, the degradation rate of ZEN was 78.72%. The degradation rates of ZEN by mycelium, fermentation supernatant and cell contents were 47.42%, 37.05% and 13.08% respectively. The extracellular enzymes secreted by Am-07-22 were the main way to degrade ZEN, and the mycelium cells also had a certain adsorption effect on ZEN. In addition, the correlation between the degradation rate of ZEN by fermentation supernatant and laccase activity was 0.973, and Cu2+ had the best promoting effect on the degradation of ZEN by fermentation supernatant.

Mycotoxins present in cereals are a worldwide problem and are a result of the presence of mycotoxin producing fungi. A strategy to reduce these fungi and mycotoxin levels in contaminated grains is with the use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or Bacillus spp., which can degrade or bind toxins. In this study, LAB and Bacillus spp. were isolated from mycotoxin contaminated wheat grains and, together with additional plant-derived strains, an antifungal screening against Fusarium graminearum was performed. Furthermore, these strains were screened for their ability to reduce zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Finally, the mode of action of the most promising microorganisms was investigated by analyzing toxin reduction with viable and dead cells, cell extracts and supernatants. Out of 212 tested strains, 70 showed high antifungal activity and 42 exhibited the ability to detoxify more than 90% ZEA, i.e., Bacillus licheniformis (19), B. megaterium (13), and Levilactobacillus brevis (10). None of the tested strains were able to decrease DON. The mode of action of ZEA reduction could not be fully elucidated. Neither dead cells (

A dual-signal fluorescent aptasensor based on gold nanoflower (AuFL) was constructed for the simultaneous detection of ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN). Single-stranded DNA containing OTA and ZEN aptamers were covalently cross-linked on the surface of AuFL as a nanocarrier and hybridized with complementary DNA labeled with two fluorescent dyes (FAM and Cy3) to prepare a DNA functionalized nanoprobe. Because of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the fluorescent dyes and AuFL, the nanoprobe itself had no fluorescence. When OTA and ZEN were added, FAM and Cy3 were shed from the probe’s surface, disturbing the FRET process and consequently restoring the fluorescence of both fluorescent dyes. Under optimized conditions, the linear range was from 0.05 to 500 ng/mL, and the detection limit was 0.017 ng/mL for OTA; the linear range was from 0.1 to 500 ng/mL, and the detection limit was 0.033 ng/mL for ZEN. The dual-signal fluorescent aptasensor had good selectivity and reproducibility and was successfully applied to the detection of OTA and ZEN in real wine samples.

Driven by their exceptional optical characteristics, robust chemical stability, and facile bioconjugation, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have emerged as a preferred material for detection and biosensing applications in scientific research. This study involves the development of a simple, rapid, and cost-effective colorimetric immuno-sensing probe to detect aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone using AuNP antibody (AuNP-mAb) conjugates. Anti-toxin antibodies were attached to the AuNPs by using the physical adsorption method. The colorimetric immunosensor developed operates on the principle that the optical properties of the AuNP are very sensitive to aggregation, which can be induced by a critical high salt concentration. Although the presence of antibodies on the AuNP surface inhibits the aggregation, these antibodies bind to the toxin with higher affinity, which leads to exposure of the surface of AuNPs and aggregation in a salt environment. The aggregation triggers a noticeable but variable alteration in color from red to purple and blueish gray, as a result of a red shift in the surface plasmon resonance band of the AuNPs. The extent of the shift is dependent on the toxin exposure dose and can be quantified using a calibration curve through UV–Visible–NIR spectroscopy. The limit of detection using this assay was determined to be as low as 0.15 ng/mL for both zearalenone and aflatoxin B1. The specificity of the prepared immunoprobe was analyzed for a particular mycotoxin in the presence of other mycotoxins. The developed immunoprobe was evaluated for real-world applicability using artificially spiked samples. This colorimetric immunoprobe based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) has a reduced detection limit compared to other immunoassays, a rapid readout, low cost, and facile fabrication.

The widespread presence of Fusarium mycotoxins in animal feed is a global issue, not only for the health of livestock but also for ensure the safety of food as an end product. High concentrations of zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON) have been detected in the diets of Japanese Black (JB) and Holstein Friesian (HF) breeding herds. Consequently, we monitored serum biochemical parameters over a long time in both herds, focusing on anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels and acute-phase inflammation. Additionally, urinary 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and progesterone levels were measured in the HF herd. The JB herd, a ZEN-dominant model with low DON contamination, demonstrated ZEN levels that exceeded the Japanese limit in the purchased total mixed rations (TMR). Conversely, the HF herd, which primary consumes DON-dominant feed with low ZEN contamination, had high DON levels in the dent corn silage. Specifically, the JB herd’s TMR contained 1.79 mg/kg ZEN and 0.58 mg/kg DON, whereas the HF herd’s silage had 15.3 mg/kg DON (dried sample) and 0.1 mg/kg ZEN. Enzyme-linked immunoassay were used to measure urinary ZEN-DON levels following confirmation through liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urinary ZEN-DON levels measured were significantly correlated (p < 0.05, r > 0.6) in both herds. In the HF herd, AMH levels increased (p = 0.01) and serum amyloid A (SAA) levels decreased (p = 0.02) when contaminated and at the end of the monitoring period. Additionally, urinary ZEN and DON levels were significantly correlated with SAA levels (ZEN: p = 0.00, r = 0.46; DON: p = 0.03, r = 0.33), with an increase in ZEN and DON levels resulting in higher SAA levels. The JB herd showed no significant differences. Additionally, in the HF herd, 8-OHdG/Cre levels increased significantly during major contamination periods (p < 0.05). Clinical data from the HF herd indicated an increase in mastitis cases and treatment rates during periods of major contamination. Abortion rates in the HF herd decreased from 22.9% (before monitoring) to 8.9% (during the high contamination period) and finally to 1% (at the end of the monitoring period), with corresponding increases in progesterone levels. ZEN-DON contamination adversely affects breeding cattle’s productivity, reproductive performance, and health. Therefore, monitoring urinary ZEN-DON is valuable for detecting contaminants and ensuring the safety of food products.

Zearalenone and radicicol are resorcylic acid lactones produced by numerous plant pathogenic fungi. Zearalenone is a non-steroidal estrogen mimic that can cause serious reproductive issues in livestock that consume contaminated feed. Radicicol is a potent inhibitor of the molecular chaperone Hsp90, which, in plants, has an important role in coordinating the host’s immune response during infection. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of a soil-borne strain of the Gram-positive bacterium Aeromicrobium sp. capable of hydrolyzing the macrolide ring of resorcylic acid lactones, including zearalenone and radicicol. Proteomic analysis of biochemically enriched fractions from the isolated and cultured bacterium identified an α/β-hydrolase responsible for this activity. A recombinantly expressed and purified form of the hydrolase (termed RALH) was active against both zearalenone and radicicol. Interpretation of high-resolution mass spectrometry and NMR data confirmed the structures of the enzymatic products as the previously reported non-toxic metabolite hydrolyzed zearalenone and hydrolyzed radicicol. Hydrolyzed radicicol was demonstrated to no longer inhibit the ATPase activity of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hsp90 homolog in vitro. Enzymatic degradation of resorcylic acid lactones will enable insight into their biological functions.

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by the Fusarium fungi, which widely contaminates grains, food, and feed, causing health hazards for humans and animals. Therefore, it is essential to find effective ZEN detoxification methods. Enzymatic degradation of ZEN is believed to be an eco-friendly detoxification strategy, specifically thermostable ZEN degradation enzymes are needed in the food and feed industry. In this study, a novel ZEN lactone hydrolase ZHRnZ from Rosellinia necatrix was discovered using bioinformatic and molecular docking technology. The recombinant ZHRnZ showed the best activity at pH 9.0 and 45 °C with more than 90% degradation for ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), β-zearalenol (β-ZOL) and α-zearalanol (α-ZAL) after incubation for 15 min. We obtained 10 mutants with improved thermostability by single point mutation technology. Among them, mutants E122Q and E122R showed the best performance, which retained more than 30% of their initial activity at 50 °C for 2 min, and approximately 10% of their initial activity at 60 °C for 1 min. The enzymatic kinetic study showed that the catalytic efficiency of E122R was 1.3 times higher than that of the wild-type (WT). Comprehensive consideration suggests that mutant E122R is a promising hydrolase to detoxify ZEN in food and feed.