Search

This chapter constructs a kind of reasoning that is supportive of this alternative frame of reference. It argues that discontinuous change is the only constant factor in the world that people are part of, and what seems stable to them is actually nothing more than a temporary period of persistence. The chapter explores the meanings and background of the relevant ideas in this discussion, such as non-linearity, complexity and uncertainty. Complexity thinking and spatial planning seem almost antagonistic, a conflict of reasoning. The chapter shows that how transformations and bifurcations can be understood as mechanisms of non-linearity and change. It confronts contemporary planning theory with set of ideas from the complexity sciences and evolutionary model, and how the model frames reality in a non-linear and transformative way. Van der Leeuw adopts a non-linear perspective, which he describes as ‘the archaeology of innovation’, to elaborate on how humans have created a socialized environment.

Configurational analysis represented by the method of space syntax allows the modelling of a city that links intuition and science, and it can be used for designing and planning cities, as well as in research (Hillier 2009). Developed by Bill Hillier and his colleagues at the University College London, it has been applied in urban studies since the 1980s. This method consists of calculating configurative spatial relationships in built environments. According to Hillier, space syntax demands four elements in urban analyses. First, space syntax means operating with a concise definition of urban space. Second, it offers a family of techniques for analysing cities as networks of space are formed by the placing, grouping and orientation of buildings. Third, it involves a set of techniques for observing how these networks of space relate to functional patterns, such as movement, land use, area differentiation, migration patterns, and even social wellbeing and malaise. Fourth, based on the empirical results arising from the first two aspects, space syntax makes it possible to develop a set of theories about how urban space networks relate in general to the social, economic and cognitive factors which shape them, and how they are affected by them (Hillier et al. 2007). Recently, the space syntax toolkit has been integrated into the open source geographic information system known as QuantumGIS.

Spatial planning is currently being confronted with unprecedented change, which is taking place at the interface between traditional environments and the rapidly evolving virtual world (Axford et al. 2007, Sidhy and Doyle 2016, De Waal 2013). This situation provokes one of the most serious questions for contemporary spatial planning: How can we develop a frame of reference for planning action and planning intervention within a world of ongoing and discontinuous change? Change under discussion here is partially digitally constructed and virtually produced, affecting and transforming traditional space and place. No one knows precisely what the developments that emerge from this hybrid space between the material and virtual worlds will precipitate. Moreover, it is difficult to say what effects will materialize, not to mention the consequences of these developments: the current virtual world is already stunning and full of promise. New imaginary spaces are opening up (Sherman and Craig 2002), such as augmented realities, virtual realities, gamified environments and ‘sensored’ places within which digital access has replaced traditional mechanisms and means of interaction.

This introduction presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in the subsequent chapters of this book. The book explores the idea of urban design as a virtual space evolves as a reflexive instance between pixels and ideas that help to develop a new perception of space and social life. It explores inter alia, routines and perceptions where we often do not even recognize that the virtual has entangled with reality. The book describes a cognitive design computing system for urban planners. It focuses on understanding the relationship between an emergent structure and processes. The book discusses four game concepts ranging from very serious games to more playful virtual game-based environments. All created games may be used to facilitate participatory processes in urban planning. The book demonstrates how Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) and virtual platforms can be implemented for a mobile device and offers ten key questions that need to be asked in the process of creating a facilitated-VGI.

Originally published in 1997, Urban Environmental Planning provides a groundbreaking overview of innovative methods and techniques for measuring and managing the environmental effects of urban land uses on other urban activities. Fully revised and updated, this second edition brings together a team of leading environmental planners and policy makers from the US, UK, Europe and SE Asia to address the central questions confronting sustainable urban development. Typical questions include: How can you measure and manage the negative environmental effects of intrusive urban activities such as manufacturing and transport on sensitive land uses including residential and recreational areas? Can a balance be found between reducing these effects through means such as separating conflicting land uses? While other sources identify the need for effective programmes to improve urban environmental quality, this volume describes and assesses analytical methods and implementing programmes practised by leading communities around the world.

Many municipalities all over the world have adopted environmental declarations, strategies and action plans. A general term for these plans that address environmental problems is 'green plans' or 'environmental (policy) plans'. The relation between local physical, land-use or spatial planning and these forms of environmental or green planning varies from system to system. In some countries the planning functions are combined while in other countries they are quit separate (Sustainable cities project, 1994).

Leeuwarden was chosen as European Capital of Culture (ECOC) for 2018. We address, through a complexity perspective, how leisure characteristics of the ECOC can affect regional development in Fryslân. Three aspects are identified that make leisure-led regional development complex: (i) fragmentation of the leisure sector; (ii) balance between developing leisure and protecting existing social, cultural and ecological qualities; and (iii) difficulties obtaining crossovers between leisure and broader regional development. In an analysis of policy documents for the 2018 ECOC, we observe that although the interactions central to these complexities are recognised they are not captured in the monitoring of the ECOC effects through quantified targets such as attracting four million tourists. We argue that an approach that constantly acknowledges the interactions within leisure is required for a positive effect on regional development to emerge. This necessitates a process in which targets can be adapted according to changing circumstances.

Making a suitable career choice is a difficult task. Every year, many adolescents prematurely end their studies, commonly citing “having made the wrong choice” as the main reason. This is a problem, both for the adolescents making these choices, and for society, which bears at least part of the cost of higher education. A thorough understanding of how adolescents make these career choices is essential to identifying the factors responsible for why the wrong choices are often made. Identity development theory emphasizes the role of exploration in career choice, but neglects many of the micro-level processes likely to play an important role. Similarly, traditional decision theory often focuses on optimization of choice, thereby neglecting the cognitive mechanisms that may explain deviations from optimal choice. Here, we present a novel computational approach to modeling long-term decision making. We combine elements of the macro-level theory on identity development with a firm rooting in micro-level cognitive processes. Specifically, we model decision making as an iterative process in which individuals can explore new options or more deeply investigate options that are already under consideration. The output of our model allows us to analyze how the quality of decisions depends on various factors, such as aspiration levels, the tendency to explore new options, and the ability to judge the fit of an option with one’s interests and capabilities. We present some preliminary results that already show our approach can lead to surprising conclusions, encouraging further development of this model in the future.

Introduction In September 2013 a European jury chose Leeuwarden, the capital of the Dutch province of Fryslân, as European Capital of Culture for 2018 (Joustra 2013). This title might have come as a surprise to some, given the competition of larger and better-known Dutch cities such as The Hague, Utrecht and Eindhoven; nevertheless, the designation of Leeuwarden matches the development in the north of the Netherlands, where regional development is increasingly focused on creating an environment in which people enjoy being. The route towards 2018 consists of a programme that specifically aims at making the area ‘optimally attractive’ (Stichting Kulturele Haadstêd 2015, 2018). This is part of the development that Hermans and De Roo (2006) call a ‘leisure economy’. The rationale is that rural or peripheral areas such as Fryslân cannot compete with the core economic areas in Europe. However, the peripheral location and lower population density do result in qualities that are important for leisure, such as green spaces, waterscapes and tranquillity. Leisure, in this context, is seen not just as an economic activity, but also as relating to well-being, identity and status, and even a state of mind or attitude, for instance a feeling of freedom (cf. Gospodini 2001; Walmsley 2003; Greenwood Parr and Lashua 2004). Particularly for areas in the face of population decline, as is the case for many rural regions in the EU (see Haartsen and Venhorst 2010; Provincie Fryslân 2013: 8), focusing on leisure development can generate social, cultural and political advantages, which go far beyond economic benefits (e.g. Stebbins 1982; Parra 2010a).

Today’s world is predominantly urban. Most urban regions are located in delta regions. And delta regions face severe pressures because of their fragile environments, their delicate relationship with existing ecological habitats and coastal zones, which need protection, and the increasing constraints and threats due to climate change and sea level, rise. Delta regions are under pressure. Spatial planning is one of the means to maintain quality of living in delta regions. Spatial planning has a strong tradition in taking ‘here and now’ decisions to responding to problems and difficulties, with not much difference in technical and communicative approaches. If spatial planning wants to be supportive to transformations at various levels of scale in urbanized delta regions alternative time related approaches are desperately needed. The plurality of urbanized delta regions forces such time related planning approaches to be emergent, adaptive, co-evolving and transformative in nature. It means planning has to embrace a non-linear understanding of space and place. This book is meant as an introduction to non-linearity and spatial planning.

This chapter introduces a planning tool that helps to cope with actor-related fuzziness in planning. This tool will focus on the role, motivation, perception and behaviour of the actor within the planning process. An examination of sociological theory firstly helps to substantiate the basis of 'actor-consulting' and secondly helps to define the direction of the questions to be asked while consulting the various actors. Coming out of organization theory, actor consulting focuses on implementation and the 'how to do' question. Traditionally a phase model is used to mediate step by step towards recommendations for achieving commitment and for achieving better results. A model can provide a rational basis for this process, resulting in a plan that prescribes what activities should be carried out, and in what order. 'Competence' can be seen as how the various actors are able to contribute in terms of their 'potential contribution' to planning.

This chapter focuses on the idea that the language of planning is full of fuzzy notions, concepts, doctrines, goals and visions. Fuzziness in planning is the main theme throughout the book. The planning community has just recently embraced communicative approaches, to allow inter-subjective interaction and consensus to develop. The book contains the method for coping with fuzziness and fluidity in planning, focussing on the role, behaviour, motivation and perception of the actors involved in a particular policy arena. Groundwater protection is of particular importance in the County of Viborg, where nitrates easily penetrate the permeable sandy soils. The environmental planners at Viborg, with strong political support for the principles of 'sustainable development', have taken the initiative to develop a geographic information system, as a means of stimulating public and political debate.

Groundwater protection is of particular importance in the County of Viborg, where agricultural pollution easily penetrates the permeable sandy soils. One of the main planning issues resulting from this is the control of farming activities to prevent the pollution of drinking water aquifers, particularly with a view to facilitating their long-term protection. The environmental planners at Viborg, with strong political support for the principles of 'sustainable development', had therefore taken the initiative to develop a pilot internet-based geographic information system (GIS), as a means of stimulating public and political debate. In order to achieve the aims, it was decided to base the actor-consultation on an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and the participative activities involved in that scenario. In granting planning permission for increased farming production, difficult choices have to be made between the socio-economic benefits of increased agricultural production, and their consequent environmental effects.

This book is a message to be humble before truth and reality and to relinquish the idea of controlling them. Planners do not have that much control. In retrospect, it was easy to conclude that in conditions of constant population growth and with an economy in fairly good shape, a linear model of urban development would be relatively easy to maintain: the origin of the idea of certainty and control. The population in the Western world is no longer growing though; on the contrary, many regions and cities are facing population decline. Added to that, the economy is proving quite uncertain as well. The two together impact on spatial development. This all means that we have to consider a fundamentally different perspective on the role of spatial planning and its position in urban and rural development. Instead of planning aiming to achieve controlled development, it might get more out of the various autonomous processes affecting urban and the rural areas. In addition to planners being experts or mediators, we might appreciate planners becoming managers of change, transition managers, adaptive responders and social entrepreneurs, supporting and guiding the various parties within urban and rural areas to find the positions which suit them best. This book acknowledges these new identities and positions, with the planner acting as a manager of change. This book tries to present arguments in support of a discipline of spatial planning which adopts a different stance to the world, a more adaptive stance, and with a keen eye for self-organization processes: an eye for non-linear kinds of planning in a world of change.

This book is a message to be humble before truth and reality and to relinquish the idea of controlling them. Planners do not have that much control. In retrospect, it was easy to conclude that in conditions of constant population growth and with an economy in fairly good shape, a linear model of urban development would be relatively easy to maintain: the origin of the idea of certainty and control. The population in the Western world is no longer growing though; on the contrary, many regions and cities are facing population decline. Added to that, the economy is proving quite uncertain as well. The two together impact on spatial development. This all means that we have to consider a fundamentally different perspective on the role of spatial planning and its position in urban and rural development. Instead of planning aiming to achieve controlled development, it might get more out of the various autonomous processes affecting urban and the rural areas. In addition to planners being experts or mediators, we might appreciate planners becoming managers of change, transition managers, adaptive responders and social entrepreneurs, supporting and guiding the various parties within urban and rural areas to find the positions which suit them best. This book acknowledges these new identities and positions, with the planner acting as a manager of change. This book tries to present arguments in support of a discipline of spatial planning which adopts a different stance to the world, a more adaptive stance, and with a keen eye for self-organization processes: an eye for non-linear kinds of planning in a world of change.

The assumption of linear growth, Plan A, no longer works well, underpinned as it is by arguments deduced from the ‘normal’ sciences and their linear understanding of the world we are part of. Functionality, certainty and predictability have proven to be no longer trustworthy, with serious consequences for city planning. It is not easy to venture out beyond current paradigms, as these are entrenched deeply within us, framing our ideas, attitudes, behaviours and actions. Nevertheless, with this contribution we propose a Plan B and what some would call a ‘post normal’ science perspective, focusing on a non-linear understanding of our world. A non-linear understanding means we consider the world to be undergoing discontinuous change, which is and becomes manifest largely beyond our control. It will have far-reaching consequences for the institutional design used by planners, interacting with and influencing a city’s development. Despite this we believe there are strong arguments in support of a Plan B.

Leisure is seen as an important factor for regional development in the province of Fryslân and many other predominantly rural and peripheral areas. However, planning for leisure, requiring high spatial quality, is a complex challenge. This is due to the fragmentation of leisure policy, but also to the position of leisure on the fringes of urban and rural, nature and agriculture. Additionally, the meaning of leisure changes over time due to the temporary nature of discourses on leisure. This paper provides an operationalization of complex adaptive systems to analyze the role of leisure in regional development by looking at the way in which discourses on leisure both shape and are shaped by regional development. The paper, which follows an earlier paper on the evolutionary development of leisure, is structured in three parts. The first part positions the research in the debate on complexity and complex adaptive systems in planning. The second part argues for the use of discourse analysis in this complex adaptive systems approach. The argument builds on the notion of discourses on leisure as based on as well as constructing social reality. The third part presents a model integrating complexity and discourses and providing an opening for operationalization.

In the province of Fryslân, like in many other rural or peripheral areas, leisure is seen as an important factor for regional development. However, planning for leisure development is a complex challenge, due to the fragmented nature of policies dealing with leisure and due to the location of many leisure activities on the fringes of urban and rural, and nature and agriculture. This paper uses a complex adaptive systems perspective to provide better insight in the dynamics of interaction between leisure and regional development. The paper is structured in four parts. The first part combines the literature on complexity and complex adaptive systems with evolutionary economic geography. The second part zooms in on processes of self-organization, co-evolution and emergence, as the focus of an evolutionary economic geography analysis. These processes are operationalized in the model presented in part three, which allows the description of a complex adaptive system at a specific moment in time in terms of robustness and dynamics, and unity and diversity. The fourth part argues for a qualitative historiographic methodology which reveals the way historical development shapes the complex adaptive system and changes its position in the model described in part three. This methodology is applied to the case of regional development through leisure in the Dutch province of Fryslân. The paper concludes that the integration of complex adaptive systems in evolutionary economic geography can lead to a better understanding of the interactions between leisure and other factors influencing regional development.

Citizens in cities around the world are expressing greater interest in and are lobbying for improved environmental conditions (Werna and Harpham, 1995). They want clean air, clean water, reduced noise, more vegetation and protection of habitat areas, and safety from dangers from contaminated and unstable soil conditions (Dobson, 1995). These are all seen as contributing not only to their health but to their quality of life (Mega, 1996).

Dit boek gaat over processen en modellen van planning. Het zijn processen en modellen om de fysieke leefomgeving te beïnvloeden. Ook gaat het over de rol die planologen daarbij spelen. Geen gemakkelijke rol, omdat de complexiteit van een planningproces groot is. Verschillende typen processen worden in dit boek onderscheiden, waarbij gekeken wordt naar relevante methoden, handelingen en werkwijzen. Ook kijken we naar de context waarbinnen deze methoden en werkwijzen kunnen worden toegepast. We gebruiken daarvoor een model dat praktijksituaties verbindt met planologisch handelen. Het is een manier van kijken die ik hier de ‘Abstracties van Planning’ noem.

Complexity, complex systems and complexity theories are becoming increasingly important within a variety disciplines. While these issues are less well known within the discipline of spatial planning, there has been a recent growing awareness and interest. As planners grapple with how to consider the vagaries of the real world when putting together proposals for future development, they question how complexity, complex systems and complexity theories might prove useful with regard to spatial planning and the physical environment. This book provides a readable overview, presenting and relating a range of understandings and characteristics of complexity and complex systems as they are relevant to planning. It recognizes multiple, relational approaches of dynamic complexity which enhance understandings of, and facilitate working with, contingencies of place, time and the various participants' behaviours. In doing so, it should contribute to a better understanding of processes with regard to our physical and social worlds.

In recent years, Dutch environmental policy has undergone some pivotal changes, the most significant of which have been decentralization and deregulation, encouraging local communities to develop and deliver policies which are tailor-made to their particular situation. These changes have led to the development of some innovative practical instruments for aiding sustainable environmental spatial policy. This book discusses these new 'methods for environmental externalities' and their significance in the development and delivery of Dutch environmental policies, particularly how they ensure that issues such as health and hygiene are introduced in the early stages of spatial planning processes. This book highlights the most prominent and relevant of these innovative 'methods for environmental externalities' as well as comparing them with some of the classic methods, and analysing strengths and weaknesses. It argues that having such a broad and varied choice of methods is the key to ensuring the impressive and groundbreaking Dutch creativity in environmental management. In conclusion, the book extrapolates current trends in environmental policy, expresses likely and possible developments in 'methods for environmental externalities' and shows how such methods can contribute in our ongoing attempts to develop and deliver liveable, pleasant and sustainable towns and cities.

Our existing knowledge of the links between urban growth and commuting patterns are dominated by cases from developed countries. This paper examines the impact of urban growth on workers' commutes using the case of Beijing, which is undergoing rapid economic and spatial restructuring. The results of an analysis of household survey data show that clustered and compact urban development in planned sub-centres is likely to reduce suburban workers' need for a long-distance commute to the city centre when the workers' socio-economic characteristics, the level of transport accessibility and household preferences for residential location are taken into account. Workers employed in the manufacturing sector tend to have shorter commutes and travel within the planned suburban sub-centres. This reveals that the decentralization of employment in the manufacturing sector provides more opportunities to enhance the spatial matches between household residential and job location choices. Household preferences for residential location have an effect on commuting patterns, and high-income workers are likely to accept longer commutes in order to fulfil their residential preferences. Dramatic urban restructuring, in conjunction with changes in lifestyle, is creating new commuting patterns in the rapidly growing cities of China.