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My paper looks at "signatures" in the form of "ciphers" (kao) and other personal marks made on population registers, town rules, and apostasy oaths in the early seventeenth century to provide some empirical evidence of very high literacy among village leaders. The essay also argues, using the same data, that literacy had already begun to spread to household heads, particularly those in cities as well as to farming communities that were engaged in commerce. Signatures on documents--never before used for literacy study in Japan as far as I know--also provide some hints of early literacy among women in commercial farming families. Wide differences in the spread of literacy in cities and in the rural areas of the country are also clearly evident in these documents through analysis of signatures and other personal marks made on oaths and petitions. (Contains 18 notes.)

The Philippines is an archipelago of more than 7,100 islands, with a population of over 100 million people dependent upon marine resources which are characterised by a decline in both biodiversity and abundance. The resultant large sector of fisherfolk is generally impoverished with limited education, which makes coastal adult education and lifelong learning a national priority. This article considers the Filipino fisherfolk community as a culture to identify potential input strategies regarding education development for marine science concepts. In a study piloting cultural consensus theory applications with a well-established fisherfolk organisation, the authors focus on the lack of dialogue engaging Philippine fisherfolk with standards of international marine science, bioregional resource partitioning and reflexive in-country education development. Cross-cultural strategies considered in this paper include exploring paraprofessional approaches to adult education, accommodating several dialects/languages and drawing on international science concepts. While earlier adult education initiatives aimed at fisherfolk may have had limited success in part due to a lack of cultural context, this pilot study is innovative in that it applies an existing Filipino form of "social artistry" to fisherfolk identity, expression and communication. "Siningbayan" ["Sining" = art, "bayan" = nation or town], or "art whose canvas is society" evolved through the Philippine history of organic networking and participation. Results confirm that a structured ethnoecological research design combined with "Siningbayan" appear effective for identifying education and curriculum specifics both for the fisherfolk sector of Filipino society and for professional marine science; their common goal being improved resource management. The authors place particular emphasis on subsidiarity, considering how best to transfer information to individual fisherfolk and their communities, as well as exploring their scaled-up role in leadership, organisational and professional development.

The inclusion of world music from a variety of cultures and traditions within the general music curriculum creates valuable opportunities for students to experience music in ways that are both culturally and pedagogically beneficial. By exploring the connection between the fields of ethnomusicology and music education, we can expand our current body of world music resources to include more of the beautiful and varied music traditions that exist in this world. Within this article, one practicing general music educator considers the important work of ethnomusicologists as she shares her experiences with a world music tradition that has not yet been thoroughly explored within the context of music education: the rhythmic timelines of Southern Benin. This article also includes a set of suggested learning experiences, which provides clear examples of how the rhythmic timelines of Southern Benin can become meaningful to music educators and students everywhere.

Angie Debo, educator and historian, wrote thirteen scholarly books, which included material representative of the American Indian experience. In one of her later books, "A History of the Indians of the United States," first published in 1951, she wrote that the story of the American Indian shows a "remarkable record of survival … through centuries of encroachment by a more numerous and aggressive race" (1970, 422). The comment might seem surprising to those who know that she was a doctoral student of Edward Everett Dale, American History Professor at the University of Oklahoma--1914-1952, and noted supporter of Turner's Frontier Thesis. The purpose of this paper is to gain insight into her complex relationship with her mentor, Dale. She moved away from his vision of history to one that included the use of ethnological sources and studying history of American Indians, which was generally excluded from historical accounts. This led Debo to her role as one of the first woman scholars, ethno-historians, and chroniclers of the American Indian experience in the West. However, her path was not the traditional one for an educator with a Ph. D. in History.

Polyphony, often used to describe a type of composition in early European music, is also practiced in other parts of the world, not only for aesthetic enjoyment but also to strengthen a society's cohesiveness. Examples of such musical traditions are found in sub-Saharan Africa and many mountainous regions of Europe, where group singing or music-making is part of the communal lifestyle. However, polyphony in Asian music, especially in East Asia, is rarely discussed. This article introduces two polyphonic singing traditions in East Asia: in the Wa people of southwest China and the Thao people of Taiwan. Members of these groups frequently use polyphonic techniques such as canonic imitation, antiphonal singing, melodic ostinato, or drone to accompany many sociocultural events. This article provides guidelines and teaching strategies for music educators to implement the interdisciplinary lessons in their classroom.

Integrating curriculum provides rich opportunities for students to focus on relevant applications to the real world and make meaningful connections across different disciplines. This article attempts to go beyond common discourse and platitudes by offering specific examples, showing we--an ethnomusicologist and a mathematics educator--attempted to integrate music and mathematics education curriculum in a graduate mathematics education classroom, with nonmusician graduate students. In our project, we designed and taught a group of graduate mathematics education students a lesson focused on mathematics and world music percussion to explore the ways that nonmusician preservice teachers might experience and use the specific connections between mathematics and music.

While official rhetoric of multiculturalism claims to value cultural diversity, everyday multiculturalism focuses on how people of diverse cultural backgrounds live together in their everyday lives. Research on everyday multiculturalism has documented ways through which people negotiate senses, sensibilities, emotionality, and relationality across intercultural contact zones. While recognizing the importance of human intentionality and community in conditioning coexistence, this article also points to the constitutive power of practice-based learning that emerges through the coming together of human and nonhuman beings. Drawing on a qualitative study of the learning experiences of six Chinese immigrants in community gardens on a university campus in Canada, this article shows three ways of learning that foster knowing, connecting, and hybrid knowledge production across cultures: (a) learning through communities of conviviality; (b) learning mediated through nonhuman things such as land, waste, and free-floating seeds; and (c) learning through assemblages that fold in culture, place, and space.

Identity as a mathematics teacher is enhanced when a teacher explores the cultural setting of their mathematics. The reports of projects that link culture and mathematics were analysed to explore the impact of sociocultural situations together with affective and cognitive aspects of self-regulation on identity. The reports were written by pre-service and in-service, mainly secondary, teachers at the University of Goroka, Papua New Guinea. While all 239 reports were read and considered in terms of the thesis of this article, 60 (25%) were analysed in detail developing the argument. The results indicate the strengths of such projects to take account of cultural knowledge when colonised education systems are further modified through reforms that emphasise culture. The significance for teacher education is the role that an activity which links culture and school mathematics plays in building values and identities.

For educational historians involved in the representation of Indigenous contexts and peoples, what is the relevance of ethnohistory as a discipline or methodology, and what is lost or gained in using it? This article reviews ethnohistorical literature, and brings it in conversation with literature by Indigenous scholars on research methodologies, as well as history and historiography. The inquiry raises questions for consideration by educational historians in conducting Indigenous educational histories. It is suggested that while ethnohistory as it is described in the literature may demonstrate limitations, turning towards Indigenous scholarship for guidance may extend and enhance research on the educational past that is responsive to the interests of Indigenous communities.

Ethnology museums are pedagogical. As educators attempting to make sense of how museums teach about the world, the authors of this article are especially interested in how ethnology museums curate otherness through objects, texts, and spaces, and how these combine to present a narrative of others. Ellsworth has referred to this as the "pedagogical address of the museum," which includes analyzing whose stories are authorized, how those identities are represented, and what is made of those representations by visitors (Ellsworth 2005). In this article the authors examine a variety of pedagogical concerns related to the use of objects in museums, including the materials that bring a thing into presence in a museum and the attendant absence this presence implies, the interpretive space that surrounds objects in museums, and the necessary distortion that objects create in their effort to conjure another, displaced reality. These pedagogical concerns are not unique to objects, of course, as any representation such as words, images, and sounds bear similar burdens. But they focus on museums because they are understood as a significant place of objects and, as such, offer a repository of insights that can be brought to bear on other institutions, such as schools. After this survey of issues, the authors consider what can be gleaned from how presencing works with objects and museums in order to apply these practices to the work of educators and researchers of education. They conclude that if we can observe how ethnology museums are parasitic on our urge to possess objects as stand-ins for knowledge, and how that has been tempered by museums themselves in the past two decades, then we have a great deal to gain about how people come to knowledge differently. The critique of ethnology museums' efforts to make distant others present can be engaged to allow an earnest reflection on the dissemination practices of educational research and the interpretive bind in which work is found. If we can consider how any object, removed from an ontological terrain that has plasticity and is yet uniquely congruent with a moment in time and place, then we can learn much while recalling that there is much we cannot know. And if we can consider how we make objects of others in our efforts to write, then there is even more insight to be gained about the limits of our claims and the possibilities that exist through that recognition. Herein lies the hope for social science, to pedagogically encounter all that we attempt to explain and know.

Ethnomathematics pursues the goal of viewing mathematics from a multicultural perspective by enlarging its historical background. Culture and mathematical thoughts are in contact and they, together, form an indivisible whole. Therefore, ethnomathematics not only helps us understanding the nature of mathematics but also contributes to understanding of one's self as well as the other people sharing the same planet. Ethnomathematics reflects mathematical thoughts of the studies of multicultural or traditional societies. Mathematical thought is an approach in which people try to find quick and systematic solutions to a problem in diverse ways. In a historical-cultural context, the role of ethnomathematics, which studies mathematical thoughts, cannot be ignored. This paper examines some reflections of geometry perception in carpet and rug motifs in terms of Ethnomathematics in Anatolian culture.

The goal of Indigenous education is that it should be approached on the basis of the Indigenous language and culture; this is also the case with Sami education. The Sami School Board has stated that all teaching in Sami schools should be culturally based, despite the fact that Sami culture-based teaching is not specifically defined. Therefore, teachers themselves must adapt the teaching and as a result, usually no Sami culture-based mathematics teaching takes place. The aim of this article is to discuss Indigenous teachers' experiences with designing and implementing culture-based mathematics activities in Sami preschool and primary school. The teachers' work with culture-based mathematics activities took the form of "Sami cultural thematic work with ethnomathematical content," "Multicultural school mathematics with Sami cultural elements," and "Sami intercultural mathematics teaching." Culture-based mathematics activities took place within an action research study in the Swedish part of Sapmi. Sapmi comprises northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland, as well as the Kola Peninsula in Russia. In the action research study, six teachers conducted culture-based mathematics activities in preschool and primary school on the basis of the action research loop "plan-act-observe-reflect." During the study the teachers changed from a problem-focused perspective to a possibility-focused culture-based teaching perspective characterised by a self-empowered Indigenous teacher role, as a result of which they started to act as agents for Indigenous school change. The concept of "decolonisation" was visible in the teachers' narratives. The teachers' newly developed knowledge about the ethnomathematical research field seemed to enhance their work with Indigenous culture-based mathematics teaching.

Results from a project conducted in Mexico are discussed, in which a group of 17 indigenous teachers analyzed the numeration systems of their first language. The main goal of the project is to develop resources that help teachers in supporting students' understanding of the systems. In the first phase of the project, the central organizing ideas of 14 numeration systems were specified. Each system belonged to a different Mesoamerican language. Three aspects of the systems were identified that would have to be accounted for in instructional design. They include using 20 as a multiplicative base. Examples are presented of the instructional resources that indigenous teachers could use to help their students understand the quantitative rationales of the systems.

Highlighting the application of ethnomusicology beyond the traditional boundaries of the academy, this article investigates the use of music in adult literacy education. In 2005, as part of the Literacy and Equality in Irish Society (LEIS) project, adult literacy tutors working in Northern Ireland, United Kingdom (UK), were invited to enrol in short, professional-development courses that required their participation in a Balinese gamelan ensemble--an orchestra comprised mainly of metallophones, drums and gongs. During each course, tutors were encouraged to reflect upon their learning processes to help them become more empathetic with some of the difficulties faced by adult literacy students. By focusing on the tutors' experiences of learning gamelan music, this article provides insights into how participants used these development courses as a means to critically reflect upon issues of approach to teaching adult literacy education. (Contains 4 notes.)

This article explores how it might be possible to engage in world music ethically. I examine ways that traditional engagements can be problematic in order to push towards new possibilities for encounters and engagement. I begin by considering my own experience with world music. Moving to the theoretical, I consider "world music" study and the ways in which it defines the white, bourgeois subject, both socially and professionally. My conception of world music is spatial and temporal, as it represents journey into a culture in order to learn its music. From identity formation, I then consider curriculum and pedagogy, concluding by offering several alternative practices that may allow for an ethical, non-essentializing approach to the study of world music. I align these culminating suggestions, in some ways, with principles of critical pedagogy.

Purpose: This study developed and applied the chemistry learning module integrated with green chemistry and ethnoscience to develop generic skills of science and soft skills of conservation of high school students in Central Java, Indonesia. Methods: The participants consisted of Chemistry education students (22 students), students from MAN I Semarang (68 students), students from SMA Negeri 1 Bae Kudus (69 students), and students from SMA Negeri I Semarang (69 students). Development of chemistry learning modules was conducted through stages of defining, designing, and development to produce appropriate and effective chemical learning modules. Data collection techniques passed the test instrument to measure the mastery of generic science skills, observations and questionnaires to find out the soft skills of conservation, and the students' responses to the chemistry learning module and the developed scientific approach. Data analyses included feasibility analysis, module effectiveness and chemistry learning approach. Analysis of generic science skills and conservation soft skills was carried out through N-gain and t-test. Findings: The results of this study revealed that the chemistry learning module integrated with green chemistry and ethnoscience was feasible and effective. Generic science skills and students' conservation soft skills achieved moderate and high performance levels based on N-gain test results; as well as students' cognitive learning outcomes were significant. Significance: The chemistry learning module integrated with green chemistry and ethnoscience was feasible, valid, reliable and effective to develop generic skills of science and soft skills of conservation of among high school students.

The increased demographic presence of Latino individuals has gradually resulted in growing political influence and representation. This growing presence and influence has altered the American political landscape, drawing sudden attention among scholars, the media, and political pundits. This article investigates four aspects of the growing influence of Latino/a individuals in the American political system. (Contains 6 tables, 5 figures, and 2 notes.)

Writing and publishing scientific works are crucial parts of any scientist's career. Therefore, it is important, especially for those new to the process, to understand how to navigate the publication process. This study was designed to investigate the publication process in ethnobotany and to stimulate discussion among authors, reviewers, and journal editors. A survey was created and sent to ethnobotanists who had published between the years 2000 and 2009. Of the 166 invitations sent, 44 resulted in valid answers from researchers. Although the majority of the ethnobotanists who participated in this study were researchers in the early stages of their careers, the data showed that the most experienced scientists published more articles and received fewer rejections. It is likely that these more experienced researchers had a greater number of rejections early in their careers but that they had since adjusted to the requirements imposed by the journals. This study serves as a starting point for reflection on the scientific publication process in ethnobotany and about authors' perceptions.

To identify perspectives on the roles of extended family and fictive kin, the authors conducted a qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with 45 older adults diverse in gender, race, and class. Five strategies of kin reinterpretation were found. Kin promotion defined a distant blood relative as a closer blood relative. Kin exchange reclassified a parent-child tie as a sibling tie or vice versa. Nonkin conversion created fictive kin by turning friends and colleagues into family-like members. Kin retention kept an ex-in-law in the extended family network following divorce. Kin loss identified the meaning of losing physical or psychological contact with a once-valued kin member. The findings reveal that older adults from both mainstream and marginalized families expanded kin reinterpretation practices as a means of adapting to impermanence in family ties. These alterations helped ensure closeness and mutual reliance, thus providing a bridge to connect the old and new social landscape. (Contains 1 figure.)

The group position model (Blumer 1958; Bobo and Tuan 2006) assumes that attempting to secure a privileged position for the ingroup is a main determinant of perceived intergroup conflict. This assumption is tested with survey data collected in 1999 and 2000 among eight titular groups in autonomous republics of the Russian Federation. The survey included an experiment that was aimed at disentangling the effects of perceived threat and the fear of outgroup encroachment (growing outgroup influence). The findings indicate that more conflict was perceived when the ingroup was larger (corresponding to stronger entitlement claims to privilege), especially among those who felt more threatened. This association was further strengthened among those whose fear of outgroup encroachment was made salient. This study shows the relevance of the group position model in understanding perceived intergroup conflict among national minority groups with a local privileged status. (Contains 3 figures, 3 tables, and 5 footnotes.)

This paper discusses how using feature films in a graduate university subject for adult educators can pose questions about pressing social issues and develop critical thinking and consciousness. While a variety of film sources were used, the focus of this paper is on four feature films that were chosen to highlight a particular approach to learning. Firstly, films were chosen where the filmmaker's intention was to pose questions raised in stories of everyday life and which wove together personal dilemmas and choice. These films were set in different countries and against a backdrop of particular histories. Secondly, films that sought to re-present collective identities, and most importantly the diversity within working class identity, were selected. Thirdly, films that enabled viewers to examine common "truths" against actual social conditions, and probed beneath that accepted or prevailing wisdom, were chosen to develop critical understanding or ideology critique. Drawing on theories of learning, storytelling and narrative the paper considers how films of everyday life can be used to facilitate a dialogic approach to understand changes taking place in different parts of the world and the impact they have on different groups of people, notably those exploited or marginalised by the new global market. (Contains 2 notes.)

This article aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion about the epistemology and philosophy of ethnomathematics, and to debate its educational implications. It begins by identifying in recent literature two categories of criticism of ethnomathematics: epistemological, related with the way ethnomathematics positions itself in terms of mathematical knowledge; and pedagogical, related to the way ethnomathematical ideas are implicated in formal education. After a description of both of these categories, the pedagogical implications of ethnomathematics are considered by means of confronting the criticisms of recent research in the field. Ethnomathematics research conceives its pedagogical implications in different ways, some of them contradictory. Such contradictions are related with the societal role of school, with the idea that we can "transfer" knowledge from one setting to another and the tendency to reduce ethnomathematics to a ready-to-apply "tool" for the school-learning of mathematics. The author discusses the first two criticisms in the light of recent research concerned with the social and political dimensions of mathematics education. Concerning the latter, a typical case of an ethnomathematical research study looking at bringing local knowledge into school in the name of promoting diversity is analyzed. It is the author's contention that ethnomathematical research runs the risk of conveying an idea of culture where the Other is squeezed from its otherness. The article concludes by arguing that a deeper theoretical discussion is needed in the majority of the research currently done in ethnomathematics so that well-intentioned actions do not end up having a result opposite to their aims.

I argue that until ethnomathematical frameworks are explicitly used to investigate the specific mathematical practices in networks of powerful elites the term will continue to index that which is Other to "traditional" mathematics and run a risk of desubstantialization. I suggest that the field ally itself with disciplines and perspectives in which the imagination is central, such as mythopoetics, in order to address these risks. Further, I claim that ethnomathematics has been a mythopoetic endeavour involved in demythologizing and demystifying dominant discourses of mathematics and mathematics education and propose that there is need now for greater attention to mindful remythologizing.

The basic assumption of this paper is that school's potential to improve cross-cultural relations, as well as interpersonal relations in general, is enormous. This assumption is supported by a number of theoretical considerations and by the analysis of data we obtained from a study we conducted on the attitudes toward diversity and multiculturalism of pupils attending Italian schools. Our research findings indicate that both teachers and pupils seldom perceive school as a place that can provide this positive and significant opportunity. Many of the difficulties in pupils' relationships with culturally diverse peers at school coincide with, or are very similar to, the difficulties in their relationships with peers in general, thus supporting the assumption that there are some common basic motivations underlying the acceptance or the rejection of "the other," be "the other" culturally diverse or not. Depending on the cases, cross-cultural relations among pupils at school can be characterized by empathy, curiosity, failed attempts or a dearth of attempts to get to know each other, indifference, resentment, envy, and rejection. Our results are analyzed within a theoretical framework which includes the concept of diversity, contact theory, multicultural ideology, and competitive lifestyles. Teachers' roles in fostering pupils' cross-cultural relations are discussed and several educational interventions aiming to develop acceptance of and interest in diversity, as well as empathy toward outgroup members, are suggested. (Contains 4 notes.)

Whether naturalized or native, a nation becomes stronger as individuals embrace opportunities for postsecondary education. President Obama's commitment to community college education through the American Graduation Initiative (AGI) will facilitate increased matriculation into community colleges, encourage students to transfer into four-year institutions, and ultimately create an academically affluent America. Research on students who transfer from community college to four-year institutions discusses this phenomenon from an institutional perspective; however, there is a dearth in the literature regarding how the Black student population, particularly Black immigrant men, engage in the transfer process in the academy. Social Network Theory is the framework through which the experiences of these men from various countries in the African Diaspora were examined during their transfer process in an American public university system. Data analysis revealed three major findings, including the forms of capital that influenced their academic choices and outcomes.

Professor Bryant Simon is the author of "Everything But the Coffee: Learning About America From Starbucks" (University of California Press, 2009). He presented his key findings to the class and summarizes them here. Studying Starbucks reveals essential truths about what its customers, who represented a large cross-section of the American middle-class, cared about and desired. Moreover, it reveals something about the nature of buying in everyday America.(Contains 10 notes.)

Indigenous digital storytelling in video is a way of witnessing the stories of Indigenous communities and Elders, including what has happened and is happening in the lives and work of Indigenous peoples. Witnessing includes acts of remembrance in which we look back to reinterpret and recreate our relationship to the past in order to understand the present. Pedagogical witnessing allows my reading, viewing, or listening to be an event in which I allow the understanding of someone else's life to interrupt my own life. This article begins with a discussion of a digital storytelling video project in which an Indigenous Elder, Alma Desjarlais--a Cree/Metis grandmother--shares stories to witness and help us understand the histories of trauma and the resilience and strength of Indigenous peoples. Her stories are interspersed from the film, "Grandmothers of the Metis Nation" (Iseke, 2010a; to view a trailer for the film see http://www.ourelderstories.com) that is part of the digital storytelling project and provides supplementary background information to support the social, political, cultural, and economic context of the stories. Alma's stories are followed by a discussion of witnessing and the ways that Indigenous digital storytelling, through the digital storytelling project with Alma Desjarlais, involve pedagogic witnessing. (Contains 2 notes.)

An American teacher describes her journey to Ghana, where she worked in the summer of 2009 at the Tuskegee International School. Through recollections of the relationships she established during her time teaching math to students ages 6-16, the author reveals that her most powerful role while there was that of student rather than teacher. Focusing on themes of connection and learning, the article reveals the potent and poetic nature of discovering just how small and connected our world is so far from home. (Contains 7 figures.)

Ewald Fettweis (1881-1967) was the first researcher to develop and establish the term ethnomathematics. This article presents his contribution to ethnomathematics and its development as a scientific theory. We will show that he was the first researcher to realize and practice ethnomathematics in his research and to explain it in his lectures, thus giving a disciplinary status to ethnomathematics. Fettweis's conceptualization of ethnomathematics was developed in the 1930s, much earlier than Ubiratan D'Ambrosio's subsequent, independent introduction of the same term. Based on this work, we argue for the existence of a pre-paradigm period in the development of ethnomathematics.

In this article, the author reflects on the transitions she has navigated since 2005 and offers insight into elements of research relationships. As she guides and accompanies a new generation of qualitative researchers planning and experiencing their fieldwork, the need for writing that addresses the complexities of "the intersubjectivity of the researcher and the researched" (Chase, 2010, p. 217) in order to "understand the other's voice, life and culture", as well as their role in the production of that knowledge, becomes more salient. She cites articles that contribute to methodological discussions beyond both the "reflexive-turn" and the "reflexivity as narcissism" critique, to "revitalize the use of reflexivity" as a powerful ethnographic tool in all stages of pre-, in-, and post-fieldwork.

Abject generational hardship is a systemic phenomenon which denies people a higher quality of life by limiting their access to basic life necessities. The article focuses on a group of ten girls between the ages of 10 and 14 living in a peri-urban community outside of Maputo. The first part outlines the importance of engaging girls through participatory methodologies (such as photo-voice) in expressing themselves, their challenges and strengths. Such methodologies can enable researchers to more clearly hear (and see) the voices of the girls and their creativity in addressing the complex issues they face on a daily basis (Moletsane et al., 2007; Mitchell et al., 2006). The second part of the article focuses on the idea of "picturing policy" by highlighting two priority areas identified by the girls, water and sanitation, which if addressed collectively and simultaneously by multi-stakeholder groups, could improve the girls' access to a higher quality of life. The article considers the ways that participatory visual methodologies with communities can become a critical component of policy dialogue. (Contains 5 endnotes and 3 figures.)

This paper provides a detailed analysis of different aspects of public attitudes towards faith schools in Britain. It examines two questions relating to government policy on this issue and two questions that ask about the perceived outcomes of this type of school. After discussing existing public opinion on this issue it uses data from the British Social Attitudes Survey 2007 to analyse the bivariate relationships between attitudes towards faith schools and religious characteristics. It then assesses the relative impact of religious characteristics on public attitudes when estimating logistic regression models that simultaneously examine for the effects of other explanatory variables. These include demographic characteristics, socio-economic status, party-political affiliation and ideological beliefs. The main findings are that religious characteristics, especially attendance at religious services and perceived religiosity, have a strong impact in all four model estimations, while previous or current attendance at a private school by a household member and ideological beliefs also play a role. (Contains 6 tables and 2 notes.)

Are the academic and social experiences of Chinese Malaysian students as much an outcome of the selective acculturation strategy of their parents as the linguistic assimilation policy of the government? Driven by economic necessity on one hand and pressured by cultural preservation on the other, Chinese parents first send their sons and daughters to Chinese-medium primary schools and then Malay-medium secondary schools. Facing linguistic assimilation and racial stratification, students with opportunistic attitudes accumulate language capital and obey discipline rules. Those with oppositional attitudes and defiant behaviors are labeled as "hard cores" and pressured to quit school. As "model students" (high achievers) become technical professionals and "hard cores" (low achievers) work as unskilled workers for co-ethnic entrepreneurs, social stratification is reproduced within the Chinese community. (Contains 4 tables and 3 figures.)