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Background: Previous studies have shown that the distribution of older people by living arrangement has changed and that old-age mortality differs by living arrangement. However, how these changes affect the total number of deaths has not been investigated. Objective: Our aim is to differentiate the effects on mortality of the change in the distribution of the population and the change in mortality rates associated with each type of living arrangement. Methods: Continuous observation of the population aged 60 and older for the period 1991-2012 in Belgium provides a unique opportunity to analyze changes in the population and in mortality by living arrangement. A simple decomposition method is used to examine to what extent these changes have influenced the total number of deaths. Results: The distribution of the population by living arrangement and the age-standardised mortality rates by living arrangement have changed remarkably. The overall effects of these changes on the total number of deaths offset each other, whereas the distribution of the number of deaths by living arrangement displays a large variation. Conclusions: This paper shows important changes in the distribution of the population and in mortality rates by living arrangement but only limited change in the total number of deaths. An important change occurred in the distribution of the population by their last living arrangement before death. Contribution: This paper highlights long-term trends in population and mortality rates by living arrangement in older age and also the distribution of the last living arrangement before death, which has important implications concerning care of the most elderly.

espanolEste trabajo investiga medidas alternativas de esperanza de vida que tienen en cuenta aspectos distributivos en relacion a la duracion de la vida en la generacion de una tabla de vida de periodo. La practica totalidad de la literatura que estudio la desigualdad en el tiempo de vida utiliza el instrumental derivado de la medicion de la desigualdad en la distribucion de la renta, centrandose en la esperanza de vida y la desigualdad como aspectos separados, aunque relacionados. El trabajo propone un marco alternativo integrado que permite combinar ambas dimensiones en un unico indice, y proporciona una derivacion axiomatica que conduce a una familia concreta de indices. Los indices propuestos se ilustran con una aplicacion a partir de la Human Mortality Database. EnglishThis paper investigates alternative measures of life expectancy that take into account distributional considerations in the length of life of the generation in a period life table. Virtually all the literature studying inequality in the length of life distribution has used inequality tools from the income distribution analysis, focusing on life expectancy and inequality as separate, albeit related, issues. We propose an alternative, integrated framework that allows us to combine both dimensions in a single index, and provide an axiomatic derivation that delivers the particular indexes to be used given a set of axioms. We illustrate the proposed index using data from the Human Mortality Database.

The double standard represents a standard of good behaviour that, unfairly, some people are expected to follow or achieve, but others are not. Once neglected by social scientists, the double standard in sexual attitudes has become more and more studied. In this paper, we inquire about the existence of the double standard in opinions regarding peers’ sexual behaviours and study its determinants. What makes young people judge the sexual behaviour of women in a more conservative way than that of men? The paper uses data collected from Italian university students, who are asked to express their (dis)approval of a series of sexual behaviours, considering peers of either gender participating in those behaviours. The results show that the double standard exists and has been persistent amid Italian undergraduate students over the last 20 years, and that the cultural context matters more than the family in shaping students’ beliefs.

Background: Recent years have witnessed a surge in studies that examine the education and health consequences of parental migration on children. Most studies focus on the short-term consequences and there is an urgent need to study the long-term consequences. Objective: Capitalizing on a unique survey in China, we aim to study the lasting educational and health consequences of parental migration on children. Methods: We measure respondents' experiences of being left behind during different stages of life, namely prior to elementary school, during elementary school, and during middle school. Among people who have experienced being left behind, we further classify the experience into several categories such as left behind with grandparents and left behind with others. We estimate a variety of regression models taking into account respondents' different living arrangements when growing up. Results: We find that being left behind with grandparents during the elementary school stage compromises educational attainment. Individuals who were left behind with others during primary school were more likely to have poor self-rated and mental health at the time of the survey. The long-term educational and health consequences of parental migration raise new concerns for today's left-behind children. Conclusions: We show that parental migration, especially during elementary school years, is likely to have long term consequences for children's educational and health outcomes. Contribution: We show that parental migration has long-term consequences for children's educational and health outcomes.

Background: Although the Chinese education system has seen massive improvements over the past few decades, there are still large academic achievement gaps between rural and urban areas that threaten China's long-term development. In addition, recent literature underscores the importance of early childhood development (ECD) in later-life human capital development. Objective: We analyze the life cycle of cognitive development and learning outcomes in rural Chinese children by first exploring whether ECD outcomes affect cognition levels, then determining whether cognitive delays persist as children grow, and finally examining connections between cognition and education outcomes. Methods: We combine data from four recent studies that examine different age groups (0-3, 4-5, 10-11, 13-14) to track cognitive outcomes. Results: First, we find that ECD outcomes for children in rural China are poor, with almost one in two children who are cognitively delayed. Second, we find that these cognitive delays seem to persist into middle school, with almost 37Š of rural junior high school students who are cognitively delayed. Finally, we show that cognition has a close relationship to academic achievement. Conclusions: Our results suggest that urban-rural gaps in academic achievement originate at least in part from differences in ECD outcomes. Contribution: Although many papers have analyzed ECD, human capital, and inequality separately, this is the first paper to explicitly connect and combine these topics to analyze the life cycle of cognitive development in the context of rural China.

Background: The economic reforms of the last thirty years have produced a dramatic improvement in the standard of living in China. However, the concurrent social transformation has also created both stresses and challenges for Chinese families. While researchers have paid considerable attention to the headline demographic statistics accompanying these economic and social transformations, the nuanced ways in which Chinese society has changed and continues to change since the reforms are less understood. Contribution: This special collection uses the life course framework, which has emerged as an important organizing concept within demographic studies, to examine constancy and change in Chinese society since the reforms of the late 1990s. By framing life events as the result of decisions that are influenced by and sometimes are direct responses to China's modernization, and investigating how these decisions collectively affect and reshape Chinese society, the papers in this collection provide a rich way of interpreting and understanding demographic changes in China.

Background: Studies in previous decades have shown that patterns of intergenerational coresidence in China have been diminishing. However, few studies have documented the level of intergenerational coresidence for a wide range of ages. Furthermore, most studies on the topic are based on data collected more than 10 years ago. Objective: In this study, we document the intergenerational coresidence patterns of a wide range of ages, from 25 to 60, in urban China. We employ updated national data collected in 2013 that covers 2,585 counties in China. Methods: We conducted three sets of analysis. The first set includes all cases. For the second set, we kept cases with at least one parent living in the same city and conducted the same analysis as in the first set. The dependent variable of these two sets of analysis is whether the adult child coresides with at least one parent. The third set includes only those adult children who do not live with their parents. We explore the probability of adult children at different ages living in the same city as their parents. Results: There is a U-shaped relationship between the age of adult children and the predicted probability of coresidence with parents. The predicted probability of intergenerational coresidence is higher among younger and older adult children, although it remains low at all ages. More importantly, among those living separately, we found a positive linear relationship between the age of the adult child and the predicted probability of living in the same city. Contribution: The findings suggest that coresidence of parents and adult children is no longer a dominant intergenerational living arrangement pattern in urban China. Living separately but close has become a dominant pattern.

Background: In Uruguay, the recent phase of fertility decline started in the late 1990s, a decade after deep changes in the family dynamics took root in the country. The order and timing of the two phenomena gave weight to the notion that the changes in the family dynamics caused fertility to drop below population replacement level. Objective: Our goal is to assess whether or not separation, divorce, and repartnering have been related to the recent decrease in fertility in Uruguay. Methods: We use data from a retrospective survey and a three-pronged strategy: (1) we compare the contribution to fertility and its evolution across cohorts of three broad steps of the conjugal history; (2) we estimate the effect of each of these steps on the hazard of having the next child; (3) we predict and compare the fertility, actual and counterfactual, of women who ended and women who did not end their first union. We investigate especially how union dissolution affects fertility and how patterns vary by educational levels. Results: Ending the first union reduces the fertility of Uruguayan women, and this reduction was larger among the low-educated women from the oldest cohort than it is in the youngest one. It could be very small among the highly educated of the youngest cohort. Contribution: We show that among Uruguayan women, the negative effect of union dissolution on fertility seems to decrease as dissolution becomes more common and occurs earlier, and that changes in family dynamics likely did not cause fertility to drop below population replacement level.

The article is a continuation of the article (Raysikh 2020), where the problem of defining the boundaries of urban agglomerations or delineating urban agglomerations based on world experience was formulated. At the same time, it was emphasized that the methodology for assessing the boundaries of urban agglomerations should be based, on the one hand, on the source data available to all countries, and, on the other hand, on accumulated world experience, ensuring an acceptable approximation to many already used models of delimitation. The purpose of this article is to develop and test a model of the delimitation of urban agglomerations based on international and domestic experience and suitable for the conditions of Russia and other countries of the world. Based on the available data, the results of using various methods of urban agglomeration delimitation were analyzed, and their advantages and disadvantages were identified. As a result, the author's model of urban agglomeration delimitation was proposed. The assessment of the composition and boundaries of urban agglomerations in Russia made on this basis showed a fairly high degree of approximation to existing models of urban agglomeration delimitation (which, as a rule, are based on the use of raw data that are not evaluated by statistical agencies in most countries of the world, including Russia).

В России, как и в большинстве других стран, основная нагрузка по уходу за пожилыми и инвалидами ложится на родственников. В статье на основе данных обследования «Комплексное наблюдение условий жизни населения» Росстата за 2018 г. проанализировано влияние родственного ухода на положение ухаживающих лиц. В частности, показано, что люди трудоспособного возраста, ухаживающие за родственниками, реже имеют работу; чаще работают неполный рабочий день или неполную рабочую неделю; чаще имеют хронические заболевания и более низкую самооценку здоровья. Интенсивный уход (более 20 часов в неделю) усиливает негативное влияние на занятость и самооценку здоровья. Среди лиц трудоспособного возраста, осуществляющих интенсивный родственный уход, выше доля бедных и крайне бедных и ниже доля лиц со среднедушевым доходом выше двукратной величины прожиточного минимума. Это свидетельствует о необходимости создания комплексной системы мер, направленных на поддержку родственников, осуществляющих уход, включая меры по сохранению занятости и развитию гибких форм занятости на рынке труда, расширению охвата лиц, имеющих родственников и нуждающихся в уходе, программами временного и дневного ухода, по оказанию консультационной поддержки родственников и организации очного и дистанционного обучения родственников навыкам ухода. Усиление поддержки родственников, осуществляющих уход, позволит людям пожилого возраста и инвалидам, нуждающимся в уходе, как можно дольше оставаться дома в привычных условиях и получать при этом качественный уход.

This article explores the geodemographic dynamics of the Russian population of the near abroad in the post-Soviet period. It analyzes the quantitative changes and transformation of its geography, the level of urbanization and the gender and age structure. The study showed that in the post-Soviet period there was a sharp decline in the number of Russians in all neighboring countries. This process was most intensive in the 1990s. The maximum demographic losses during this period were suffered by the Russian population of Transcaucasia and a number of countries in Central Asia. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the rate and absolute scale of decline are decreasing, but the trend itself remains stable. This is associated with the natural decline of the Russian population, its migration to Russia and foreign countries, and assimilation. The relationship of these factors to the quantitative decline has varied across time and across individual countries. In almost all Russian communities, a significant preponderance of women is recorded. The median age of Russians in all neighboring countries is more than 40 years. The level of urbanization of Russians in most neighboring countries has decreased. Better preserved are the metropolitan and rural Russian populations. The demographic ratio of the Russian communities of individual countries and macroregions has changed. The number of Russians in Kazakhstan and Ukraine (without the people's republics of Donbass) is already comparable, and there are more Russians in the Baltic countries than in Central Asia. Russian communities of unrecognized (partially recognized) states are characterized by increased demographic stability.

This article is written on the basis of a survey conducted for the Agency for Strategic Initiatives by the Public Opinion Foundation and other surveys. The research is devoted, on the one hand, to the reproductive attitudes of men aged 18-55 years and women 18-45 years old. On the other hand, it explores how people relate to measures of demographic policy – both those already existing and those under consideration – and to their effectiveness. The research shows that the most desired family model in terms of the number of children has not changed over the past ten years. People still want (in ideal conditions) two children. However, people’s desires don’t fully coincide with their intentions. Only one fourth of respondents say that they plan to have another child. The rest are stopped by material difficulties – a lack of stable sources of income sufficient for the birth and upbringing of another child. For this (but not only this) reason, the most popular demographic measures today are material – the maternity capital, the repayment of mortgage obligations for large families, and a monthly childcare allowance until the child reaches 1.5 years of age. Demographers, however, doubt the effectiveness of such measures in terms of increasing birth rates, and the survey data confirm their doubts. Despite the fact that most respondents believe that demographic policies affect fertility, only a few took them into account when deciding whether or not to have a baby.

Erythropotamos is a tributary of river Evros and during the last decade its drainage basin flooded many times, causing extensive damage on properties. In order to assess flood susceptibility in the aforementioned study area, the inundated areas of floods that occurred in 2010, 2017 and 2018 were initially delineated with the aid of SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) imagery by applying an established flood delineation methodology. Subsequently, flood susceptibility mapping was conducted for the study area by applying the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Topographical, hydrological and meteorological factors were used and each one of them was classified into three (3) flood susceptibility categories (low, medium and high). The determination of the importance for each factor over the others, which is the main objective of this research, was decided according to the proportion of the 2010 inundated area, captured by ENVISAT/ASAR imagery, which intersected with each factor’s high susceptibility class. Finally, the resulting flood susceptibility map was validated according with the inundated areas of the 2017 and 2018 flood events, captured by SENTINEL – 1 A/B imagery, indicating that approximately 60% of both of these areas intersected with the map’s high susceptibility zone.

Задача данного исследования – выявить социально-экономические и демографические факторы, а также характеристики системы здравоохранения и оперативные меры, принятые в борьбе с новой коронавирусной инфекцией COVID-19, которые способствовали скорейшей стабилизации эпидемической обстановки в разных странах. Для сравнения выбраны 14 стран: Белоруссия, Великобритания, Германия, Испания, Италия, Канада, Китай, Норвегия, Польша, США, Российская Федерация, Тайвань, Швеция и Южная Корея. Проведен анализ эпидемических (число выявленных случаев COVID-19 в расчете на 1 млн населения, летальность и смертность от этой инфекции на 100 тыс. населения, число проведенных диагностических тестов), демографических (средний возраст населения, плотность населения, ожидаемая продолжительность жизни – ОПЖ) и экономических (валовой внутренний продукт – ВВП на душу населения) показателей и оценено состояние системы здравоохранения (общие и государственные расходы на здравоохранение в процентах к ВВП; обеспеченность стационарными койками и практикующими врачами; модель государственного финансирования здравоохранения и управления им). Показано, что главными факторами, способствующими успеху в борьбе с распространением новой коронавирусной инфекции COVID-19, являются раннее реагирование и решительные действия; централизация управления регионами и санитарно-эпидемиологической службой во главе с министром здравоохранения; наличие единой для страны стратегии действий; проведение массового тестирования и быстрое отслеживание контактов зараженных; централизованное распределение средств индивидуальной защиты, лекарств и других расходных материалов, а также мониторинг потребности в них; использование передовых информационных технологий; достаточные мощности системы здравоохранения (наличие резервного коечного фонда и медицинских кадров); ежедневная информационная работа с населением, которая осуществляется специалистами и министром здравоохранения.

Измерение смертности от COVID–19 посредством прямого статистического наблюдения причин смерти сталкивается с рядом трудноустранимых препятствий, которые приводят к занижению летальности пандемии и подрывают международную сопоставимость данных. Альтернативой является косвенный демографический метод, состоящий в сопоставлении ожидаемой смертности (в отсутствие пандемии) с наблюдаемой смертностью от всех причин. Его применение приводит к выводу о чрезвычайной летальности COVID–19: в очагах пандемии уже состоявшиеся всплески смертности сопоставимы или превышают эффект абсолютного большинства всплесков смертности (разумеется, если не считать войн) за предшествующие 100 лет.

The integration of immigrants into Czech society is a key topic in the public debate as well as essentially a political issue. The most numerous groups, within a half-million migrant population, include Slovaks, Ukrainians, Vietnamese, and Russians. Such composition points out that Czechia is predominantly attractive to non-EU immigrants. This article focuses on the integration process of Russian immigrants into Czech society. Representing highly educated and financially well-secured migrants who come as entire families, the Russians are distinct from other Eastern European immigrants. However, various factors hinder their integration. The paper discusses the factors that shape symbolic and social boundaries in this integration process: (1) the development of Czech-Russian relationships that have been influenced by dramatic past events, (2) the representation of Russians in Czech media, (3) their specific socio-economic status, and (4) Czech immigration and integration policies. Negative experience, socio-economic inequalities, strict implementation of immigration policies towards third-country immigrants, and an unfavourable media discourse affect the attitudes of the majority toward the Russians and limit meaningful encounters.

En este artículo presentamos los resultados de un estudio sobre el inicio de la vida sexual en México, con la finalidad de detectar posibles cambios en su calendario y, en las circunstancias en las que se lleva a cabo, identificar distintos patrones de ocurrencia por cohortes para dar cuenta de los factores sociodemográficos que pueden ser predictores de esta experiencia. Con datos de la Encuesta Demográfica Retrospectiva (EDER) 2017 y mediante diversas técnicas estadísticas, obtuvimos resultados que confirman que en las cohortes más jóvenes estudiadas se registra un ligero adelanto en la edad de iniciación sexual. Observamos además notorias diferencias en las circunstancias en las que hombres y mujeres experimentan esta transición al considerar el tipo de localidad de residencia y el estrato social de origen. Constatamos también que en México sigue vigente un doble estándar de iniciación sexual marcado por el género. Finalmente, encontramos que la corresidencia en el hogar de los padres es un factor protector para hombres y mujeres, mientras que la asistencia a la escuela lo es para el caso femenino. En contraste, dejar la escuela, estar trabajando y haberse unido son fuertes predictores del riesgo de iniciarse sexualmente.

STUDY QUESTION Are women who fill a benzodiazepine prescription before conception at increased risk of ectopic pregnancy? SUMMARY ANSWER Risk of ectopic pregnancy is 50% higher among women who fill a benzodiazepine prescription before conception. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Benzodiazepine use in pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, adverse birth outcomes and adverse child development outcomes. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION Using data from US commercial insurance claims, we performed a cohort study of 1 691 366 pregnancies between 1 November 2008 and 30 September 2015. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS We identified ectopic pregnancies using diagnosis and procedure codes and used unadjusted and inverse probability of treatment (IPT)-weighted log-binomial models to calculate relative risks (RR) of ectopic pregnancy for pregnant women who did and did not fill any prescriptions for benzodiazepines in the 90 days before conception. Two sub-groups of women with specific indications for benzodiazepine use were also examined—women who had a least one diagnosis for anxiety disorder and women who had at least one diagnosis of insomnia in the year before conception. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Of the 1 691 366 pregnancies, 1.06% filled at least two benzodiazepine prescriptions totaling at least 10 days supply in the 90 days before conception. Among women with a benzodiazepine prescription, there was an excess of 80 ectopic pregnancies per 10 000 pregnancies, and their IPT-weighted risk of ectopic pregnancies was 1.47 (95% CI 1.32 to 1.63) times greater relative to women without benzodiazepine prescriptions before conception. The IPT-weighted RR between ectopic pregnancy and benzodiazepine use was 1.34 (95% CI 1.18 to 1.53) among women with anxiety disorder diagnoses and 1.28 (95% CI 0.99 to 1.68) among women with an insomnia diagnosis. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION We relied on outpatient prescription data to identify benzodiazepine use before conception, which could result in over- or under-estimation of actual benzodiazepine consumption. We relied on medical claim codes to identify pregnancies and conception date, which may result in misclassification of pregnancy outcomes and gestational length. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS This study found that women who have a benzodiazepine prescription before conception are at an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy. This information can help women, and their healthcare providers make more fully informed decisions about benzodiazepine use in their reproductive years. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) Funding for this project was provided by a Banting Postdoctoral Fellowship and a Stanford Maternal and Child Health Research Institute Postdoctoral Award. Data access for this project was provided by the Stanford Center for Population Health Sciences Data Core. The PHS Data Core is supported by a National Institutes of Health National Center for Advancing Translational Science Clinical and Translational Science Award (UL1 TR001085) and internal Stanford funding. The authors have no competing interest. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER N/A.

This study tries to elicit the unexplored nexus between the contraceptive failure and abortions in India’s most populous state Uttar Pradesh. Condom being the most used modern method contributes to 47% of all observed episodes in the calendar period. Of all accidental pregnancies occurred because of modern contraceptive failures, 35.2% terminated with induced abortions. Gross failure rate of modern methods is conspicuously higher for urban poor, uneducated women, and marginalized section of population living in urban area. From a total of 7496 episodes of all reversible methods, abortions are estimated as high as 29.2%, whereas for the traditional method it accounts for around 21%. The empirical evidence of induced abortions due to contraceptive failure put serious concern regarding unintended pregnancies and hence discourages fertility intentions among the potential couples.

Social taboos and stigmas around sexuality and non-marital sex in Indonesia have led to substantial underreporting of the prevalence of premarital sex. In this study, we explore underreporting amongst young adults in Greater Jakarta. We use the 2010 Greater Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey (GJTAS), a survey of more than 3000 people aged 20–34 years, to derive estimates of underreporting based on discrepancies reported in the timing of marriage, first child birth and first sexual intercourse and sexual activities. Survival and life table analyses are utilised to identify individual and societal predictors of premarital sex and its reporting and to estimate cumulative incidence across young adulthood. The results reveal substantial evidence of underreporting, particularly amongst women, arising from premarital pregnancies. We estimate that the proportion of the female cohort who will engage in premarital sex by the age of 35 years increases from 4.4 to 22% after taking into account evidence of underreporting. Premarital pregnancies and unreported premarital sex is found to be particularly common amongst lower educated people. This raises important questions for policy and research in terms of the provision of information and support for young couples and the methodological implications of substantial underreporting.

The Tokaj wine region has been declared as a historical landscape by the decree of the National Ministry of Human Capacities in 2012. The historical landscape is defined in the Act LXIV of 2001 on the Protection of Cultural Heritage as an area under the preservation of Historical Monuments. The Tokaj Wine Region is the only legally recognized historical landscape in Hungary. This protection aims to preserve the historical built and natural environment as well as the traditional land use methods. The historical landscape, in the case of Tokaj, is a legal tool to increase the heritage protection level of the wine region. Nevertheless, no further details have yet been communicated on the preservation method. In this matter, protection remains on the level of discourse which puts emphasis on the expected perspectives in territorial planning and development. It may create a narrative that might potentially transform the territory. The region of our case study has been inscribed as a cultural landscape on the UNESCO World Heritage List and was added to the World Heritage List in 2002. Besides, the national government recognized the region as a territory of priority development in 2014 and a territory of priority touristic development in 2017. The area in question is marked by the stark contrast between social inequality and the image of the prestigious wine sector. In this paper, after providing a discussion of the institutional background of the adoption of the historical landscape in Hungary, I describe the different protection tools from the perspective of heritage conservation in order to reflect on the conception of the historical landscape: how was the region recognized as a historical landscape, and what was the purpose of this recognition? The main aim of the paper is to analyse the institutional process that led to the integration of a new object of protection in Hungary, called historical landscape.

The aim is to assess the susceptibility of the regional economy to shocks associated with unexpected changes in institutional rules, trading instruments, as well as accession to international organizations. The impulse response approach to the study of shocks served as a methodological basis. The authors propose and test a new methodological approach that consists in identifying regions characterized by persistent development or a potential for changing the gross regional product as a response to an external shock impulse. It also allows to determine resonant factors that affect the vulnerability, depth and scale of economic consequences. The study reveals that an external institutional shock influences the economic development of regions in various ways, which is due to a number of vulnerability factors. This leads to the formation of territories that differ in the level of susceptibility to shocks and possess the ability to maintain the trend of economic development.

Background: The fertility transition started later in sub-Saharan Africa than in other regions of the world. Moreover, the average number of children per woman declined more slowly there, owing to a distinct mechanism of fertility reduction. It has been argued that the fertility decline in sub-Saharan Africa proceeded through an increase in birth intervals rather than by a limitation of the number of births. Objective: We analyze the fertility transitions in 29 countries to determine which mechanism women resort to in order to reduce their number of children. Methods: Using multiple sample surveys, we estimate and cross-validate trends in parity progression ratios and birth intervals. We identify sub-regional regularities and vanguard trends in the interplay between the dynamics of the lengthening of birth intervals and birth limitation over the period 1962‒2012. Results: While initial fertility declines were driven by a lengthening of birth intervals at all parities, we observe a recent onset of birth limitation in regions and countries that are most advanced in the fertility transition. Conclusions: The experience of sub-Saharan Africa shows that if all parities contribute to the fertility transition from the outset, the main drivers of the fertility decline switch from a lengthening of birth intervals to a limitation of family size when the average fertility reaches about five children per woman. Contribution: Our findings point to the emergence of birth limitation as a new stage in the fertility transition in sub-Saharan Africa. These results have implications for future fertility declines in sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: In post-Soviet countries, low fertility has been achieved through postponement of second birth, while entrance into parenthood still takes place relatively early in life and within marriage. Studies suggest that grandparental support with childcare drives this reproductive behaviour. However, we still know little about the exact way in which decisions about first parenthood are shaped by family relationships, especially with respect to the expected and actual support they exert. Objective: This paper explores how family relationships - spousal and intergenerational - influenced decisions to enter parenthood in Ukraine between 1950 and 1975, when fertility there declined below the replacement level for the first time. Methods: A total of 66 qualitative life-history interviews were conducted with women and men from the Ukrainian cities of Lviv (west) and Kharkiv (east); age-specific fertility rates and the total fertility rate in 1960 were measured for the two provinces. Results: The informants shared their notions about the right timing for first parenthood, which parents(-in-law) helped them to navigate. This guidance, in turn, created expectations about the provision of help with childcare, which facilitated a feeling of security when entering parenthood in economically insecure circumstances, which are defined as perceived security. The actual provision of childcare by parents(-in-law), however, was contingent on spousal relationships, which differed between the two cities. These differences are important for understanding postponement of second birth and regional variation in achieving low fertility in Ukraine. Contribution: The study argues that perceived security - guided by specific intergenerational and spousal relationships - is crucial for understanding universal and relatively early entrance into parenthood in Ukraine.

Recently, geography has included in research the increasing role of religion in postmodern Western society and space. Religion is no more being understood as an objective truth, but as an individual experience of a person with a significant impact on the perception of space and place-making. This problematic undoubtedly requires a new theoretical and empirical perception in the new geographies of religion. This paper appeals for the geographical study of the relation between religion and (postsecular) space could be significantly enhanced using feminist approaches, which enable the inclusion of personal experiences and individuality in the geographies of religion. Using the feminist approaches, the changes in religious climate, ongoing currently in the West, including Czechia, could be better addressed in geography. Thus, the paper theoretically discusses the potential of feminist approaches and argues especially for the relevancy of four topics, personal experience of people, emotions, embodiment, and the everydayness, which can offer new insights into understandings of the relation between religion and space. Similarly, methodologies used by feminist scholars provide unique option for getting to know how religious people interact with sacred as well as secular space. Therefore, the paper aims to justify the contribution of feminist approaches and the empirical research considering the creation of sacred space and framing the everyday religious experience of people.

In the last decades, Western societies have been involved in huge demographic changes, amongst which one of the most important has been the increasing postponement of the transition to parenthood. This paper aims at analysing the consequences of later motherhood and fatherhood on children’s participation in upper-secondary schools in Italy, considering both the vertical and horizontal dimensions of education. It also aims at highlighting the role of father-mother age difference and heterogeneity in the effects by parental SES and birth order. Using Italian labour force survey data (2005-2014), results show that late parenthood is positively associated with educational attainment, whereas teenage and early parenthood negatively affect children’s educational outcomes, net of detailed information on parental SES. Age at parenthood affects the educational achievement mostly for children of low- and middle-educated parents, who are more penalized by early childbearing and more favoured by late parenthood than the offspring of the tertiary educated. Moreover, only children are less affected by age at parenthood, especially in comparison with later-born children. Finally, children’s educational outcomes are worse when the mother is older than the father, independently from the educational outcome considered, whereas they are better in case of parental age homogamy or when the father is slightly older than the mother.

Background: Ternary plots can effectively display compositional data and help to understand its multidimensional patterns. However, they are currently greatly underused in demography. Objective: My goal is to develop an interactive web-based visualization of compositional data on international migration flows in order to compare its developments over time and across countries, and through this example demonstrate the utility of ternary diagrams. Methods: R Shiny framework is used to build a web application. Immigration and emigration flows in the EU Member States from 1998 to 2015 are grouped into three conventional categories (nationals of a reporting country, [other] EU nationals, and non-EU nationals) and presented on ternary diagrams. Results: Compositional data on migration flows can be effectively visualized using ternary plots. An interactive web application has been developed that allows comparative exploratory analysis of immigration and emigration composition and size in the EU countries over time. The impact of the entry of new countries to the EU can be assessed by comparing data referring to the EU composition of 28 Member States with data referring to the EU composition of the reference period. Conclusions: Ternary plots can facilitate compositional analysis of migration flows grouped into three categories. Contribution: I introduce ternary plots for an exploratory analysis of migration composition and provide an online tool to carry out illustrative exploration. Demographic analysis of compositional data can benefit from the wider use of such plots.

The paper aims to analyse the attitudes towards immigration among Czech youth and their changes on two distinct surveys of young Czechs (aged 14–19) held in 2011 and 2016, the years before and after a period of a greatly increased inflow of migrants to the European Union. In these surveys, special focus was given to changes in attitudes and factors influencing attitudes in each year. The results show that there was not a big difference in attitudes between both samples. Nevertheless, looking closely at the results, we found two main differences. The first was higher polarisation of answers in survey from 2016 than from the one held in 2011. The second one was in factors influencing answers, mainly in the statement on having an immigrant among close friends.

The authors investigate the perceptions, preferences, and valuation of university students in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) regarding the potential to adopt electric vehicles (EVs) for personal transport by surveying a diverse sample of 664 students from the seven emirates (the capital Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain). Details were elicited about social, economic, and environmental factors that influence the potential to adopt EVs for personal transport, perceived advantages of EVs over gasoline automobiles, and knowledge about EVs. The authors employed the SPSS software platform to categorize various factors according to age and gender. Respondents reported a wide variety of perspectives about EVs including environmental benefits and functional drawbacks. Findings show that participant perceptions, preferences, and valuation about EVs are influenced by a multiplicity of social, economic, and environmental factors. Neglect of these factors will undermine the potential to shift preferences toward greater adoption of emerging sustainable transport technologies.

Background: The Human Fertility Database (HFD) and Human Fertility Collection (HFC) provide disaggregated data on age-specific fertility rates for 45 countries. These sources offer the opportunity to learn about the development of different pathways of transition to low fertility both within and between countries. Objective: The aim of this paper is to use composite fertility lattice plots, which combine information from different visualization techniques of the Lexis surface, namely level plots and contour plots, to explore changes in age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) and the implied (period-based) cumulative cohort fertility rates (cumulative pseudo cohort fertility rates, CPCFRs) across countries and geographic regions. Methods: Through key examples we introduce a new refinement of the Lexis surface, combining level plots, which use colour/shade to indicate ASFRs, and contour lines to indicate fertility milestones for given cohorts (CPCFRs). We have also developed a web-based app to allow researchers to produce their own fertility Lexis surfaces. Results: Results show that once countries have fallen below a replacement fertility level, they tend to not return to it. Exceptions are Norway and the United States, which saw rising fertility rates for cohorts born after the 1950s and late 1960s respectively. The age-specific fertility trends, as well as broader political and socioeconomic conditions, are very different in these countries, suggesting different paths by which replacement fertility rates might be achieved. Contribution: Complex data visualizations show, in an intuitive way, how ASFRs are related to successive cohorts' fertility milestones (CPCFRs). Combining this information enables us to explore differences between countries and can make an important contribution to comparative fertility research.

In this book, Sarah Harper explores the relevant topic of the shift in the age structure of the world’s population. She addresses this issue by considering the entire world population. In particular, she deeply analyses causes and consequences of the age-structural change highlighting convergences and differences between populations of various geographical areas and focusing on the connections with economic and social factors. Addressed also to a wider audience, this book sheds light about the important changes of the population age structure and about the future of the world population. The author highlights differences and interconnections existing between various populations of the world, without forgetting to stress the importance to consider changes at the individual level within the society. Sarah Harper, through this book, contributes to provide instruments and knowledge to understand the populations and societies of the world.

This paper explores the entanglement between photography and aerial military operations during the World Wars, showing how, in warfare, the camera became a technology of power serving a dual purpose: 1) It was a weapon used to map the territory as well as to detect and bomb specific targets, and 2) it constituted a powerful propagandistic medium employed to circulate persuading and aesthetically innovative aerial vistas among civilians. The technological and industrial sophistication that was adapted to the modern aerial battlefield required optical and photo-developments. These technical improvements challenged military activity while also reshaping civilians’ perception and conception of the landscape as well as determining new aesthetic canons. At the core of this article there is the notion of training of the eye – understood as the process, which involved both experts and the general public, of assimilating new photographic vistas from the sky. Using mostly the North American and German frames of reference, and interweaving military technology, visual culture, and landscape studies, this paper analyzes production and reception of “the view from above” mainly through mass-market illustrated magazines, such as the American Life and the German Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung. Developed within the military context, the peculiarity of aerial photography became embroiled with the idea of a cold, hunting, distanced and simultaneously penetrating gaze. However, recent scholarship understands the aerial view differently, due to the latest use of aerial photography for environmental science, and with the purpose of raising public awareness on the devastating ecological impact of industrialization and militarization. The contemporary progression from aerial photography to satellite imagery can in fact be interpreted along two directions: the God's-eye view of surveillance and/or the bird’s-eye view of environmental care.

Background: Education expansion has contributed significantly to fertility decline during the worldwide fertility transition. Yet, it is less clear whether the educational gradient in fertility remains stable and persists in the post-transition era. In light of the rapid education expansion in many low-fertility countries, the education-fertility nexus becomes increasingly relevant to demographic and socioeconomic prospects. Objective: In this study we investigate the education-fertility relationship in China by focusing on its robustness in different socio-institutional contexts both during and after the demographic transition. Methods: We use the cohort parity progression ratios (PPRs) to unveil women's reproduction progress over the life course. The PPRs are estimated for each educational group, jointly classified by cohort, period, place of residence, and province, using China's census and mini-census data between 1982 and 2015. We fit multilevel models to investigate the education-fertility relationship and to explore its temporal and contextual variation. Results: We find strong empirical support for a negative association between women's education and each of the successive PPRs in China, both during and after the course of fertility transition. Nevertheless, the strength of the relationship changes over time, particularly for second and higher order births. The education-fertility link also varies profoundly by contextual features. Contribution: This study extends the literature by exploring the potential dynamics and structural variation of the education-fertility link from demographically transitional to post-transition China. The results provide a panoramic picture of fertility change in China, and insights that lead to a better understanding of world population prospects in the post-transition era.

Military landscapes and battlefields are important part of cultural heritage and identity of society. As a part of common social memory, military landscape could be assessed as an associative landscape according UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Before nature and culture heritage could be treasured, it first had to be recognised. Therefore, the paper focuses on identification of historical and cultural values of military landscapes, especially battlefields. Different types of values are discussed and demonstrated on the model area of battlefield Austerlitz/Slavkov near Brno. The battle was held in 1805 and several cultural values are identified there. Identification of cultural historical values is based on detailed analysis of the old and present maps and land cover assessment, study and analysis of archival sources and grey literature and detailed terrain research. Generally, we distinguished several types of values: elements forming the setting of the battlefield; elements tied with the battle (i.e. features and objects that served for purposes of the battle during the fights and are preserved until today); elements created after the battle. Once the associative landscapes are allocated together with their associative patterns, certain values should be given to particular elements in order to secure heir protection. Then each planning activity within the site should be given a level of effect on the associative element. This simple matrix implemented in local planning development plans and policies could be a source for rational decision within the associative landscapes.

The development patterns of both historical and contemporary demographic transitions are essential in understanding the outcomes of age structure changes among the countries. Existing literature analyzing demographic transition as a precursor to population ageing does not classify countries or regions worldwide by the scale and dynamics of those processes. The aim of this paper is to identify and describe the differentiation of quantum and tempo effects of changes taking place during the demographic transition through classification of sub-regions and selected countries worldwide. The results of this research, based on the historical vital statistics starting from as far as 1736 and future projections until 2100, feature how sub-regions and selected countries in the world are differentiated in terms of the scale and dynamics of the demographic transition process. The analysis reveals the fact that majority of sub-regions in the world tend(ed) to undergo long transitions lasting over 70 years, though contemporary demographic transitions demonstrate higher intensity and higher maximal rates of natural increase. African sub-regions are expected to experience relatively long processes of declining birth and death rates and estimated to complete their demographic transition in 90 years on average. The fastest processes, however, are observed in South America and Eastern Asia where some countries like China, for instance, completed their transitions in just 50 years. The scale and dynamics of demographic transition processes can serve as the ground for further research of challenges and development opportunities resulting from ageing societies during consequent post-transitional stages.

Background: In the wake of aging societies, pro-natalist policies have been used around the world to promote childbearing in developed countries. Very little research investigates the causal effect of the Australian government's baby bonus policy as a once-off, non-means tested incentive scheme on the observed individual fertility. Objective: We investigate the role of immigration in raising fertility beyond what could be achieved by the Australian-born population. The impact of this policy is heavily reliant on the effectiveness of monetary incentives in boosting fertility, yet it is not clear who drives this effect. Methods: We utilize triple difference-in-difference (DDD) strategy to evaluate the relationship between childbearing and introduction of the baby bonus in a quasi-experimental setting. We evaluate the quasi-experimental setting by using propensity score matching. Results: Our findings highlight the role of immigrant women in driving the success of the policy. Moreover, the impact is found to be highest among immigrant women with low levels of human capital, which diminishes with age. Conclusions: The results imply that the role of immigrants, especially that of a young workforce, in aging societies may be greater than has been previously attributed. Contribution: This paper not only provides scope for the analysis of pro-natal policies within the context of Australia but investigates its impact on immigrant women vis-à-vis native-born women. We find the immigrant contribution to be significant in driving the success of pro-natal monetary incentives. Australia is an exemplar for this analysis due to early adoption of pro-natalist incentives for childbearing amidst a population with high immigrant concentration.

Background: Some formal demographic models describe mortality improvement in terms of averted deaths. In such models individuals who would have died in an earlier regime are instead revived and returned to the population to face the same age-specific mortality risks as the rest of the population. A closely related literature has examined inequality in terms of the number of years of potential life that are lost to deaths. Objective: The paper combines several results from formal demography to illustrate the potential gains in life lived from a sequence of revivals, in which everyone is revived 0, 1, 2,. . . times. Contribution: Mathematical analysis yields two new results: A generalization of Vaupel and Canudas-Romo's e† index to second and higher-order revivals, and an analytical expression that relates gains from revivals to the covariance of remaining life expectancy and cumulative mortality.

Fertility patterns in Nigeria are high and widely skewed away from the targets of the country’s population policy. As population growth is fueled by natural increase and migration, and with spatial disparities in fertility preferences among the different ethnic groups in Nigeria, this study investigates the fertility behavior of ethnic migrants in their destinations, the place-effects on such behavior, and the convergence or otherwise of the behavior with fertility behaviors in the migrants’ places of origin and destination. Explanations for the behavioral pattern are provided in the hypotheses of migrant fertility and in the sociodemographic confounders of the behavior. Study data was extracted for the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria from the Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey. Median numbers of children ever born (CEB) were 7, 6, and 4 for the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba ethnic groups respectively. Relative to the destination fertility patterns, Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba migrants had lower CEB in Igboland while Igbo and Yoruba migrants recorded lower CEB in the North-West home of the Hausa-Fulani ethnic group. Whereas the Igbo migrants maintained an equal CEB with their Yoruba hosts, the Hausa-Fulani group replicated their home fertility behavior in Yorubaland. Overall, the adaptation, socialization, and selectivity hypotheses were found valid for some of the disparities in migrant fertility behavior and the influence of the sociodemographic predictors of fertility behavior varied among the different ethnic groups.

In this paper we apply the recently developed wellbeing indicator ‘Years of Good Life’ (YoGL) to Finland, which has the world’s longest annual demographic time series starting in 1722. We combine this with scenarios up to 2100 as developed under the SSP (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways) framework. YoGL is based primarily on the trend in life expectancy but it also considers age-specific proportions of persons above critical levels of quality of life indicators (using the Sullivan method). Since estimating these indicators for historical populations is a major challenge, the paper uses a wide array of sources to come up with a first crude estimation of how quality of life has changed in Finland over the centuries.

Este articulo explora el papel de los cambios en la estructura familiar y los arreglos de vivienda en la configuracion de la distribucion del ingreso en Guatemala utilizando datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Condiciones de Vida (ENCOVI), 2000 y 2014. Para tal fin, se propone una tipologia de hogares de 12 grupos que incluye una dimension de genero, la cual resulto ser util para mostrar la diversidad de los hogares guatemaltecos y como los mismos han cambiado durante estos 14 anos. Se observan modestas pero relevantes tendencias, como una disminucion de las parejas con hijos menores de 15 anos, un aumento de las familias de tres generaciones y un aumento de los hogares unipersonales y las familias monoparentales. Los resultados sugieren que la distancia “dentro de los grupos” es mas importante en la distribucion del ingreso de los hogares. En consecuencia, las tendencias en la estructura familiar y los arreglos de vivienda asociados con la disminucion de las tasas de fecundidad y el envejecimiento de la poblacion, no parecen haber contribuido a los cambios en la desigualdad del ingreso experimentado por Guatemala durante el periodo 2000-2014.

Apresenta-se a evolução do padrão reprodutivo de diferentes países da América Latina com níveis de fecundidade distintos, procurando entender se a Região está tornando-se mais homogênea em termos de comportamento reprodutivo. Utilizam-se como indicadores desse padrão: proporção de mulheres sem filhos, idade mediana à primeira união e ao ter o primeiro filho e presença de filho ao usar contracepção pela primeira vez. Os dados provêm de pesquisas sobre saúde reprodutiva de Brasil, Colômbia, El Salvador, Peru, e República Dominicana em três pontos no tempo: décadas de 80 e 90 e início dos anos 2000 segundo idade e escolaridade. Os resultados mostram que as diferenças estão diminuindo entre os países com a proximidade dos níveis de fecundidade, mas ainda permanecem brechas por escolaridade que sugerem ampliar-se dentro dos países. Os resultados oferecem importantes insumos para entender os trajetos delineados por diferentes gerações nos países da Região no que se refere ao padrão reprodutivo.

Background: Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced relatively high population growth, which raises concerns about the potential contribution of large young cohorts, termed 'youth bulges', to unrest. Youth bulges, under the right circumstances, can expand productivity and boost economic growth, but they have also been found to enable civil war, corruption, and democracy collapse, especially where resources are scarce. Objective: This paper considers youth bulges characterised by high proportions of rural‒urban migrants and examines their effects on the likelihood of social conflict in urban sub-Saharan Africa between 1990 and 2013. Methods: United Nations data on urban and rural populations by age and sex is combined with the Social Conflict Analysis Database to create a cross-section time series dataset. Negative binomial models are used to examine the relationship between youth bulges and conflict using country level fixed effects. Results: The study finds that a migrant-based youth bulge does not increase the likelihood of urban social conflict in sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, female youth bulges, often neglected when studying conflict, are found to increase the likelihood of conflict. Conclusions: The overall disassociation between young rural‒urban migrants and social conflict is encouraging. All the same, women were found to play a role in conflict, and women should therefore be considered in future studies. Contribution: This article characterises the composition of youth bulges - an important factor that has previously been ignored ‒ by examining whether youth bulges composed largely of rural‒urban migrants are more likely to increase the likelihood of conflict in urban sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: A body of evidence suggests that vaccines support the development of the immune system and also improve overall health. Objective: To study the effect of the complete basic vaccination schedule (Bacille Calmette-Guérin, i.e., BCG; measles; polio 3; and Diphtheria, Tetanus toxoids, and Pertussis, i.e., DTP3) on nutritional status of children under 2 years of age. Methods: Recent DHS data from 16 countries conducted after 2013 were used. After a bivariate descriptive analysis, a logistic regression analysis was conducted to predict the likelihood of underweight, stunting, and wasting by immunization status. A combined odds ratio was computed and adjusted for background variables. Results: A significantly higher prevalence of underweight was found among children with incomplete vaccination schedules in seven countries. Similarly, wasting and stunting were frequently observed in under-vaccinated children in four countries. Moreover, logistic regression adjusted for background variables revealed a relation between incomplete vaccination and underweight in Angola, Chad, and Guatemala (95Š CI lower bound > 1). Combining data of all countries, underweight (adjusted Odds Ratio, aOR 1.21, 95Š CI 1.11‒1.31), wasting (aOR 1.18, 95Š CI 1.05‒1.33), and stunting (aOR 1.07, 95Š CI 1.00‒1.14) were associated with poor vaccination status. The overall effect was consistent with both sexes except the results for wasting for females and stunting for males, though insignificant. Contribution: To our knowledge, this is the first paper assessing the relation between vaccination and nutritional status at a multi-country level with a huge dataset. Our analysis suggests a poor nutritional status in children with an incomplete vaccination schedule.

Over the past three decades, Croatia has been experiencing a process of depopulation and population aging. This is the result of demographic changes in the past, especially in the second half of the 20th century. In this paper, the index of demographic-depressed areas (iddp) for the settlements of Croatia was derived using GIS multicriteria analysis (GIS-MCDA). An iddp was derived for all Croatian counties (21) and detailed analysis of demographic-depressed and vital areas was conducted for the settlements of Medjimurje County (131). This is recognised as the county with the highest achieved level of socio-economic development. A new methodological framework for deriving an iddp based on eight selected demographic variables has been proposed. The iddp was derived with GIS based on eight selected criteria using data from 2011 census results. The degree of demographic depression was divided into five classes: (A) distinctly depressed area, (B) less depressed area, (C) area at the edge of demographic depression, (D) vital area, and (E) distinctly vital area. The accuracy of the derived index was verified by analysing age-sex pyramids of the most depressed and vital settlements. The distinctly depressed demographic (A) is the predominant form of demographic settlement development in the six counties. These are areas that have been affected by rural exodus and depopulation, both of which were further intensified by the war from 1991 to 1995. Medjimurje County was categorised as a (D) vital area. However, of the 131 settlements in the county, 28 were identified as demographic-depressed and 72 as vital. More than half of these 72 settlements (42) have the characteristics of a distinctly vital area, which is the highest proportion among all counties. The most vital settlements were Parag, Kursanec, and Piskorovec. Their main feature is that a significant proportion of their population belongs to the Roma demographic. Derived population pyramids confirm the consistency of the generated index. Medjimurje County is characterised by high variability among results (from extremely depressed to extremely non-depressed spaces), which indicates the impossibility of adopting uniform measures and policies throughout the county. In the future, the identified vital settlements have the potential to become the county's primary demographic resource. The proposed classification of settlements according to the derived index (iddp) could serve as a useful instrument in designing development policies or measures for this specific administrative-territorial unit.

The objective of the article is an attempt to find the answer to whether the agrarian reforms of the 1860s carried out in Russia affected the individual’s life cycle in peasant Catholic families in Podlasie which, after 1807, was included in the Grodno Governorate. In Polish historiography the subject of the individual and the family’s life cycle in the 19th century has not yet been adequately researched; hence these studies are intended to fill this gap, at least in part. In this paper a cross-section analysis of demographic phenomena was employed, which is based on three lists of the inhabitants of the large Podlasie parish of Trzcianne, drawn up in the years 1843–1910. The research value of the lists was evaluated with the help of three indexes: Whipple’s index, the total modified Whipple’s index (Wtot) and ABCC. The application of the cross-section method aimed at illustrating the dependence between the age and the status of the individual (children, household servants, householders, independent female heads of households, relatives and lodgers) in the household. The article devotes more attention to the pace of children’s leaving family homes, as well as the status of old people, i.e., 65 years old and above, always including their sex.

This paper aims to analyse the entrepreneurial intentions of tourism students, who represent a significant base of future entrepreneurs and are the drivers of innovations and competitiveness in the travel and tourism industry, which is an important part of the economy of the Republic of Serbia. The study examined whether there are differences in students? entrepreneurial intentions depending on socio-demographic characteristics: gender, place of residence, years of study, and previous work experience, as well as their parents? education and type of employment. The survey was conducted in four higher vocational schools in Serbia on a sample of 330 students of tourism and hospitality management using the Entrepreneurial Intention Scale. The results showed that students had medium intention to start and run their own business and indicate that - among the selected socio-demographic factors - gender, years of study, and prior work experience play an important role in fostering entrepreneurial intentions. Understanding the factors that impact entrepreneurship may contribute to the development of theory in this field, as well as helping paint a clearer picture of how entrepreneurial intentions are formed as a starting point in business.

Background: Many studies have neglected family processes that take place in more complex households in non-Western societies, while the position in the sibling set of a given person in these societies may be an important factor for determining infant and child mortality risks. Objective: This article addresses the association of sibling composition with infant and child mortality between the ages of 0 and 5 in Taiwan in the period 1906-1945. Furthermore, the article takes into account regional differences that may affect the impact of the sibling composition on mortality risks. Methods: The Taiwan Historical Household Register Database (THHRD) is analysed by using univariate and Cox proportional hazard analyses. By doing so, the changing household composition over time is taken into account. Results: The presence of siblings close in age (younger or up to 5 years older) of either sex, and the presence of same-sex siblings in general, increased mortality risks for male and female infants and children. In addition, the presence of non-adopted and adopted sisters over the age of 5 decreased male infant mortality risks, while the presence of non-adopted brothers over the age of 5 decreased child mortality risks for girls. Limited regional differences in sibling effects are observed. Contribution: The presence and gender of siblings is not the only important factor in resource dilution in terms of how it influences mortality risks. The age and adoption status of siblings seems to be just as important in determining whether siblings compete for similar resources or are actually able to provide support.

The article presents infant mortality in Polish historical research and points towards more important works focusing on the above issue. The author analyses approximately seventy academic works in order to answer the fundamental question as to what extent they deal with the issue of deaths in children under the age of one. The research shows that, in particular groups of research papers, infant mortality is most often presented in a general and formulaic manner. A dozen or so papers present this problem as a side issue in their research and only a few Polish studies have infant mortality as their main issue and discuss it in a multi-faceted and broader context.

This paper aims to introduce a legal framework for exercising one of the most basic socio-economic rights of people with rare diseases: the right to decent work. Considering the specificity of the medical and, consequently, social status of the people affected, the appropriate labour-law measures need to be determined. Applying the comparative and normative method along with the contemporary anti-discrimination principle, the labour status of the rare diseases population has been analysed based on the proposed classification in legal terms. As a precondition for labour legislation, new Serbian healthcare legislation on rare diseases should be supported through the process of implementation to reduce adverse cases as effectively as possible, advance genetic and other clinical diagnoses, and thus increase the efficiency of available medical treatment. Concerning public health policy, updated registries and better health statistics should be created. These activities require certain amendments to both general and specialist labour legislation (disability legislation), aiming to include patients with rare diseases in the working (and social) environment without discrimination.

The purpose of our study was an analysis of reception centre residents? attitudes in the Republic of Serbia toward the state and the local population. Using a questionnaire, we tried to identify the differences in respondents? attitudes toward their new environment depending on their various socio-demographic characteristics. The survey was conducted in the spring of 2019 on a sample of 173 residents of centres using the PAPI method, face-to-face, and voluntary response sampling. The data obtained are the result of descriptive and inferential analysis and were processed by the SPSS statistical data processing program. Our statistical analysis showed that attitudes of reception centre residents toward their new environment may not correlate strongly with their mother tongue, knowledge of foreign languages, marital status, number of family members, number of minor children in the family, work status, or religion. Instead, it is more likely to depend on their level of education, age, nationality, and gender. Such results show us where we need to improve inter-action, especially among women, young people, and people with a low level of education. We can also suggest that, under favourable conditions, these three categories of reception centre residents will be the first to leave the Republic of Serbia, which they probably see exclusively as a transit country. At the same time, older people and people with a high level of education (most likely men) are more likely to integrate into their new environment in the Republic of Serbia. The more interaction they have with local people and institutions and the higher the quality of that interaction, the more likely they are to integrate.