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Los Reglamentos comunitarios de coordinación –al fundarse en el derecho a la conservación de derechos de Seguridad Social en curso de adquisición en otro Estado– llevan la Seguridad Social más allá de la estrecha territorialidad de los regímenes nacionales. La aplicación extraterritorial de las disposiciones comunitarias en materia de seguridad social radica en la posibilidad que ofrece el Reglamento 883/2004 de totalización de periodos de seguro fuera del territorio comunitario. Por otra parte, los nacionales de terceros Estados, desplazados en el ámbito de la Unión Europea se benefician del sistema de coordinación comunitario por mor del Reglamento 1231/2010. Además, los convenios bilaterales y multilaterales han sido la vía tradicionalmente utilizada para solventar los déficits de protección de Seguridad Social resultantes de la movilidad trasnacional de trabajadores en el ámbito extracomunitario a o desde España y se aplicarán siempre que constituya una norma más beneficiosa que las normas comunitarias. The EU Coordination Regulations –by being based on the right to preserve Social Security rights in the course of acquisition in another State– take Social Security beyond the narrow territoriality of national regimes. The extraterritorial application of EU provisions on social security lies in the possibility offered by Regulation 883/2004 of totalizing periods of insurance outside EU territory. On the other hand, third-country nationals posted within the European Union benefit from the community coordination system by virtue of Regulation 1231/2010. In addition, bilateral and multilateral agreements have been the way traditionally used to solve Social Security protection deficits resulting from the transnational mobility of posted workers from or to Spain. Such Agreements will be applied when they result more beneficial for the employee than EU rules.

En la cumbre UE-EE.UU. del pasado 15 de junio de 2021, la Unión Europea y los Estados Unidos realizaron una declaración conjunta en la que anunciaron una asociación transatlántica renovada para la era posterior a la pandemia. De manera que en el momento en el que se refuerzan las negociaciones comerciales entre la UE y EE.UU. vale la pena analizar hasta dónde se llegó en las negociaciones del Acuerdo Transatlántico sobre Comercio e Inversión en el marco de la OMC, en particular en relación a los aspectos más controvertidos desde la perspectiva social. Lo que incluye un análisis comparado específicamente enfocado al tratamiento del desplazamiento de trabajadores en el AGCS y en la Directiva 96/71/CE. Ello nos permitirá determinar en el futuro las diferencias y similitudes con el proceso negociador que ahora se inicia; con la esperanza de que las lecciones surgidas del anterior proceso sirvan para relanzar las relaciones comerciales entre ambos bloques hacia cotas mucho más sociales y hacia una transición medioambiental más justa. At the EU-US summit on June 15, 2021, the European Union and the United States made a joint statement announcing a renewed transatlantic partnership for the post-pandemic era. Therefore, at a time when trade negotiations between the EU and the US are being strengthened, it is worth analyzing how far they come in the negotiations of the Transatlantic Agreement on Trade and Investment, within the framework of the WTO, particularly in relation to the most controversial aspects from the social perspective. This includes a comparative analysis specifically focused on the treatment of the posting of workers in the GATS and in Directive 96/71/EC. This will allow us to determine in the future the differences and similarities with the negotiating process that is now beginning; with the hope that the lessons learned from the previous process will serve to relaunch trade relations between the two blocs towards much more social levels and towards a fairer environmental transition. Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad DER2017-83040-C4-2-R

Los trabajadores desplazados en el marco de una prestación de servicios transnacional afrontan riesgos específicos que han de ser tenidos en cuenta para dotar de protección a los trabajadores afectados. Aunque no se trate de riesgos directamente vinculados con el trabajo a realizar por el trabajador desplazado, son riesgos relacionados con las circunstancias y el entorno del país de destino, donde el trabajador se enfrenta a un nuevo contexto, en unas condiciones sanitarias, de seguridad vial, sociales y meteorológicas distintas a las que tenía en el país de origen. A estas condiciones habría que sumar los riesgos de carácter psicosocial debidos en buena medida a las diferencias de cultura preventiva entre los países de origen y destino y la barrera cultural y lingüística. Además, el tiempo en el que el trabajador se encuentra desplazado en los términos del artículo 2.1 de la Ley 45/1999 debe considerarse un envío en misión en términos preventivos. En consecuencia, en caso de accidente se amplía la presunción de que se trata de tiempo y lugar de trabajo, sin que el accidente tenga que reunir los requisitos del accidente in itinere. La relevancia de considerar un accidente como accidente en misión, no se agota con la determinación de la contingencia como profesional, y por tanto de la correspondiente prestación a cargo del sistema de Seguridad Social; pues a partir de dicho concepto se determina el propio contenido de la obligación preventiva de la empresa, que desplaza trabajadores a otro país para la prestación de un determinado servicio. Posted workers in the framework of a transnational provision of services face specific risks that must be taken into account to provide protection to the affected workers. Although they are not risks directly linked to the work to be carried out by the posted worker, they are risks related to the circumstances and environment of the country of destination, where the worker faces a new context, in health conditions, road safety, social and meteorological conditions different from those in the country of origin. To these conditions should be added the risks of a psychosocial nature due largely to the differences in preventive culture between the countries of origin and destination and the cultural and linguistic barrier. In addition, the time in which the worker is posted under the terms of article 2.1 of Law 45/1999 must be considered a mission assignment in preventive terms. Consequently, in the event of an accident, the presumption that it involves time and place of work is extended, without the accident having to meet the requirements of an accident on the way to and from work. The relevance of considering an accident as an accident on mission is not exhausted with the determination of the contingency as a professional, and therefore of the corresponding provision by the Social Security system; since from this concept the content of the company’s preventive obligation is determined, which sends workers to another country to provide a certain service. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación DER2017-83040-C4-2-R

Auf der Grundlage von Fachgesprächen mit Unternehmerinnen und Unternehmern sowie Expertinnen und Experten untersucht die Studie, inwieweit bürokratische Erfordernisse die grenzüberschreitende Erbringung von Dienstleistungen von deutschen und niederländischen KMU in ausgewählten Grenzregionen be- bzw. verhindern. Großen Verbesserungsbedarf sehen die Befragten insbesondere im Hinblick auf die fehlende Harmonisierung der Entsendevorschriften und -verfahren in den einzelnen EU-Mitgliedstaaten. Auch Erleichterungen bei kurzen bzw. kurzfristigen Entsendungen werden sehr häufig als notwendig erachtet. Ein nicht unerheblicher Teil der KMU in beiden Ländern befolgt einzelne Vorschriften nicht, um den hohen Bürokratieaufwand auf ein - aus ihrer Sicht - verhältnismäßiges Niveau zu begrenzen. Based on interviews with companies and experts, the study examines the extent to which administrative requirements hinder or prevent the cross-border provision of services by German and Dutch SMEs in selected border regions. The respondents see a great need for improvement especially with regard to the lack of harmonisation of posting regulations and procedures in the individual EU member states. Facilitations for short-term postings and those done at short notice are also very often considered necessary. A not insignificant proportion of SMEs in both countries do not comply with individual regulations in order to limit the high administrative burden to a - from their point of view - proportionate level.

While many coordinated market economies have responded to internationalization by regulation that creates dualization between insiders and outsiders, the Nordic countries have opted for an embedded flexibilization in which strong unions and cooperative employers have combined flexibility and equality. However, in recent years, the Nordic countries have come under pressure from an EU-induced dualization that has institutionalized mobile low-wage workers as an outside group. This article presents case studies of how Denmark and Sweden have responded to these challenges. While political processes have been different in the two countries, pressure from EU regulation and changes in employers' incentive to compromise implies that there is now a specific category of low-wage workers in both countries' otherwise egalitarian labor markets. The article, thus, contributes to the literature on dualization by highlighting the pressure coming from EU regulation rather than national policy. While many coordinated market economies have responded to internationalization by regulation that creates dualization between insiders and outsiders, the Nordic countries have opted for an embedded flexibilization in which strong unions and cooperative employers have combined flexibility and equality. However, in recent years, the Nordic countries have come under pressure from an EU-induced dualization that has institutionalized mobile low-wage workers as an outside group. This article presents case studies of how Denmark and Sweden have responded to these challenges. While political processes have been different in the two countries, pressure from EU regulation and changes in employers' incentive to compromise implies that there is now a specific category of low-wage workers in both countries' otherwise egalitarian labor markets. The article, thus, contributes to the literature on dualization by highlighting the pressure coming from EU regulation rather than national policy.

Στόχος της παρούσας διατριβής ήταν να μελετηθεί η πρακτική της απόσπασης εργαζομένων μεταξύ κρατών μελών στο πλαίσιο της παροχής υπηρεσιών. Αρχικά εξετάσαμε το εννοιολογικό πλαίσιο της παρούσας διατριβής, δηλαδή τους ορισμούς της απόσπασης και του κοινωνικού ντάμπινγκ. Δεύτερον, παρουσιάσαμε τις θεμελιώδεις οικονομικές ελευθερίες και ειδικότερα πώς αυτές σχετίζονται με την πρακτική της απόσπασης και εξετάσαμε επίσης τα ζητήματα που έχουν ανακύψει από την πρακτική της απόσπασης μέσω παραδειγμάτων νομολογίας, κυρίως υπό την έννοια της σύγκρουσης μεταξύ των θεμελιωδών οικονομικών ελευθεριών και των θεμελιωδών κοινωνικών δικαιωμάτων. Επιπλέον, αναλύσαμε τις νομικές βάσεις αυτής της πρακτικής, οι οποίες έχουν συχνά τροποποιηθεί για την καταπολέμηση του φαινομένου του κοινωνικού ντάμπινγκ. Ένας άλλος στόχος αυτής της μελέτης ήταν να εξετάσει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο τα κράτη έχουν ενσωματώσει την ευρωπαϊκή νομοθεσία σχετικά με τις υποχρεώσεις των κρατών μελών κατά την απόσπαση εργαζομένων, The aim of this thesis was to study the practice of posting employees between member states in the context of the provision of services. We first examined the conceptual framework of this thesis, i.e. the definitions of posting and social dumping. Secondly, we have presented the fundamental economic freedoms and in particular how they relate to the practice of posting and we have examined the issues that have been raised by the practice of posting through examples of case law, mainly in the sense of the conflict between fundamental economic freedoms and fundamental social rights. In addition, we have analyzed the legal bases of this practice, which have often been modified in order to fight against the phenomenon of social dumping. Another objective of this study was to examine the way in which the states have integrated the European legislation concerning the obligations of the member states when posting employees L'objectif du présent mémoire était l'étude de la pratique du détachement des salariés entre les Etats-membres dans le cadre de la prestation de services. Nous avons premièrement examiné le cadre conceptuel de ce mémoire, c’est-à-dire les définitions du détachement et du dumping social. Ensuite, nous avons présenté les libertés économiques fondamentales et notamment la manière dont elles sont liées à la pratique du détachement et nous avons aussi examiné les questions qui ont été soulevées par la pratique du détachement à travers des exemples de la jurisprudence, principalement dans le sens du conflit entre les libertés économiques fondamentales et les droits sociaux fondamentaux. En outre, nous avons analysé les bases juridiques de cette pratique qui se sont modifiées souvent pour lutter contre le phénomène du dumping social. Un autre objectif de cette étude était d'examiner la manière avec laquelle les Etats ont intégré la législation européenne concernant les obligations des Etats-membres quand lis détachent des salariés, Σε συνεργασία με το τμήμα Νομικής Πανεπιστήμιο Τουλούζης (Γαλλία)

In this contribution, the author reflects on the juridical frame of social policy and workers’ rights applicable in the European Union in the area of labour mobility and transnational free provision of services with posted workers since the creation of the EU internal market. The rights-based free movement of EU-workers is grounded on the ‘lex loci laboris’ principles, or the notion that workers fall under the regulatory frame of rules and labour standards of the (‘new’) state of residence and employment. Posted workers that provide services on behalf of their posting employer are not supposed to seek access to that another Member State’s labour market and with this argument as different legal frame has been adopted. He sketches out the notion of posting, including reflections on the genesis of the Posting of Workers Directive, and questions whether the rules are still fit for purpose. Based on earlier research, he describes ‘fake posting’, by illustrating how, given the difficulties to control the genuine character of posting immediately at the workplace, labelling workers as being posted has become an easy smoke screen to cover up irregular practices.

In this contribution, the author reflects on the juridical frame of social policy and workers’ rights applicable in the European Union in the area of labour mobility and transnational free provision of services with posted workers since the creation of the EU internal market. The rights-based free movement of EU-workers is grounded on the ‘lex loci laboris’ principles, or the notion that workers fall under the regulatory frame of rules and labour standards of the (‘new’) state of residence and employment. Posted workers that provide services on behalf of their posting employer are not supposed to seek access to that another Member State’s labour market and with this argument as different legal frame has been adopted. He sketches out the notion of posting, including reflections on the genesis of the Posting of Workers Directive, and questions whether the rules are still fit for purpose. Based on earlier research, he describes ‘fake posting’, by illustrating how, given the difficulties to control the genuine character of posting immediately at the workplace, labelling workers as being posted has become an easy smoke screen to cover up irregular practices.

This report, carried out within the framework of the Posting.stat project, aims to increase knowledge aboutthe posting of workers to and from Spain by exploring a variety of national administrative micro-datasources to provide information on the phenomenon. This work will firstly deliver an introduction to theregulatory framework of posting, both labour and social security, including detailed statistics on postingin Spain between 2018 and 2020, providing qualitative analysis and evidence on the scale, characteristics,and the impact of posting to and from Spain. Particular attention will be paid to postings to France and alsoto the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This report also addresses irregular posting from the receivingperspective, including the scale and characteristics of the administrative infringements detected and thesanctions imposed in Spain, noting that there is no significant amount of litigation. From the issuing pointof view, two relevant and controversial cases are analyzed. The case law of the Court of Justice on fraud inPortable Documents (PDs A1) focusing on the Vueling case, as well as the French criminal judgement thatcondemns, in the first instance, the Spanish TEA Terra Fecundis, which operated in the French agriculturalsector. Finally, the report concludes by analyzing the impact of the transposition of Directive (EU)2018/957 in Spain.

El artículo analiza la regulación aplicable al desplazamiento trasnacional de trabajadores, en materia de Seguridad Social. Se estudia los desplazamientos tanto de trabajadores por cuenta ajena como por cuenta propia, así como los riesgos de una utilización de desplazamientos mediante duraciones temporales excesivas o formas encadenadas que disfrazan supuestos migratorios con graves riesgos de dumping social mediante ETT, contratas y subcontratas. Por último, se aborda someramente la acción protectora, distinguiendo entre las prestaciones que pueden satisfacerse en el Estado de origen y las vinculadas al de destino. This article analyzes the regulation applicable to the transnational posting of workers, in terms of Social Security. The posting of both employed and self-employed workers are studied, as well as the risks of excessive temporary durations or chains of companies that disguise social dumping using temporary work companies or subcontractors. Finally, the protective action is briefly addressed, distinguishing between the benefits that can be met in the State of origin and those linked to the State of destination. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación DER2017-83040-C4-2-R

Conforme a las normas de coordinación comunitarias, los trabajadores desplazados podrán mantener las cotizaciones durante un cierto tiempo en su país de origen. Sin embargo, en el momento en que éstos superen el periodo máximo general de veinticuatro meses permitido por el artículo 12 del Reglamento 883/2004; o el específico acordado en virtud artículo 16 del Reglamento 883/2004, quedarán sometidos a la normativa de destino, y por ende deberán realizar sus cotizaciones en el extranjero. En este caso, el trabajador desplazado, a efectos laborales, se convertirá en trabajador migrante, a efectos de Seguridad Social. En este punto, el trabajador destacado de larga duración comparte con el trabajador migrante idénticos problemas, pues el trabajador desplazado, a pesar de que en el orden laboral no pueda considerarse como tal, también habrá fraccionado su carrera de seguro. En este supuesto, como el trabajador desplazado habrá estado asegurado en varios Estados miembros, cada uno de los Estados asumirá una parte de su pensión, teniendo en cuenta también las cotizaciones hechas en el otro país para determinar su cuantía, haciendo uso de dos técnicas para su cómputo: la de la totalización de los períodos y la del prorrateo de las prestaciones. Sin embargo, ni la aplicación de estas técnicas ni, sobre todo, la base reguladora utilizada para determinar la cuantía su pensión, resultan siempre ventajosa para estos trabajadores, atendiendo al estado actual del Derecho de la Unión, y a su aplicación en España. In accordance with EU coordination rules, posted workers will be able to maintain contributions for a certain time in their country of origin. However, when these exceed the general maximum period of twenty-four months allowed by article 12 of Regulation 883/2004; or the specific one agreed under article 16 of Regulation 883/2004, they must make their contributions abroad. In this case, the posted worker, will become a migrant worker, for Social Security purposes. At this point, the long-term posted worker shares the same problems with the migrant worker, since the posted worker, despite not being considered as such in the labor order, will also have split his insurance career. In this case, as the posted worker will have been insured in several Member States, each one of the States will assume a part of his pension, also taking into account the contributions made in the other country to determine its amount, using two techniques to its computation: that of the totalization of the periods and that of the apportionment of benefits. However, neither the application of these techniques nor, above all, the regulatory base used to determine the amount of their pension, are always advantageous for these workers, taking into account the current state of Union law, and its application in Spain. Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad DER2017-83040-C4-2-R

The protection of labour rights of temporary migrant workers in global supply chains requires further theoretical and policy research. Through the case of Serbian workers in Slovak electronics supply chains, we look at how the transnational recruitment of labour via temporary work agencies (TWAs) for globally organised production generates heightened forms of exploitation and unfree labour relations. We show that such exploitation occurs in a regulatory framework consisting of various instruments ranging from the Palermo Protocol specific to trafficking, to EU law addressing the mobility of workers, and corporate codes of conduct aimed at guaranteeing worker rights within supply chains. Paradoxically, despite an overregulated field, existing instruments fail to offer a straightforward avenue for redress. We suggest that this failure is an outcome of the current legal and corporate regulatory matrix that allows market competition through work practices that violate basic labour standards and produce the conditions that enable and sustain unfree labour relations, while normalising exploitation in supply chains.

In his State of the Union Address 2017, expressed at the European Parliament in September 2017, European Commission’s President Juncker announced plans to establish a new European agency, a European Labour Authority (hereafter ELA), in order to foster fair mobility in Europe. The negotiations between the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament on the proposal, launched by the Commission in March 2018, ended in the first half of 2019. This article addresses the following items after providing some background information: • Existing problems with labour mobility: analysis of reasons for insufficient enforcement and other problems (EU and Member States); • The core business and added value of ELA (e.g. coverage of all relevant topics, existing structures and tools, new structures and services, pooling, more comprehensive services and synergies); • Challenges and risks (e.g. gaps, new interfaces, overlaps, complexity, feasibility, resources); • Short summary and outlook.

This article aims to examine to what extent the recent reform of the Posting of Workers Directive (PWD) may represent a proper instrument to correct the well-known pro-market approach adopted by the case law of the CJEU (“Laval quartet”) and favour more worker-friendly interpretations. The revised Directive is analysed under the heading of the equal treatment rule between local worker and posted workers in order to emphasize some critical aspects of the EU law which could reduce the practical impact of that rule, especially in case of long-term postings. The idea is that even though this Directive has also been adopted as a measure of employee protection, it only partially affects the position of the home-state employers wishing to post their employees to the territory of another Member State on a temporary basis. For example, for various reasons, the scope of the equal treatment rule could be curtailed and thus restrictively interpreted by the courts., Italian Labour Law e-Journal, Vol 12, No 2 (2019)

The article deals with international coordination of social security in the EU, aiming special focus on self-employed persons. The article outlines an overview of international social security coordination system with its legal sources and presents original research using cluster analysis method based on statistical data compiled by European Commission experts. The presented research is based on a conducted cluster analysis bringing together principal macroeconomic characteristics describing relative size and relative strength of economies, in particular total number of inhabitants, GDP per capita, in internationally comparable purchasing power parity version, and average wage, with quantitative expression of labour migration, represented by short term mobility covered by the European law posting provisions. The research question was formulated towards exploration whether there are some common features in short-term mobility inflows created by independent self-employed persons in the European internal market. The results showed prevailing lack of consistency leading to the fact that the clusters reported by the model were not comparable in size, when two of them embraced nearly all the examined European countries and the other two only few of them.

Research background: Labour migration, i. e. the transnational movement of foreign workers on the European markets and their integration, is among the key topics of both Czech and European politics. I devote my paper to the regulation of work-related migration in a wider perspective of the global labour market in a specific type of labour migration „posting workers“. Purpose of the article: The paper focus on economic, political, and ethical problematic aspects of posting workers within the European Union in connection with the European Commission’s revision of Directive 96/71/EC with an emphasis on posting workers to the Czech Republic. Methods: I will to analyse the key patterns of the reactions and discourse strategies of selected Czech stakeholders regarding the proposal for a revision of Directive 96/71/EC, in particular that of selected government representatives. For this purpose, it will be used the method of discourse analysis (especially methods developed by Ruth Wodak). Findings & Value added: I would like to demonstrate, using the revision of Directive 96/71/EC as an example of new renovating models of global labour, as a part of the process of integration of the global market in the era of globalization, that the mechanism of posting workers creates a hybrid single European labour market, changes international relations, and contributes to the transnational flexibility of labour.

Opracowanie dotyczy ustawy z dnia 10 czerwca 2016 r. o delegowaniu pracowników w ramach świadczenia usług (znowelizowanej w 2020 r.), która określa obowiązki pracodawców z państw członkowskich UE delegujących pracowników do Polski. The elaboration is dedicated to the Law of 10th June 2016 on posting of workers in the framework of the provision of services (as amended in 2020), that determines the duties of the employers from EU member states who post workers to Poland.

Artykuł dotyczy statusu Europejskiego Urzędu ds. Pracy i jego kompetencji w zakresie stosowania i egzekwowania prawa pracy. Utworzony w 2019 r. Urząd ma przyczyniać się do zapewnienia sprawiedliwej mobilności pracowników w całej Unii oraz wspierać państwa członkowskie i Komisję w koordynowaniu systemów zabezpieczenia społecznego w Unii. Autor zarysowuje problemy związane ze swobodą przemieszczania się pracowników oraz delegowaniem pracowników w ramach swobody świadczenia usług. Przedstawia kompetencje Urzędu ds. Pracy dotyczące ułatwiania uzyskiwania informacji o prawach i obowiązkach w dziedzinie mobilności pracowników w całej Unii, ułatwiania i wspierania współpracy państw członkowskich w zakresie egzekwowania odpowiednich przepisów prawa Unii, prowadzenia mediacji i udzielania pomocy w rozstrzyganiu sporów transgranicznych między państwami członkowskimi, a także wspierania współpracy państw członkowskich w zakresie przeciwdziałania pracy nierejestrowanej. The article is dedicated to the status of the European Labour Authority and its competences in the field of application and enforcement of labour law. Established in 2019, the Authority shall contribute to ensuring fair labour mobility across the Union and assisting Member States and the Commission in the coordination of social security systems within the Union. Author outlines the problems connected to the freedom of movement of workers and posting of workers within the freedom to provide services. He introduces competences of the European Labour Authority on facilitating access to information on rights and obligations regarding labour mobility across the Union, facilitating and enhancing cooperation between Member States in the enforcement of relevant Union law, mediating and facilitating solution in cases of cross-border disputes between Member States, as well as supporting cooperation between Member States in tackling undeclared work.

Opracowanie zawiera analizę przepisów o delegowaniu pracowników w ramach swobody świadczenia usług w Unii Europejskiej. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono zmianom wprowadzonym dyrektywą 2018/957, które zmodyfikowały relacje między swobodami gospodarczymi rynku wewnętrznego i ochroną praw pracowniczych. Autor omawia nowe przepisy dotyczące delegowania długoterminowego, a także równego wynagradzania pracowników delegowanych i pracowników miejscowych. Przedstawia problem przewagi konkurencyjnej przedsiębiorców z Europy Środkowej oraz zagrożenia dumpingiem socjalnym. Ponadto autor omawia sprawy C-620/18 oraz C-626/18, w których Trybunał Sprawiedliwości UE oddalił skargi Polski i Węgier o stwierdzenie nieważności dyrektywy 2018/957. The contribution provides the analysis of the provisions on posting of workers within the framework of the freedom to provide services in the European Union. Particular attention has been paid to the amendments introduced by the Directive 2018/957, that modified the relationship between the economic freedoms of internal market and the protection of workers’ rights. Author introduces the new provisions on long-term posting, as well as on equal remuneration of posted workers and local workers. He discusses the question of competitive advantages of the entrepreneurs from Central Europe and the threat of social dumping. Moreover, author presents the cases C-620/18 and C-626/18, where the EU Court of Justice dismissed Poland’s and Hungary’s actions on annulment of the Directive 2018/957.

The posting of workers in the European Union (EU) has gained significant prominence in the last decade, due to the exponential growth of transnational provision of services following the financial crisis in 2008; the proliferation of letterbox companies in countries with comparatively low labour costs; the existence and increase in cases of fraud, discrimination and abuse; and, in particular, because in 2014 and 2018 there were legal reforms to combat legal uncertainty, social dumping and unfair competition at the European level. Although this sui generis form of international labour mobility is currently overshadowed by the situation caused by Covid-19, the legal debate as a result of the new provisions regulating the posting of workers will re-emerge because, whilst some of the inadequacies and weaknesses in Directive 96/71 have been amended, others have been left out and will undoubtedly be the subject of new disputes. This paper is dedicated to those, and to the analysis of cases 620/18 and 626/18 already settled by the CJEU, with the intention of contributing to a better interpretation of this phenomenon whose importance is indisputable, even more so in the current context of hypermobility in the internal market for services, El desplazamiento de trabajadores en la Unión Europea (UE) ha vivido en la última década un protagonismo notable, entre otros motivos, por el exponencial crecimiento de las prestaciones transnacionales de servicios como respuesta a la crisis financiera desatada en 2008; por la proliferación de empresas buzón en países de bajos costes laborales; por la existencia e incremento de los casos de fraude, discriminación y abusos y, sobre todo, por haberse producido en 2014 y 2018 reformas legales a escala europea para luchar contra la inseguridad jurídica, el dumping social y la competencia desleal. Si bien esta modalidad sui generis de movilidad laboral internacional se encuentra eclipsada por la situación provocada por la Covid-19, el debate jurídico a consecuencia de las nuevas reglas que la ordenan volverá al primer plano porque, a pesar de haber corregido parte de las insuficiencias, debilidades y carencias de la Directiva 96/71, otras han quedado en el tintero y serán objeto de nuevos conflictos, sin duda. A ellas, y al análisis de los asuntos 620/18 y 626/18 ya resueltos por el TJUE, se dedica este trabajo con la intención de contribuir a una mejor interpretación de este fenómeno cuya importancia es indiscutible, más si cabe, en el actual contexto de hipermovilidad en el mercado interior de servicios

The present work deals with the posting of employees within the European Union, a topic that still presents a reasonable legal complexity. For over a hundred years, there is a growth of multinational companies and, consequently, there is a witness of the movement of workers between their branches located in different countries. At first, this movement occurred only to occupants of high positions in the companies, but, over time, temporary transfers of workers from the most different levels of the company became common. Since the last decades of the 20th century, with the remarkable globalization of the world market, added to the free movement of people as one of the pillars of the European Union, it was necessary to edit the Directive 96/71/EC by the European Parliament and the Council, which, despite having been directed at construction workers, it was found to be extremely important for all other sectors. Therefore, we intend, with this work, to contribute to the study of the theme, which has little jurisprudence and less attention from the doctrine, but of great relevance to avoid trivializing the right of the posted worker and, not least, free competition., O presente trabalho versa sobre o destacamento de empregados no âmbito da União Europeia, tema este que ainda se apresenta uma complexidade jurídica razoável. Há mais de cem anos, pode-se constatar o crescimento de empresas multinacionais e, consequentemente, passamos a testemunhar a movimentação de trabalhadores entre suas filiais situadas em países distintos. Em primeiro momento, verificou-se esta movimentação somente a ocupantes de altos cargos das empresas, mas, com o tempo, tornou-se comum a transferência temporária de trabalhadores dos mais diversos níveis da empresa. Desde as últimas décadas do Século XX, com a notável globalização do mercado mundial, somado ao direito livre circulação de pessoas como um dos pilares da União Europeia, foi necessário editar a Diretiva 96/71/CE pelo Parlamento Europeu e pelo Conselho, que, não obstante ter sido direcionada aos trabalhadores da construção civil, constatou-se ser de extrema importância para todos os demais setores. Pretendemos, portanto, com o presente trabalho, contribuir com o estudo do tema, que tem escassa jurisprudência e pouca atenção da doutrina, mas de muita relevância para evitar a banalização do direito do trabalhador destacado e, não menos importante, a livre concorrência.

Recent research suggests that trade unions in the European Union have become more receptive towards temporary and migrant workers and recognise their distinct interests. This article investigates to what extent this shift in attitude informs union responses to cross-border temporary agency work, an important variant of migrant non-standard work in the European Union. This employment form entails several potential lines of intra-labour conflicts of interests, that is, insider versus outsider and domestic versus migrant workers, and thus offers a particularly promising case to study whether and how unions seek to aggregate the interests of an increasingly heterogeneous workforce. Our findings suggest that although trade unions have gained considerable regulatory influence and new capacities to mediate conflicts of interest between different worker groups, a considerable degree of ambiguity remains in union positions and strategies towards temporary agency work and cross-border labour. Instead of gradual steps towards full inclusion of workers regardless of status and origin, union responses are best described as selective representation.