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International audience; Le professorat d'EPS est marqué par le passage de la séparation à la mixité des concours en 1989 (Szerdahelyi,2014). Aujourd'hui, l'enseignement de l'EPS est majoritairement exercé par des hommes, qui constituent 56,2 pour cent des professeur·es d'EPS quand le taux de femmes dans le second degré public s'élève inversement à 58,4 pour cent (DEPP, 2017). Sur la base d'une analyse des effectifs au concours du CAPEPS, cette contribution proposera un état des lieux du recrutement des professeur·es d'EPS depuis leur intégration au MEN en 1981. L'objectif est de mettre à l'épreuve le concept d'égalité au prisme de ses applications, sous conditions ou sans conditions (Sénac, 2015). Au delà de cette approche quantitative, la communication mobilisera des données qualitatives pour approfondir les réflexions sur les représentations de l'égalité, en EPS et au-delà. À partir de l'étude des argumentaires syndicaux et institutionnels sur l'égalité, il s'agira d'examiner les effets et limites de la séparation ou de la mixité (Mosconi, 2004). Autant de pistes que cette contribution propose de creuser, afin d'explorer les paradoxes égalitaires de la mixité.

Cet article aborde les évocations de l’homosexualité masculine dans trois films de guerre américains sortis à la fin de la Grande Guerre et dans les années 1920. Cette étude met en perspective les transformations de la société ainsi que l’éclosion d’une plus grande tolérance, tandis que persistent des stéréotypes genrés hérités de l’ordre patriarcal. Comment envisager les relations hommes-femmes et hommes-hommes dans un contexte de guerre qui bouleverse les comportements traditionnels et crée de nouvelles affinités ? La violence et l’amour revêtent-ils une dimension différente au cours du conflit ? À travers Shoulder Arms (1918, Chaplin), What Price Glory (1926, Walsh) et Wings (1927, Wellman), nous interrogerons les contradictions d’une époque en analysant la féminisation des hommes, le rejet des femmes et la célébration d’une masculinité hégémonique. This article discusses cinematic evocations of male homosexuality in three American war films shot at the end of the Great War and in the 1920s. It contrasts the transformations of society and the rise of more tolerance with the persistence of gendered stereotypes inherited from patriarchal order. How male-female interactions and male-male relations should be considered in a context of war upsetting traditional behaviors and creating new affinities? In what way are love and violence given a new meaning during the conflict? Shoulder Arms (1918, Chaplin), What Price Glory (1926, Wash) and Wings (1927, Wellman) will enable us to question the contradictions of an era by studying the feminization of men, the rejection of women and the celebration of a hegemonic masculinity.

International audience; Of 19,208 midwives polled in France in 2010, 349 were men. Based on interviews from a selected group of male midwives and midwifery students, as well as data from a recent study of the midwife profession in France, this study shows that the masculinity brought to this profession by male practitioners can be qualified as "respective masculinity." This theoretical perspective permits a broader consideration of the existing models that explain male presence in non-traditional professions. These models describe their presence as either a power struggle, a means by which to be promoted, or even as a possible questioning of male identity. Male midwives assert their masculinity by seeking autonomy in their work. They are able to work around the obstacle of showing empathy to female patients, typically considered a gendered predisposition. The case of male midwives shows the dynamics of masculinization when taking into account socio-professional contexts.; Sur les 19208 sages-femmes exerçant en France en 2010, 349 étaient des hommes. Basé sur des entretiens à partir d'une sélection d'hommes et d'étudiants sages-femmes, ainsi que sur des données d'une étude récente portant sur la profession sage-femme en France, cette étude montre que la masculinité portée par ces praticiens masculins peut être qualifiés de " masculinité respectueuse ". Cette perspective théorique permet une réflexion plus large sur les modèles existants pouvant expliquer la présence des hommes dans des professions non traditionnellement masculine. Ces modèles décrivent leur présence soit comme une lutte de pouvoir, soit un moyen de promotion, ou comme une remise en cause possible de l'identité masculine. Ces sages-femmes affirment leur masculinité en cherchant l'autonomie dans leur travail. Ils sont aussi capables de contourner l'obstacle de l'empathie envers les parturientes, généralement considérée comme une prédisposition sexuée. Le cas des hommes sages-femmes montre qu'il indispensable de croiser les dynamiques de masculinisation avec le contexte socio-professionnel

Cet article propose une exploration systematique de la geographie du sex-ratio juvenile en Inde. Une presentation cartographique a une micro-echelle inedite offre le point de depart a une evaluation de cette structuration geographique completee par une analyse geostatistique de l’autocorrelation spatiale. L’effet de la distance sur les variations des niveaux de discrimination de genre est ensuite mis en regard avec une mesure comparable des differentiations socio-economiques du sex-ratio juvenile. Cet examen comparatif permet de demontrer que la structuration geographique joue un role primordial dans l’heterogeneite des comportements discriminatoires de l’Inde contemporaine.

This research has been necessitated by the current situation in our society where victim behaviour is developing amongst children and adolescents relating to their changing gender roles. An identification of the causes of the formation of victim behaviour is based on an analysis of the gender characteristics of adolescents. The main research methods used are the Bass-Perry questionnaire and the modified Freiburg Personality Inventory/Form B (FPI-B). This uses a technique of personal orientation study for the identification of the typical forms of respondents' aggressive behaviour and some personality traits. This involves the allocation of four major types of personality orientation (humanistic, egocentric, sociocentric, negativistic). The deformation of gender stereotypes in modern society is reflected in the manifestation of victim behaviour. Level of aggression, as one of the signs of victimisation, is quite high both amongst boys and girls. Adolescents with a negativist personality orientation do not accept themselves or others and they prevail among this category. The research resulted in identifying some features of victim behaviour amongst adolescents of differing genders. No clear gendered features were identified that could be explained as the result of changing gender roles in contemporary society or of masculinisation phenomenon affecting females in particular.

« Pour les jeunes filles le choix entre “campagne et ville” ne constitue pas seulement un choix de lieu de vie mais un jeu de relation entre “dépendance et indépendance”. » C’est par cette phrase que le sociologue de la jeunesse Valmir Stropasolas, qui a essentiellement travaillé sur les enfants et les jeunes ruraux du Sud du Brésil, résume l’alternative face à laquelle se trouvent les filles des agriculteurs familiaux dans cette région du pays. Par une revue bibliographique et des témoignages récoltés sur le terrain au cours d’un travail de master, cet article propose une lecture de la place actuelle des filles dans les débats sur l’agriculture familiale dans une région du Brésil où celle-ci est encore prédominante. Partant du constat de la masculinisation des communautés rurales, nous verrons quels sont les différents aspects de la vie des filles, comment leur rôle est nié dans la propriété familiale (travail, décisions, héritage) et comment elles sont marginalisées dans la société rurale (socialisation, loisirs, reconnaissance). Cela nous amènera à nous demander si le départ en ville est pour elles un problème ou une solution, et quelles alternatives locales émergent. « For young girls, the choice between “countryside and urban area” is not only a choice of a place to live but also a play of relation opposing “dependence and independence” ». With this phrase, the Brazilian youth sociologist Valmir Stropasolas - who essentially worked on South Brazilian children and young country people - sums up the alternative that farmers daughters are facing in this region of the country. Through a literature review and testimonials collected in the field as part of a Master’s research, this article suggests a new reading of the current place of girls in the debates about family farming in a region of Brazil where it is known to still be a predominant issue. Considering the masculinization of rural communities we will consider the different aspects of these girls’ life, from their denied role in the family home (work, decisions, legacy) to their marginalization in the rural society in general (socialization, leisure, recognition). It will lead us to ask if leaving the countryside for the urban area is for the daughters a problem or a solution and what local alternatives are emerging today.

Sex in rainbow trout is primarily determined by a genetic male heterogametic system encoded by a master sex-determining gene sdY. However, the occurrence of spontaneous phenotypic males in all-female doubled haploid (DH) gynogenetic populations suggested that multiple sex-influencing loci could exist in trout as found in other species (tilapia, common carp, Atlantic salmon, zebrafish). In order to get further insight in the genetic determinism of this un-expected masculinization, we crossed a DH XX spontaneously sex-reversed male with a normal female. Two F1 females were then reproduced by mitogynogenesis and their DH progeny (n=168) were genotyped using RAD sequencing. A genome scan of 9500 markers was obtained resulting in a linkage map of 2860 cM. Several putative QTL regions have been identified suggesting that more than one mutation could be involved in the observed deviation from the strict XX/XY sex determinism system.

Phthalates provide one of the most documented example evidencing how much we must be cautious when using the traditional paradigm based on extrapolation of experimental data from rodent studies for human health risk assessment of endocrine disruptors (EDs). Since foetal testis is known as one of the most sensitive targets of EDs, phthalate risk assessment is routinely based on the capacity of such compounds to decrease testosterone production by the testis or to impair masculinization in the rat during foetal life. In this paper, the well-established inhibiting effects of phthalates of the foetal Leydig cells function in the rat are briefly reviewed. Then, data obtained in humans and other species are carefully analysed. Already in January 2009, using the organotypic culture system named Fetal Testis Assay (FeTA) that we developed, we reported that phthalates might not affect testosterone production in human foetal testes. Several recent experimental studies using xenografts confirm the absence of detectable anti-androgenic effect of phthalates in the human foetal testes. Epidemiological studies led to contradictory results. Altogether, these findings suggest that phthalates effects on foetal Leydig cells are largely species-specific. Consequently, the phthalate threshold doses that disturb foetal steroidogenesis in rat testes and that are presently used to define the acceptable daily intake levels for human health protection must be questioned. This does not mean that phthalates are safe because these compounds have many deleterious effects upon germ cell development that may be common to the different studied species including human. More generally, the identification of common molecular, cellular or/and phenotypic targets in rat and human testes should precede the choice of the toxicological endpoint in rat to accurately assess the safety threshold of any ED in humans.En toxicologie réglementaire, l’évaluation du risque sanitaire d’un perturbateur endocrinien (PE) est basée sur le paradigme traditionnel qui consiste à extrapoler à l’espèce humaine les données obtenues chez l’animal. Les phtalates fournissent un des exemples les mieux documentés montrant combien nous devons être prudents dans cette démarche. Le testicule fœtal est une cible privilégiée des PE et l’évaluation du risque sanitaire des phtalates a été construite sur la capacité de ces produits à inhiber la production testiculaire de testostérone ou à réduire la masculinisation pendant la vie fœtale chez le rat. Dans cet article, nous présentons brièvement les effets inhibiteurs bien connus des phtalates sur les fonctions des cellules de Leydig fœtales chez le rat. Puis nous détaillons les études effectuées chez l’homme et les autres espèces. Dès janvier 2009, en utilisant un système de culture organotypique original que nous avions mis au point et nommé hFeTA pour human Fetal Testis Assay, nous avons montré que les phtalates ne réduisent pas la production de testostérone par le testicule fœtal humain. En utilisant des modèles de xénogreffes, plusieurs études ont confirmé récemment l’absence d’effet antiandrogénique détectable des phtalates sur le testicule fœtal humain. Les études épidémiologiques ont conduits à des conclusions contradictoires. En définitive, l’effet des phtalates sur les cellules de Leydig fœtales est largement dépendant de l’espèce. En conséquence, on doit s’interroger sur le bien-fondé de l’utilisation actuelle de la dose minimale induisant un déficit de la stéroïdogenèse dans le testicule fœtal de rat pour définir les normes réglementaires d’exposition aux phtalates en santé humaine. Il faut noter que, bien que les phtalates semblent dépourvus d’effet antiandrogénique sur le testicule fœtal humain, ils ne sont pas sans danger puiqu’ils altèrent le développement de la lignée germinale chez l’Homme comme chez toutes les espèces étudiées. De façon plus générale, nous préconisions que l’identification de cibles moléculaires, cellulaires, et/ou phénotypiques communes au rat et à l’homme précéde le choix d’un paramètre critique utilisant le rat comme modèle en toxicologie réglementaire.

Salmonids are generally considered to have a robust genetic sex determination system with a simple male heterogamety (XX/XY). However, spontaneous masculinization of XX females has been found in a rainbow trout population of gynogenetic doubled haploid individuals. The analysis of this masculinization phenotype transmission supported the hypothesis of the involvement of a recessive mutation (termed mal). As temperature effect on sex differentiation has been reported in some salmonid species, in this study we investigated in detail the potential implication of temperature on masculinization in this XX mal-carrying population. Seven families issued from XX mal-carrying parents were exposed from the time of hatching to different rearing water temperatures ((8, 12 and 18°C), and the resulting sex-ratios were confirmed by histological analysis of both gonads. Our results demonstrate that masculinization rates are strongly increased (up to nearly two fold) at the highest temperature treatment (18°C). Interestingly, we also found clear differences between temperatures on the masculinization of the left versus the right gonads with the right gonad consistently more often masculinized than the left one at lower temperatures (8 and 12°C). However, the masculinization rate is also strongly dependent on the genetic background of the XX mal-carrying families. Thus, masculinization in XX mal-carrying rainbow trout is potentially triggered by an interaction between the temperature treatment and a complex genetic background potentially involving some part of the genetic sex differentiation regulatory cascade along with some minor sex-influencing loci. These results indicate that despite its rather strict genetic sex determinism system, rainbow trout sex differentiation can be modulated by temperature, as described in many other fish species.

Due to the genuine advantages of this species (fast growth, spontaneous breeding in captivity), the aquaculture production of tilapias, and especially of the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.), has been growing steadily over the past 30 years. Nevertheless, the success of this production is largely dependent on the sex control efficiency, in order to take advantage of the better growth of males and to avoid uncontrolled breeding that can cause crowding and dwarfism. The use of male monosex populations has thus become a standard in tilapia aquaculture since the 1970s. The dietary administration of 17α-methyltestosterone (17MT) is still the major masculinising procedure used in tilapia farming nowadays. However, it raises issues concerning the environment, fish farmers and consumers'health. More recently, alternatives to hormonal sex reversal have been evaluated, i.e. the use of YY males, treatment using aromatase inhibitors or elevated temperatures during the early life stages. In the present study, the effects of fadrozole (an aromatase inhibitor), elevated temperatures and 17MT have been compared on the survival and growth of XX fish, and as regards to the expression patterns in the brain and gonads of key genes implicated in fish sex differentiation. Comparisons seen in these induced-males were performed with genetic XX females and XY males. The growth rates of fish raised at elevated temperature were similar to those of genetic males, thereby emphasizing the relevance of this method as an alternative to hormonal sex reversal of Nile tilapia, when using highly thermosensitive strains. Whether the growth of tilapia is stimulated by androgens or depressed by estrogens is discussed. The analysis of expression profiles of the genes involved in sexual differentiation reveals different patterns in the brain and in the gonads. Amh and cyp19a1b are strongly stimulated in the brain of XX neomales treated by elevated temperatures. Conversely, amh is inhibited in the brain of fish treated with fadrozole, suggesting that amh is directed or indirectly regulated by aromatase. In the gonads of XX neomales, the levels of dmrt1 and amh are much higher than in genetic XY males. Further studies should analyse a) the fertility of neomales, b) the plasmatic levels of steroids and proteins, c) the histology and immunohistochemistry of the brain and the gonads, and d) the expression of other genes.Keywords : Nile tilapia / Masculinisation / Temperature / Hormones / Growth / Genes; La production de tilapias et surtout celle du tilapia du Nil Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) connaît depuis 30 ans, une impressionnante croissance liée à ses nombreux atouts pour l'aquaculture. Toutefois, le contrôle du sexe conditionne la rentabilité de cette filière. En effet chez le tilapia du Nil le mâle présente une meilleure croissance que la femelle. Depuis les années 70, la production de populations monosexes mâles de tilapia du Nil est pratiquée dans la quasi-totalité des fermes aquacoles afin de bénéficier de la meilleure croissance des mâles par rapport aux femelles et de contrôler la reproduction précoce et continue chez cette espèce. Actuellement, l'inversion hormonale du sexe par la 17α-methyltestosterone (17MT) constitue la technique la plus utilisée pour produire les cohortes monosexes mâles. Toutefois, l'utilisation des hormones pour la production de poissons marchands soulève de nombreuses questions relevant de la sécurité alimentaire comme de la protection des travailleurs piscicoles et de l'environnement. D'autres approches sont donc recherchées. Elles reposent sur des approches génétiques, ou sur les effets masculinisants des fortes températures ou enfin sur l'utilisation d'anti-aromatase. Dans cette thèse, nous avons comparé les effets de trois traitements, utilisant respectivement la 17MT, le fadrozole (un inhibiteur de l'aromatase) et les fortes températures, sur des caractères d'intérêt zootechniques (survie, croissance) et sur l'expression de gènes clés de la différenciation du sexe dans les gonades et dans le cerveau des mâles induits (mâles 17MT, mâles anti-aromatase et thermo-néomâles). Parallèlement les mêmes analyses ont été menées sur des mâles et des femelles génétiques. Les fortes températures produisent des mâles dont la croissance est similaire à celle des mâles génétiques, confortant l'idée que les traitements thermiques pourraient constituer une alternative écologique aux utilisations des hormones pour la production de populations monosexes mâles chez le tilapia, sous réserve de sélectionner des souches à forte thermosensibilité. Le rôle positif des androgènes et/ou l'effet inhibiteur des œstrogènes sur la croissance est discuté. L'analyse des profils d'expression de gènes clés de la différenciation sexuelle suggère des régulations différentes dans le cerveau et dans les gonades. En particulier, l'amh et cyp19a1b sont très fortement stimulées dans le cerveau des mâles traités par la température ; inversement l'amh est inhibée dans le cerveau des individus traités par le fadrozole, suggérant une régulation directe ou indirecte de l'amh par l'aromatase. Dans les gonades des mâles induits, les niveaux de dmrt1 et amh sont surexprimés par rapport à ce qui est observé chez les mâles génétiques. Ce travail mériterait d'être complété par a) des études sur la fertilité des mâles induits b) des dosages des taux circulants de stéroïdes et de protéines dans le plasma c) des analyses histologiques ou immunohistochimiques du cerveau et des gonades et d) l'étude de l'expression d'autres gènes.Mots-clés : Tilapia du Nil / Masculinisation / Température / Hormones / Croissance / Gènes

Dans plusieurs pays d’Europe orientale, le rapport de masculinité à la naissance est anormalement élevé. C’est en particulier le cas dans le Sud du Caucase (Arménie, Azerbaïdjan et Géorgie) où il a pu dépasser 115 garçons pour 100 filles, et dans une moindre mesure dans l’Ouest des Balkans, autour de l’Albanie, où il se situe autour de 110 (contre 105 normalement). La persistance de valeurs traditionnelles patriarcales demeure au coeur de la préférence pour les naissances masculines dans ces régions, mais la baisse récente de la fécondité et l’émergence d’une offre moderne de services de santé, consécutives au changement de régime politique et économique, ont renforcé le souhait de sélection prénatale en fonction du sexe.

Background Empirical evaluations of sexually dimorphic expression of genes on the mammalian X-chromosome are needed to understand the evolutionary forces and the gene-regulatory mechanisms controlling this chromosome. We performed a large-scale sex-bias expression analysis of genes on the X-chromosome in six different somatic tissues from mouse. Results Our results show that the mouse X-chromosome is enriched with female-biased genes and depleted of male-biased genes. This suggests that feminisation as well as de-masculinisation of the X-chromosome has occurred in terms of gene expression in non-reproductive tissues. Several mechanisms may be responsible for the control of female-biased expression on chromosome X, and escape from X-inactivation is a main candidate. We confirmed escape in case of Tmem29 using RNA-FISH analysis. In addition, we identified novel female-biased non-coding transcripts located in the same female-biased cluster as the well-known coding X-inactivation escapee Kdm5c, likely transcribed from the transition-region between active and silenced domains. We also found that previously known escapees only partially explained the overrepresentation of female-biased X-genes, particularly for tissue-specific female-biased genes. Therefore, the gene set we have identified contains tissue-specific escapees and/or genes controlled by other sexually skewed regulatory mechanisms. Analysis of gene age showed that evolutionarily old X-genes (>100 myr, preceding the radiation of placental mammals) are more frequently female-biased than younger genes. Conclusion Altogether, our results have implications for understanding both gene regulation and gene evolution of mammalian X-chromosomes, and suggest that the final result in terms of the X-gene composition (masculinisation versus feminisation) is a compromise between different evolutionary forces acting on reproductive and somatic tissues.

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Writing 60 years apart from each other, Madeleine Pelletier (The Feminist Education of Girls, 1914) and Elena Gianini Belotti (What Are Little Girls Made Of?, 1973), two of the few feminist authors to explicitly discuss the raising of children, appear to propose one and the same solution for achieving a more egalitarian socialization: masculinize the girls. Does this mean that feminists regard the values hitherto inculcated in young girls as inferior to those instilled in boys? Or is it simply more difficult to change the way in which we raise boys? This article examines how contemporary feminist theories can inform a new approach to education. http://www.scielo.oces.mctes.pt/pdf/aeq/n23/n23a12.pdf, A 60 ans d'écart, deux des rares féministes ayant écrit sur l'éducation, Madeleine Pelletier (L'Éducation féministe des filles, 1914) et Elena Gianini Belotti (Du côté des petites filles, 1973) semblent proposer une même chose pour parvenir à une socialisation égalitaire: masculiniser les filles. Cela signifie-t-il que les féministes tiennent toutes les valeurs inculquée jusqu'alors aux filles pour moins bonnes que celles proposées aux garçons? Ou est-il est plus difficile de changer la façon dont sont élevés les petits hommes? On montrera en quoi certaines théories féministes actuelles permettent de renouveler notre approche de l'éducation. http://www.scielo.oces.mctes.pt/pdf/aeq/n23/n23a12.pdf

Les discriminations de genre prennent des traits singuliers en Asie car elles se sont traduites au cours du XXe siecle par des desequilibres demographiques consequents entre populations masculines et feminines. L’emergence recente de l’avortement sexoselectif comme nouvelle methode pour eviter des naissances feminines non desirees a entraine une deterioration rapide du sex ratio de la population juvenile, avec une proportion croissante des garcons dans les generations nees depuis 1990. A l’aide de microdonnees du recensement, le present article trace les contours geographiques specifiques a la discrimination entre les sexes en Chine et Inde, faisant notamment apparaitre comment la carte des sex ratios reflete des variations interregionales accentuees dans chacun de ces deux pays. Alors que l’Inde suit un modele spatial centre autour de quelques regions identifiables, la carte de la Chine renvoie a une situation bien plus segmentee, caracterisee par des disparites locales prononcees et un risque de sous-declaration. L’article etudie egalement le role des trois principales instances des comportements demographiques – les systemes de parente, les forces du marche et les actions gouvernementales – dans la situation actuelle et pour les scenarios futurs de la masculinisation demographique de ces pays.

INTRODUCTION: Since the 1980s, sex ratio at birth (male births per 100 female births) has increased in many Asian countries as a result of selective abortions, but to date there has been no such evidence for Viet Nam. Our aim in this paper is to ascertain the situation with respect to sex ratio at birth in Viet Nam over the past five years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Original data were obtained from sample population surveys in Viet Nam recording annual birth rates since 2000 of about 450,000 women, as well as from two successive birth surveys conducted for the first time in 2007 (1.1 million births). The annual population surveys include specific information on birth history and mothers' characteristics to be used for the analysis of trends and differentials in sex ratio at birth. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Birth history statistics indicate that the SRB in Viet Nam has recorded a steady growth since 2001. Starting from a level probably close to the biological standard of 105, the SRB reached 108 in 2005 and 112 in 2006, a value significantly above the normal level. An independent confirmation of these results comes from the surveys of births in health facilities which yielded a SRB of 110 in 2006-07. High SRB is linked to various factors such as access to modern health care, number of prenatal visits, level of higher education and employment status, young age, province of residence and prenatal sex determination. These results suggest that prenatal sex determination followed by selective abortion has recently become more common in Viet Nam. This recent trend is a consequence of various factors such as preference for sons, declining fertility, easy access to abortion, economic development as well as the increased availability of ultrasonography facilities.

Véritables exceptions statistiques, les femmes sont une bonne " entrée " pour révéler certaines dimensions de la socialisation professionnelle en chirurgie. Il s'agit ici d'étudier le contenu de la socialisation professionnelle (qu'est-ce qui se transmet ?) et les modalités concrètes de perpétuation de cette culture chirurgicale (comment cela se transmet ?). L'analyse est centrée sur l'étape de l'internat. Les femmes qui entrent en chirurgie ont déjà un patrimoine dispositionnel les y préparant. Toutefois, leur insertion professionnelle ne s'est pas faite sans une certaine masculinisation. Cette application à faire oublier que l'on est une femme témoigne de la prégnance des valeurs viriles dans la profession. Par les observations de terrain nous nous sommes efforcée de voir les mécanismes concrets par lesquels la domination masculine opère et recrute des candidats. Sur le terrain par exemple on a pu constater que les plaisanteries grivoises et sexistes contribuent efficacement à l'éviction des femmes. Les mêmes processus qui contribuent à évincer certaines externes en attirent d'autres et les façonnent encore. La socialisation professionnelle prend appui sur les expériences socialisatrices passées et les retravaille.

This thesis explores the lives and experiences of farm women through identifying and elaborating their changing subjectivities as 'farm wives': a career entered through marriage rather than by vocational preference. It does this through using auto/ethnographic and ethnographic approaches in a study that engaged nine informants principally, but many more through its conduct. Importantly, the thesis gives voice and legitimacy to the place and dreams of women on farms and it has exposed silences that have been 'a shelter for power'. This exposé has been a revelation to those farming women and men who have lived secluded, private lives furiously protecting a myth of the farm 'wife' as fulfilled and happy while living life vicariously, largely through her husband's achievements. Issues of power, gender, isolation and entrapment are revealed through advancing issues of subjective change within a zealous and often unforgiving culture where the myth and propaganda do not match the realities of these women's lives. Maintaining self and maintaining culture far from being manifested as times of stability, require some volatility as they both command transformative and, sometimes, contradictory change to sustain the woman's humanness while ensuring the sustainability of the New Zealand icon – the family farm. Central to the resolution of how farming women sustain and transform their 'selves', are their capacities for intentionality, agency and empowerment. An ability to negotiate or renegotiate a life for one's 'self' is entangled in the complex web of relations between farm, work, family and culture. While influenced by personal intent and agency, this sense of self is informed by one's personal history. Intentionality, then, is a critical concept to consider in attempting to isolate motivational drives; in seeking resolution for such dilemmas. Intention comprises individual agency exercised as personal choice, as opposed to social agency constrained in the form of pressure to conform and meet cultural expectations. However, many of these women have difficulty isolating personal intention due to social and cultural intent dominating their thinking and actions to a point where they sub-consciously take ownership of those objectives. It seems from the participating women, though, that a drive for self-knowledge is compelling. Advanced here is an elaboration of how these 'farm wives' negotiated, reconstructed and reshaped their sense of self, and, at times, also strongly resisted and dis-identified with the social world in which they found themselves unwittingly, and at times unwillingly embedded. Calls are made for challenging and changing cultural expectations while prioritising women's needs. Key contributions concern the salience of : (1) the central role of 'becoming' and 'belonging' as a function of managing geographical, psychosocial, financial, emotional, intellectual and genderised isolations, along with negotiating a culture of masculinisation; (2) maintenance of self existing as a function of a sense of belonging, without which maintenance is elusive and issues of entrapment often manifest as matriarchal power and control between competing generations of women; (3) maintenance and transformation of one's 'self' critically requiring strength of personal agency; and (4) the negotiations of women who continue to defy the norms, reasserting resistance while negotiating 'self' and in doing so transform both their 'self' and their culture. Needs for further enquiry are raised regarding: the cultural relationships between patriarchy and matriarchy and ensuing entrapments; the cultural lag of farming culture in regard to feminist change; and the sustainability of individuals struggling to 'belong' to a culture not of their choosing. Saliently, this research has resonated with New Zealand farming women of all ages and also with young farming men who are struggling with the resistance of young women to marry onto farms. The response, while challenging, indicates strong relevance and critical need.

Background Fish gonadal sex differentiation is affected by sex steroids treatments providing an efficient strategy to control the sexual phenotype of fish for aquaculture purposes. However, the biological effects of such treatments are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to identify the main effects of an androgen masculinizing treatment (11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, 11βOHΔ4, 10 mg/kg of food for 3 months) on gonadal gene expression profiles of an all-female genetic population of trout. To characterize the most important molecular features of this process, we used a large scale gene expression profiling approach using rainbow trout DNA microarrays combined with a detailed gene ontology (GO) analysis. Results 2,474 genes were characterized as up-regulated or down-regulated in trout female gonads masculinized by androgen in comparison with control male or female gonads from untreated all-male and all-female genetic populations. These genes were classified in 13 k-means clusters of temporally correlated expression profiles. Gene ontology (GO) data mining revealed that androgen treatment triggers a marked down-regulation of genes potentially involved in early oogenesis processes (GO 'mitotic cell cycle', 'nucleolus'), an up-regulation of the translation machinery (GO 'ribosome') along with a down-regulation of proteolysis (GO 'proteolysis', 'peptidase' and 'metallopeptidase activity'). Genes considered as muscle fibres markers (GO 'muscle contraction') and genes annotated as structural constituents of the extracellular matrix (GO 'extracellular matrix') or related to meiosis (GO 'chromosome' and 'meiosis') were found significantly enriched in the two clusters of genes specifically up-regulated in androgen-treated female gonads. GO annotations 'Sex differentiation' and 'steroid biosynthesis' were enriched in a cluster of genes with high expression levels only in control males. Interestingly none of these genes were stimulated by the masculinizing androgen treatment. Conclusion This study provides evidence that androgen masculinization results in a marked dysregulation of early gene expression profiles when compared to natural testicular or ovarian differentiation. Based on these results we suggest that, in our experimental conditions, androgen masculinization proceeds mainly through an early inhibition of female development.

International audience

International audience