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Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) is an important and affordable source of protein in most of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and a popular commodity and raw material for peanut butter, paste and cooking oil. It is a popular ingredient for foods used at the point of weaning infants from mother’s milk. It is at this critical point that childhood undernutrition occurs and the condition manifests as stunting, wasting and growth restriction and accounts for nearly half of all deaths in children under five years of age in SSA. Undernutrition is multi-factorial but weaning foods contaminated with microbiological agents (bacteria and fungi) and natural toxins have been shown to play a big part. While peanuts may provide good nutrition, they are also highly prone to contamination with mycotoxigenic fungi. The high nutritive value of peanuts makes them a perfect substrate for fungal growth and potential aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic and mutagenic mycotoxins. This article reviews the nutritional value and aflatoxin contamination of peanuts, the role they play in the development of childhood malnutrition (including the different theories of aetiology) and immunological problems in children. We also discuss the control strategies that have been explored and advocacy work currently taking shape in Africa to create more awareness of aflatoxins and thus combat their occurrence with the goal of reducing exposure and enhancing trade and food safety.

Aims: To determine the relationship between weaning foods and nutritional status of children aged 6-23 months attending immunization clinic at a military barracks in Port Harcourt, Rivers state, Nigeria. Study Design: Descriptive cross sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: 400 children who attend immunization clinic at the 2 brigade medical centre, Port Harcourt participated in the study which took place from July-September 2016. Methodology: Systematic random sampling was done and data was collected using questionnaires. Weight (using Salter scale, model 180) and height measurements (with a wooden measuring board) were taken. The completely filled questionnaires (373) were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2007, SPSS version 20 and WHO Anthro version 3.2.2, 2011 and presented in tables. Chi square and logistic regression was done to determine association between weaning foods and nutritional status. Results: Response rate was 93.25%.The mean age of the children was 13.04±5.04 months, with 211 (56.6%) males and 162 (43.4%) females. Locally prepared cereals were the most commonly used weaning food, for 211(56.6%) children. Others include commercially prepared cereals 96(25.7%); family diet 12 (3.2%), combination of local, commercial or family diet 47(12.6%).Those overweight were 33 (8.8%), 23 (6.2%) were moderately wasted, 3 (0.8%) severely wasted, 44 (11.8%) moderately stunted, 36 (9.6%) severely stunted; 18 (4.8%) moderately underweight and 4 (1.1%) had severe underweight. Chi square test showed an association between weaning foods and all the forms of malnutrition (P Conclusion: The poor nutritional status observed from this study was associated with the weaning foods used and emphasis should be placed on child care and feeding practices.

Background Stunting and micronutrient deficiencies are significant health problems among infants and young children in rural Tanzania. Objective of the study was to assess feeding practices, nutrient content of complementary meals, and their implications for dietary adequacy and nutritional status. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in six randomly selected villages in Mpwapwa District, Tanzania during the post-harvest season. Information on feeding practices, dietary consumption and anthropometric measurements of all infants below the age of one year were collected. Forty samples of common meals were collected and analysed for proximate composition, iron, zinc and calcium. Results were expressed per 100 g dry weight. Results Energy, protein and fat content in porridge ranged from 40.67–63.92 kcal, 0.54–1.74 % and 0.30-2.12 %, respectively. Iron, zinc and calcium contents (mg/100 g) in porridge were 0.11–2.81, 0.10–3.23, and 25.43-125.55, respectively. Median portion sizes were small (porridge: 150–350 g; legumes and meats: 39–90 g). Very few children (6.67 %) consumed animal-source foods. Low meal frequency, low nutrient content, small portion size and limited variety reduced the contribution of meals to daily nutritional needs. Conclusions Findings of the study highlight inadequate feeding practices, low nutritional quality of meals and high prevalence of stunting. Feasible strategies are needed to address the dietary inadequacies and chronic malnutrition of rural infants. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12887-015-0489-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The weaning period is a transition from milk to family foods and is a critical phase for the development of food acceptance and eating habits of children. The texture of the complementary food introduced plays an important role in shaping preferences. It is known that early introduction of solid food and experience in difficult-to-chew textures could enhance later food acceptance. Texture acceptance follows the developmental sequence of oral functions and infants are more likely to accept texture they can manipulate in mouth. The development of these functions (mainly chewing) is thought to depend on the texture infants are exposed to. Infant refusing foods that require significant chewing may fall behind in their oral motor development as a result of lack of experience with chewing. Moreover hard, fibrous, non-softened foods are thought to be the only foods able to encourage enough mastication to allow growing of dental arches. WHO guidelines recommend to start weaning at 6 months and to gradually increase food consistency as infants get older. A critical window for introducing lumpy food is also suggested (not beyond 10 months) to avoid feeding difficulties later on. Presently, ready-to-eat foods are an important part of weaning foods in most of the developing and developed countries. These commercial preparations meet nutritional needs at different age groups. Nevertheless, there is limited information available on the texture of these commercial preparations. The objective of this study was to characterise the structural properties of baby foods and to describe how these properties change as children grow. We selected 7 fruit purees, 18 savoury baby-foods and 4 biscuits, representing products proposed on the French market for 4/6 months to 24 months old children by three main baby-food manufacturers. Pureed products were characterised by their flow behaviour. All samples exhibited shear-thinning behaviour. Thixotropic behaviours were observed for samples containing banana and biscuits only. Significant differences in apparent viscosity (50 s-1) were observed between recipes but they were not related to age-group. Savoury foods were vegetable purees (4-6 months) which included particles (mainly carrots and pasta) from 8 months onwards. Particles were weighted and their size was determined by image analysis. Particles represented 12 to 49 % of product total weight and measured between 3 to 20 mm. The quantity and the size of the particles increased with age, but large variations were observed between brands and between recipes. The hardness of these particles is under investigation using extrusion method. Finally, experiments are currently ongoing to determine the physical (density, humidity) and rheological (3-point bending test and compression tests after short immersion in water/ saliva) properties of the cereal products.

Although breast milk has been recommended by WHO, there is controversy on its preventive effect against childhood allergy. We investigated the relationship between allergic history of children and their nutrition in infancy with special regard to their family history within the second relatives. The subjects were participants of health examination program for 3-year-old children held during April 1996 and March 1997 in a city of Fukui Prefecture, Japan. Questionnaires were delivered to parents of all children registered in the city (622 in total) by mail and collected from 582 children (94%) on the days of health examination. Personal and family history of allergy (diagnosed by medical doctors as atopic dermatitis, asthma, allergic rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis or urticaria) and nutrition in infancy (breast milk only, formula, or mixed feeding during first month and solid food introduced time after birth) were asked. In total, 201 children (35%) had allergic history and family history was a significant risk factor (odds ratio: 3.91, 95%C.I. 2.68-5.71). Of 518 children from whom effective answers were obtained on nutrition in infancy, 235 children (45%) were fed by breast milk only during first month and 416 children (80%) were fed with solid foods after fifth month and later. For formula-fed or mixed-fed children, early introduction of solid foods was a significant risk factor (odds ratio of no later than fourth month versus after fifth month and later: 2.05, 95% CI: 1.06-3.98). Furthermore, for children with family history, breast feeding was a significant reducing factor of allergy even though solid foods were introduced early after birth (odds ratio of breast fed to formula-fed and mixed-fed: 0.316, 95% CI: 0.115-0.871). Thus, our results indicate that breast feeding could be effective in preventing at least high-risk children who have family history and to whom weaning foods are introduced early.

Mise en place des habitudes alimentaires chez l’enfant : d’OPALINE à HABEAT. Séminaire Qualiment

The usefulness of weaning foods to meet the nutrient needs of children is well recognized, and most of them are precooked roller dried mixtures of cereal and/or legume flours which posses a high viscosity and bulk when reconstituted. The objective of this study was to formulate composite weaning foods using cereals, malted legumes and vegetable powders and analyze them for nutrients, functional properties and sensory attributes. Selected legumes (green gram and lentil) were germinated, dried and dehulled. Roasted wheat, rice, carrot powder and skim milk powder also were used. All the ingredients were mixed in different proportions to get four formulations, made into 30% slurry and dried in roller drier. The products were analyzed for proximate principles, mineral content, functional and sensory qualities. The results of analysis showed following range of constituents per 100g of formulations on dry weight basis, protein, 18.1-18.9 g ; fat, 0.78-1.36 g ; iron, 5.09-6.53 mg; calcium, 265-310 mg. The lowest water absorption capacity was in case of wheat green gram based and the highest was in rice lentil based sample. Overall sensory qualities of all foods were graded as "good" and "very good" with no significant differences. The results confirm that formulated weaning foods were nutritionally superior, functionally appropriate and organoleptically acceptable., {"references":["A. NEGI, P. BOORA and N KHETARPAUL, Starch and protein\ndigestibility of newly released moth bean cultivars: Effect of soaking,\ndehulling, germination and pressure cooking. Nahrung, vol. 45, n. 4, pp.\n251-254, 2001.","A. KAMCHAN, P. PUWASTIEN, P.P. SIRICHAKWAL and R.\nKONGKACHUICHAI, In vitro calcium bioavilability of vegetables,\nlegumes and seeds. J. Food Composition and Analysis, vol. 17, pp. 311-\n320, 2004.","F.H.M.G. SAVELKOUL, A.F.B. VANDERPEOL and S.\nTAMMINGA,The presence and inactivation of trypsin inhibitors,\ntannins, lectins and amylase inhibitors in legume seeds during\ngermination. A review. Plant Foods for Human Nut., vol. 42 , p.71-85,\n1992.","A. SATTAR, S.K. DURRANI, F. MAHMOOD, A. AHMAD and I.\nKHAN, Effect of soaking and germination temperatures on selected\nnutrients and antinutrients of mung bean. Food Chem., vol. 34 , pp. 111-\n120, 1989.","K.Z. GHANEM and L. HUSSAIN, Calcium bioavilability of selected\nEgyptian food with emphasis on the impact of fermentation and\ngermination. Int. J. Food Sci. Nut., vol. 50, pp. 351-356, 1999.","K. PREET,. D. PUNIA, Antinutrients and digestibility (in vitro) of\nsoaked, dehulled and germinated cowpeas. Nutr. Health, vol. 14 ,n. 2 ,\npp. 109-117, 2000.","AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. Association of Official\nAnalytical Chemists. (1990).","H.H. Taussky, E. Shorr, A micro colorimetry method for\ndeterminationof inorganic phosphorous. J. Bio. Chem., vol. 202, pp.\n675-685, 1953.","N.G. ASP, C.G. JOHANSSON and H. HALLMER, Rapid enzymatic\nassay of insoluble and soluble dietary fiber. J. Agri. Food Chem., vol.\n31, pp. 476-482, 1983.\n[10] N.A. JANICKI and J. WALCZAK, Wateriness in meat and methods for\nits determination. Adv. Food Res., vol. 10, pp. 355-394, 1954.\n[11] J.E. KINSELLA, Functional properties of proteins in foods: A survey.\nCrit. Rev. Food Sci. Nut., vol.7, pp. 219-23, 1976.\n[12] K.D. KULKARNI, D.N. KULKARNI and U.M. INGLE, Sorghum malt\nbased weaning food formulations. Food Nut. Bull., vol. 13, pp. 322-327,\n1991.\n[13] D. B DUNCAN, Multiple range and multiple F-test. Biometrics, vol. 11,\npp. 1-42, 1955.\n[14] N.G. MALLESHI, M.A. DAODU and A. CHANDRASEKAR,\nDevelopment of weaning Food formulations based on malting and roller\ndrying of sorghum and cowpea. Int. J. Food Sci. Tech., vol. 24, pp. 511-\n519, 1989.\n[15] A. WONDIMU and N.G. MALLESHI, Development of weaning foods\nbased on malted, popped and roller-dried barely and chickpea. Food Nut.\nBull., vol. 17, n. 2, pp. 169-176, 1996."]}

Five million children aged less than five years die annually due to diarrhoea. The aim of the study was to identify some possible contributing factors for persistent diarrhoea. Seven weaning foods, including a locally-made food, were evaluated by estimating the microbial load using the most probable number method and aflatoxin levels (AFM 1 , AFG 1 , AFG 2 , and AFB 2 ) by immunoaffinity column extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with detection of fluorescence. The results showed that the locally-made weaning food had the highest microbial count (2,000 cfu/g) and faecal streptococcal count (25 cfu/g). Moulds isolated were mainly Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. glaucus, Cladosporium sp., and Penicillium sp. The home-made weaning food recorded the highest fungal count (6,500 cfu/g). AFM 1 of the weaning foods was 4.6-530 ng/mL. One weaning food had AFB 1 level of 4,806 ng/g. Aflatoxin metabolites, apart from AFM 1 and AFB 1 present in the weaning foods, were AFG 1 and AFG 2 . There were low microbial counts in commercial weaning foods but had high levels of aflatoxins (AFM 1 , AFG 1 , AFG 2 , AFB 1 , and AFB 2 ). Growth and development of the infant is rapid, and it is, thus, possible that exposure to aflatoxins in weaning foods might have significant health effects.

Les caséines, des allergènes majeurs pour l’enfant L’allergie au lait touche principalement le jeune enfant suite à ses premiers contacts avec des protéines non humaines. Il s’agit de la troisième allergie alimentaire chez l’enfant, derrière l’œuf et l’arachide ; elle est responsable de 8 % des allergies alimentaires de l’enfant de moins de 15 ans. Les enfants sont majoritairement allergiques aux caséines. Ces protéines peu structurées et de ce fait très sensibles à l’action des enzymes, devraient être totalement dégradées au cours de la digestion et incapables d’induire une réaction de type allergique. La recrudescence des cas d’allergie au lait, et précisément aux caséines parait donc bien surprenante. L’intensité des traitements thermiques dans le collimateur L’hypothèse avancée par les scientifiques pour expliquer la résistance des caséines à la digestion incrimine l’intensité des traitements thermiques appliqués aux laits infantiles lors de la fabrication. Le chauffage du lait conduirait à la formation d’agrégats protéiques dont la résistance à la digestion serait supérieure à celle des protéines natives dont ils sont issus. Un modèle in vitro de digestion du nourrisson pour vérifier l’hypothèse Les scientifiques de l’Inra ont conçu des poudres de laits modèles (sans matière grasse) qui ont subi des traitements thermiques de différentes intensité. Ces poudres réhydratées ont ensuite été soumises à un modèle de digestion in vitro mimant les conditions physiologiques du tube digestif du nouveau-né (estomac et duodénum). L’analyse des produits de digestion des caséines a clairement mis en évidence l’augmentation de la résistance des caséines à la digestion dans les poudres soumises aux traitements thermiques les plus intenses. Ces résultats obtenus sur des matrices modèles dépourvues de matière grasse ont été confirmés sur des aliments plus complexes comme des laits liquides et des yaourts. Les zones spécifiques de résistance à la digestion identifiées Les traitements thermiques augmentent globalement la résistance à la digestion de tous les domaines des caséines. Toutefois, ce sont surtout les domaines hydrophobes, moins accessibles aux enzymes digestives, et ceux porteurs de modifications post-traductionnelles (glycosylation, phosphorylations) qui résistent le plus au tractus gastro-intestinal, d’après les travaux conduits par les chercheurs.

Although Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the worst nutrition indicators in the world, nutrition remains a low priority on the policy agendas of many African governments. This despite the fact that proven interventions are known and available and that investment in them is considered a cost-effective strategy for poverty reduction. This case study is one in a series seeking to understand (1) what keeps African governments from committing fully to reducing malnutrition, and (2) what is required for full commitment. It documents how the Ghanaian government has addressed the issue of malnutrition since Independence, examines what political and institutional factors have prevented full commitment, and identifies what conditions have moved the nutrition agenda forward at different points in time. The primary objective of this study as well as the series as a whole is to help African governments, development partners, and nutrition and health practitioners identify, understand and address the political and institutional obstacles preventing sustainable progress in nutrition.

A coordinated survey for Cronobacter and related organisms in powdered infant formula, follow up formula and infant foods was undertaken by 8 laboratories in 7 countries in recognition of and in response to the data needs identified in an FAO/WHO call for data in order to develop global risk management guidance for these products. The products (domestic and imported) were purchased from the local market and were categorised according to their principle ingredients. A total of 290 products were analysed using a standardised procedure of pre-enrichment in 225 ml Buffered Peptone Water (BPW), followed by enrichment in Enterobacteriaceae Enrichment (EE) broth, plating on the chromogenic Cronobacter Druggan–Forsythe–Iversen (DFI) agar and presumptive identification with ID 32 E. Presumptive Cronobacter isolates were identified using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Aerobic plate counts (APC) of the products were also determined on nutrient agar. Fourteen samples had APC > 105 cfu/g, 3 of which contained probiotic cultures. C. sakazakii was isolated from 27 products; 3/91 (3%) follow up formulas (as defined by Codex Alimentarius Commission), and 24/199 (12%) infant foods and drinks. Hence C. sakazakii was less prevalent in follow up formula than other foods given to infants over the same age range. A range of other bacteria were also isolated from follow up formulas, including Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Citrobacter freundii, and Serratia ficaria. There was significant variation in the reconstitution instructions for follow up formulas. These included using water at temperatures which would enable bacterial growth. Additionally, the definition of follow up formula varied between countries.

Fermented foods have many advantageous attributes such as improved nutritional value and safety against bacterial pathogens. These foods are also important for weaning purposes and hence play a role in protecting infants against foodborne diseases. However, pathogens have been isolated from some fermented foods and challenge tests have shown the possibility of pathogens to survive and grow in some fermented foods. Post processing contamination is often cited as the major cause of food poisoning. Fermented foods with a pH value below 4 are usually safe as most pathogens are unable to survive under these conditions. However, some pathogens such as Escherichia coli O157:H7 are reported to develop acid tolerance. This is a particular problem for fermented sausages. However, there is very little information on the occurrence and growth of pathogens in African fermented foods. Most work on African fermented foods has focused on the isolation and identification of the desirable microorganisms involved in the fermentation process. Some authors have now started focusing on the possibility of some pathogens to survive and grow in some of the fermented foods. This review highlights some of the cases where pathogens have been detected in fermented foods, or have been shown to survive and grow in such foods. The most commonly encountered pathogens in African fermented foods include Bacillus cereus, E. coli, Salmonella sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, Aeromonas, Klebsiella, Campylobacter and Shigella sp. The approaches that can be used to minimise the risk of foodborne diseases through consumption of fermented foods include improved hygiene, use of starter cultures, use of protective cultures and the use of a combination of factors that inhibit the growth of microorganisms (multiple hurdles). The use of concepts such as Hazard Analysis Critical Control (HACCP) system is still problematic at household level. However, this approach has been suggested for some African fermented foods such as kenkey (Ghana). This is thought to help in channelling resources to steps that provide effective protection. Key Words: fermented foods, pathogens, weaning foods, bacteriocins AJFAND Vol.4(1) 2004