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Alternative protein sources are gaining attraction in food industry and consumers. Proteins obtained by single-cell organisms, such as torula yeast, are of enormous interest, as they are highly scalable, efficient, and sustainable, and the production costs are comparably low. Nevertheless, proteins obtained from yeasts are still mostly known and studied for feed applications, despite their nutritional, functional, and sensory benefits for various food applications. Testing consumer acceptance of products, especially products containing alternative proteins provides insights into, e.g., market success, consumer perception, and optimization potential. In this study, the development of two vegan spread powders, high in protein and containing torula yeast as an alternative protein source, is introduced. The result of food product development using torula yeast were "Leberwurst"-style (14.7% protein) and a "Balkan"-style (9.7% protein) spreads both meeting the criteria "at least 20% kcal from proteins of total product kcal" and thus claimable as "high-protein." The application of the alternative protein from torula yeast within the final products was studied by a consumer acceptance test (n = 123) within three different countries (Germany, Iceland, and Sweden). Consumers also rated their trust in food production actors, the food industry in particular, and their willingness to try new foods. Overall, both spreads received acceptance values in the range of "like slightly." It is noticeable that the consumers liked the spread "Balkan style" more than "Leberwurst"-style. The background variables revealed higher neophobic characteristics of Icelandic consumers compared with Swedish or German consumers. However, German consumers felt transparency, and communication was missing, but Icelandic consumers, in general, had more trust in the overall food value chain. This knowledge allows for the development of strategies that address cultural-specific barriers and capitalize on cultural values that promote openness to culinary innovation. The identification of cultural variations in consumer preferences emphasizes the need for customized approaches to product development and marketing. These findings could have implications for businesses and policymakers in understanding and catering to the preferences and concerns of consumers in these respective countries. Businesses might benefit from emphasizing transparency and improving communication strategies. This could involve providing clear information about the sourcing, production, and other aspects of the food value chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The food industry has recently been under unprecedented pressure due to major global challenges, such as climate change, exponential increase in world population and urbanization, and the worldwide spread of new diseases and pandemics, such as the COVID-19. The fourth industrial revolution (Industry 4.0) has been gaining momentum since 2015 and has revolutionized the way in which food is produced, transported, stored, perceived, and consumed worldwide, leading to the emergence of new food trends. After reviewing Industry 4.0 technologies (e.g. artificial intelligence, smart sensors, robotics, blockchain, and the Internet of Things) in Part I of this work (Hassoun, Aït-Kaddour, et al. 2022. The fourth industrial revolution in the food industry—Part I: Industry 4.0 technologies. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 1–17.), this complimentary review will focus on emerging food trends (such as fortified and functional foods, additive manufacturing technologies, cultured meat, precision fermentation, and personalized food) and their connection with Industry 4.0 innovations. Implementation of new food trends has been associated with recent advances in Industry 4.0 technologies, enabling a range of new possibilities. The results show several positive food trends that reflect increased awareness of food chain actors of the food-related health and environmental impacts of food systems. Emergence of other food trends and higher consumer interest and engagement in the transition toward sustainable food development and innovative green strategies are expected in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This thought document initiates a series of commissioned articles, which will appear in this Journal during 2024 and marks the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Institute of Food Science and Technology in the UK. Climate changes have been seen to have major effects on the disruption of food supply systems. Such changes have had implications on food sustainability, food security and the nutritional composition of foods. In response to these disruptions, food researchers and the food industry have evaluated potential research activities to alleviate risks associated with food insecurity, and focussed on waste utilisation and the use of recovered products for the well‐being of consumers. This viewpoint article focusses on a selection of recently published articles from the International Journal of Food Science and Technology and aligned journals to show the relevance of such research to today's food industry. It is by examining the recent focus of researchers in specific areas of food science and technology, that it is possible to apply these published findings to the modern food industry and help reduce the impact of what may be considered a resource hungry industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Proteins from animal sources have for many centuries been used as the conventional food proteins in the food industry to produce a variety of food products. This is mainly attributed to their functional properties that range from foaming ability and stability to emulsification and gelation. However, animal husbandry has a greater impact on the environment compared to crop production. Thus, research on the potential use of plant‐based proteins, which could be more sustainable, cheaper and environmentally friendly has continued to be the focus of many academics and the food industry. Even though studies have been carried out to investigate the functional properties of plant‐based protein sources, there is still a need to understand the challenges that exist in the extraction and the functional characteristics of proteins from plant sources, which could be used as a more feasible exchange for animal‐based proteins. Therefore, this review aims to contribute to the existing knowledge on the extraction, characterisation and functional properties of plant‐based proteins. To this end, relevant literature was searched on several databases such as EBSCO HOST and Science Direct. Google Scholar was also used as a complementary search engine. Research that has addressed the extraction and functional characterisation of proteins from plant sources was critically evaluated and the findings are discussed herein. Additionally, the pinch points that exist in the use of plant‐based proteins as alternatives to animal proteins in food processing are highlighted in this review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unprecedented surge of developing meat analogues and other alternative protein products in the past few years has occurred amidst numerous technological challenges. The creation of fibril structure and flavour from non-muscle proteinaceous sources to mimic fresh and processed meat requires a clear understanding of the fundamental differences between muscle and alternative proteins. Currently, plant-based meat alternatives are dominating the alternative market; mycoprotein-based products have also gained a market share, while algae and insects are other emerging sources of alternative proteins. Both traditional and novel processing technologies and innovative ingredient formulations are being developed to transform nonmuscle proteins into fibrous or particle structures that microscopically resemble muscle. However, the production of meat analogues generally entails ultra-processing and ultra-formulation, which could compromise nutritional value and safety. Therefore, to sustain the alternative protein market, scientists and entrepreneurs must methodically examine and understand inherent differences that separate alternative proteins from muscle proteins. An intuitive knowledge base is essential to designing new approaches to overcome technical challenges. In doing so, food scientists and entrepreneurs must be keenly cognisant that animal meat products are unique; the quality and sensorial attributes of meat can only be simulated but not replicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based seafood analogs are gaining increasing popularity as replacements for traditional fish and other seafood products due to environmental (stock depletion, pollution, and bycatch issues) and health (bioaccumulated toxins, norovirus, and allergies) concerns associated with them. Several companies have launched plant-based fish products, but the market still lacks alternatives to shellfish and other sea delicacies. In this study, a plant-based sea foie gras (monkfish liver product) analog was developed using duckweed RuBisCO protein and omega-3-rich flaxseed oil to form emulsion gels. These gels consisted of a high concentration of flaxseed oil droplets dispersed within a gelled RuBisCO protein network. It was hypothesized that the high disperse phase volume fraction of the oil droplets and the heat-set gelation properties of the RuBisCO proteins would enable us to create emulsion gels that mimicked the properties of sea foie gras. A natural pigment (β-carotene) was incorporated into the oil phase of the emulsions to mimic the red-orange color of conventional sea foie gras. The structural, textural, and optical properties of real and plant-based sea foie gras analogs were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, confocal microscopy, dynamic shear rheology, texture profile analysis, and colorimetry. Emulsion gels prepared using 40% flaxseed oil and 10% RuBisCO proteins produced plant-based products that closely simulated the texture and color of the real products. Rheological analysis suggested that the oil droplets acted as active fillers within the protein gels. Our results suggest that emulsion gels may be used to create more sustainable and healthier plant-based seafood products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative proteins, including plant-based and cell-based meat and dairy analogues, are discursively positioned as a new form of meat and dairy and as a solution to the myriad of issues associated with conventional animal agriculture. Animal agricultural industries across various nations have resisted this positioning in regulatory spaces by advocating for laws that restrict the use of meat and dairy terms on the labels of alternative proteins products. Underlying this contestation are differing understandings of, and vested interests in, desirable futures for animal agriculture. In Australia, this broader contestation led to a national-level inquiry by a Senate parliamentary committee entitled Definitions of meat and other animal products (the Inquiry). This paper reports findings from a study of the problematizations developed through the Inquiry using a framework for policy discourse analysis referred to as Bacchi's 'What's the Problem Represented to be' methodology. It shows how the dominant discourse throughout the Inquiry moved away from the initial problematization of alternative proteins as a threat to animal agriculture. Instead, both industries were ultimately positioned as not in competition and only labelling laws were problematized with the solution being amendments to ensure 'consumer clarity'. This outcome ignored a range of alternative problematizations related to the ethical, environmental, health, social and economic issues raised by animal agriculture and by alternative proteins. This lack of scrutiny benefits both industries, by closing off the policy discourse to consideration of a range of alternative interests, voices, and potential solutions, such as stricter health and welfare regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effects of high-pressure homogenization (HPH) and ultrasonication pre-treatment on the structural and physicochemical properties of proteins extracted from defatted Nannochloropsis Oceania biomass (DNOB). HPH treatment was found to enhance the solubility of protein extracted from DNOB compared to ultrasound, where samples pretreated with three passes (3P) of HPH exhibited lower solubility than two passes (2P). The morphology of extracted samples was visualized by scanning electron microscopy, which HPH pre-treatment, especially with more passes, were able to breakdown DNOB into fragments. Alternatively, more holes were displayed on the surface of the extracts pretreated with ultrasound especially when higher amplitude applied. The particle size of extracts from HPH3P (129.5 µm) significant dropped from HPH2P (314.25 µm), where samples pretreated with ultrasound at 20 % amplitude (US20) also decreased in particle size compared to 40 % amplitude (US40), from 115.25 µm to 78.22 µm. Protein flexibility of DNOB extracts were enhanced by both HPH2P and HPH3P but decreased for ultrasound samples. β-sheets were found to be the most abundant protein secondary structure for all samples, where samples treated with HPH3P contained the highest percentage of β-sheets (72 %) than control, HPH2P, ultrasonication at 20 and 40 % amplitude (52–62 %). The high percentage of β-sheets found in HPH3P sample also contributed to its outstanding emulsifying properties which stood out among all, especially at concentrations over 1 mg/ml. Results obtained from this study helped to direct the application of DNOB extracts as functional food ingredient for future food innovation.

This paper reviews the nutritional properties and consumer perceptions of microalgae foods through various recent studies on alternative protein sources. Food choices, including meat consumption, are a common concern for humanity. Thus, we focused on whether microalgae foods have a sufficient value as a protein source and what nutritional benefits they have. Based on existing papers, we conducted a systematic review using Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus to comprehensively investigate and summarize the nutritional characteristics of microalgae, sustainable diets, and awareness of microalgae as an alternative protein source. Research has shown that microalgae have been consumed by humans as a protein source since ancient times, and contain enough protein to be used as an alternative protein source. They also have many other nutritional benefits, such as vitamins. We have found that consumers are increasingly interested in alternative protein sources, and the more they learn about microalgae, the more accepting they become. These results may suggest a need for further research to improve microalgae as an alternative protein source in the long run and develop them into a variety of foods.

Creating propositions for the near and distant future requires a design to catch the tide of the times and move with or against trends. In addition, appropriate, adaptable, flexible, and transformational projects are needed in light of changes in science, technology, social, economic, political, and demographic fields over time. Humanity is facing a period in which science and developing technologies will be even more important in solving food safety, health, and environmental problems. Adapting to and mitigating climate change; reducing pollution, waste, and biodiversity loss; and feeding a growing global population with safe food are key challenges facing the agri-food industry and the food supply chain, requiring systemic transformation in agricultural systems and sustainable future agri-food. The aim of this review is to compile scientific evidence and data, define, and create strategies for the future in terms of food security, safety, and sufficiency; future sustainable foods and alternative protein sources; factors affecting food and nutrition security and agriculture; and promising food systems such as functional foods, novel foods, synthetic biology, and 3D food printing. In this review, the safety, conservation, nutritional, sensory, welfare, and potential challenges and limitations of food systems and the opportunities to overcome them on the basis of new approaches, innovative interpretations, future possibilities, and technologies are discussed. Additionally, this review also offers suggestions for future research and food trends in light of future perspectives. This article focuses on future sustainable foods, alternative protein sources, and novel efficient food systems, highlights scientific and technological advances and new research directions, and provides a significant perspective on sustainability.

Plant protein ingredients are gaining attention for human nutrition, yet they differ significantly from animal proteins in functionality and nutrition. Fungal solid-state fermentation (SSF) can modulate the composition and functionality, increasing their applicability in foods. Quinoa flour (QF) served as a substrate for Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus, resulting in two fermented ingredients (QFA and QFR) with different nutritional, functional, and aroma characteristics. A higher increase in protein (+35%) and nitrogen (+24%) was observed in the QFA, while fat was predominantly increased in the QFR (+78%). Fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) decreased in the QFR but increased in the QFA due to polyol production. Metabolomic analysis revealed higher lactic acid concentrations in the QFA, and higher citric, malic, and fumaric acid contents in the QFR. The SSF reduced most antinutrients, while R. oligosporus produced saponins. Olfactometry showed the development of fruity ester compounds and a decrease in metallic and cardboard aromas. Both ingredients showed an enhanced water-holding capacity, with the QFA also demonstrating an increased oil-holding capacity. Complex formation increased the particle size, reduced the solubility, and decreased the foaming properties. Mycelium production darkened the ingredients, with the QFR having a higher differential colour index. This study highlights the potential of SSF to produce ingredients with improved nutritional, sensory, and functional properties.

Vivid-colored phycobiliproteins (PBPs) have emerging potential as food colors and alternative proteins in the food industry. However, enhancing their application potential requires increasing stability, cost-effective purification processes, and consumer acceptance. This narrative review aimed to highlight information regarding the critical aspects of PBP research that is needed to improve their food industry potential, such as stability, food fortification, development of new PBP-based food products, and cost-effective production. The main results of the literature review show that polysaccharide and protein-based encapsulations significantly improve PBPs’ stability. Additionally, while many studies have investigated the ability of PBPs to enhance the techno-functional properties, like viscosity, emulsifying and stabilizing activity, texture, rheology, etc., of widely used food products, highly concentrated PBP food products are still rare. Therefore, much effort should be invested in improving the stability, yield, and sensory characteristics of the PBP-fortified food due to the resulting unpleasant sensory characteristics. Considering that most studies focus on the C-phycocyanin from Spirulina, future studies should concentrate on less explored PBPs from red macroalgae due to their much higher production potential, a critical factor for positioning PBPs as alternative proteins.

Although jellyfish represent a food source in Asia, limited attention has been devoted to investigating Western consumers’ perception and acceptance. This study explored the role of jellyfish body parts and presentation form in determining consumer perception. A local consumer test with 106 untrained subjects (57.5% female, 18–45 years) was performed in Italy over two days on six samples of jellyfish (Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye) differing in terms of body parts (umbrella and oral arms) and presentation form (minced, striped, and pieced). For each sample, participants expressed their overall liking and, through three check-all-that-apply tests, described their perceived sensory properties and emotions and potential preferred food pairings. The results showed a significant effect of presentation form on liking (with striped and minced samples liked more than pieced samples), 18 sensory properties, four emotions, and five food pairings. Moreover, different drivers of liking and emotions were observed for three clusters of subjects named “In favour of”, “Against”, and “Picky towards” eating jellyfish. In conclusion, this study found that at least one segment of consumers could accept jellyfish as novel food. Moreover, the provided results could be useful for developing innovative jellyfish-based products and dishes that meet consumers’ expectations.

A high alkaline pH was previously demonstrated to enhance the extraction yield of brewer’s spent grains (BSG) proteins. The effects of extraction pH beyond the extraction yield, however, has not been investigated before. The present work examined the effects of extraction pH (pH 8–12) on BSG proteins’ (1) amino acid compositions, (2) secondary structures, (3) thermal stability, and (4) functionalities (i.e., water/oil holding capacity, emulsifying, and foaming properties). The ideal extraction temperature (60 °C) and BSG-to-solvent ratio (1:20 w/v) for maximizing the extraction yield were first determined to set the conditions for the pH effect study. The results showed that a higher extraction pH led to more balanced compositions between hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids and higher proportions of random coils structures indicating increased protein unfolding. This led to superior emulsifying properties of the extracted proteins with more than twofold improvement between pH 8 and a pH larger than 10. The extraction pH, nevertheless, had minimal impact on the water/oil holding capacity, foaming properties, and thermal denaturation propensity of the proteins. The present work demonstrated that a high alkaline pH at pH 11–12 was indeed ideal for both maximizing the extraction yield (37–46 wt.%) and proteins’ functionalities.

This review discusses different protein sources and their role in human nutrition, focusing on their structure, digestibility, and bioavailability. Plant-based proteins, such as those found in legumes, nuts, and seeds, may contain anti-nutritional factors that impact their bioavailability apart from structural and compositional differences from animal proteins. Animal proteins are generally highly digestible and nutritionally superior to plant proteins, with higher amino acid bioavailability. Alternative protein sources are also processed in different ways, which can alter their structure and nutritional value, which is also discussed.

The market for plant-based dairy alternatives is growing; therefore, focusing on the nutritional quality of these products is important. This study evaluates the nutritional profile of plant-based alternatives to milk, yoghurt, cheese, cream, ice cream and fat spread in the Swedish market and compares them to corresponding dairy products. The nutritional quality of organic vs non-organic and plain vs flavoured plant-based milk and yoghurt alternatives was also assessed. Nutritional data for 222 plant-based dairy alternatives were collected from the manufacturers’ websites, and data for corresponding dairy products were obtained from the Swedish Food Composition Database. Plant-based dairy alternatives had higher fibre content than dairy products, while their protein content was lower, except for soy-based products. The saturated fat content of plant-based dairy alternatives was similar to or lower than dairy products, except for coconut-based yoghurt and plant-fat-based cheese. Their energy content was also similar to or lower than dairy products, except for coconut-based yoghurt, plant-based fat spread and plant-based ice cream, which contained higher energy than yoghurt, blended margarine, and ice cream, respectively. The micronutrient fortification was mainly in plant-based milk, yoghurt, and cheese alternatives; thus, compared to dairy, they had similar or higher vitamins D, B2, and B12 (except in plant-based milk alternatives), calcium and iodine content. Furthermore, organic plant-based milk and yoghurt alternatives had a lower micronutrient content (e.g., vitamins B2 and B12, iodine and calcium) except for vitamin D than non-organic varieties. Flavoured plant-based milk and yoghurt alternatives were higher in energy and total sugar than plain varieties. In summary, plant-based dairy alternatives have nutritional strengths and weaknesses compared to dairy products that should be considered when replacing dairy.

Alternative protein sources are gaining attraction in food industry and consumers. Proteins obtained by single-cell organisms, such as torula yeast, are of enormous interest, as they are highly scalable, efficient, and sustainable, and the production costs are comparably low. Nevertheless, proteins obtained from yeasts are still mostly known and studied for feed applications, despite their nutritional, functional, and sensory benefits for various food applications. Testing consumer acceptance of products, especially products containing alternative proteins provides insights into, e.g., market success, consumer perception, and optimization potential. In this study, the development of two vegan spread powders, high in protein and containing torula yeast as an alternative protein source, is introduced. The result of food product development using torula yeast were “Leberwurst”-style (14.7% protein) and a “Balkan”-style (9.7% protein) spreads both meeting the criteria “at least 20% kcal from proteins of total product kcal” and thus claimable as “high-protein.” The application of the alternative protein from torula yeast within the final products was studied by a consumer acceptance test (n = 123) within three different countries (Germany, Iceland, and Sweden). Consumers also rated their trust in food production actors, the food industry in particular, and their willingness to try new foods. Overall, both spreads received acceptance values in the range of “like slightly.” It is noticeable that the consumers liked the spread “Balkan style” more than “Leberwurst”-style. The background variables revealed higher neophobic characteristics of Icelandic consumers compared with Swedish or German consumers. However, German consumers felt transparency, and communication was missing, but Icelandic consumers, in general, had more trust in the overall food value chain. This knowledge allows for the development of strategies that address cultural-specific barriers and capitalize on cultural values that promote openness to culinary innovation. The identification of cultural variations in consumer preferences emphasizes the need for customized approaches to product development and marketing. These findings could have implications for businesses and policymakers in understanding and catering to the preferences and concerns of consumers in these respective countries. Businesses might benefit from emphasizing transparency and improving communication strategies. This could involve providing clear information about the sourcing, production, and other aspects of the food value chain.

The increased global market value of fish meal (FM) and the overfishing of wild fishery resources have boosted efforts to identify protein sources that can be cheaply and reliably supplied as an alternative to FM, which is commonly used as a main protein source in fish diets. Numerous studies over the years have demonstrated that animal by-product meals are the effective alternatives for FM in fish diets. This study aimed to elucidate the effect of substituting FM with various by-product meals of swine-origin in diet on growth, feed utilization, chemical composition, plasma biochemical parameters, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and lysozyme activity of juvenile olive flounder (P. olivaceus). All experimental diets were formulated with five isonitrogenous (56.5%) and isolipidic (10.0%) diets. The control (Con) diet included 65% FM and 12% dehulled soybean meal as the protein sources and 4.2% fish oil as a lipid source. Thirty percent of FM was replaced with plasma powder, heme powder, globin powder, and pork greaves meal, named as the PP, HP, GP, and PM diets, respectively. Three hundred and seventy-five juvenile (9.2 ± 0.01 g; mean ± SD) fish were placed into 15 flow-through tanks with three replicates. Fish were carefully hand-fed to apparent satiation twice a day for 56 days. At the end of the feeding period, weight gain and specific growth rate of fish fed the GP and PM diets were comparable to fish fed the Con diet. Feed consumption of fish fed the PP, GP, and PM diets was comparable to fish fed the Con diet. Feed utilization and condition factor of fish fed the HP diet were the lowest. Plasma biochemical parameters, chemical composition, amino acid profiles, and SOD and lysozyme activity of fish were unaffected by dietary treatments. Thus, GP and PM are the appropriate replacers for FM in the olive flounder diets, wherein 30% FM is substituted by diverse by-product meals of swine-origin.

A widespread sense of the unsustainability of the food system has taken hold in recent years, leading to calls for fundamental change. The role of animal agriculture is central to many of these debates, leading to interest in the possibility of a "protein transition," whereby the production and consumption of animal-derived foods is replaced with plant-based substitutes or "alternative proteins." Despite the potential sustainability implications of this transition, the developmental trajectories and transformative potential of the associated technologies remain underexplored. This article sheds light on these dynamics by addressing two questions: 1) how have alternative protein innovations developed over the past three decades, and 2) what explains their more recent acceleration? To answer these questions, the article makes an empirical analysis of four alternative protein innovations, and the partial destabilization of the animal agriculture system between 1990 and 2021, guided by the multi-level perspective. The analysis highlights an intensification in corporate engagement with alternative protein development and diffusion. This intensification is judged to be consistent with the beginnings of a wider corporate reorientation, occurring alongside a rise in pressures on the animal agriculture system, notably an increasing scientific consensus and societal awareness of the links between climate change and meat-intensive diets. The paper demonstrates how differences in technological maturity across the niche innovations have resulted in potentially transformative pressures, which are consistent with an emerging sustainability transition, manifesting differently in terms of the extent of diffusion of the alternative protein niches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the human population is continuously growing, sufficient food with low environmental impact is required. Especially, the challenge of providing proteins will deepen and insects can contribute to a more sustainable and efficient source of protein for human consumption. Tenebrio molitor larvae are highly nutritious and rearing mealworms is more environmentally friendly compared to the production of traditional livestock meat. To use T. molitor as a more sustainable alternative to conventional proteins, it is essential to apply diets from a local and sustainable source. Therefore, the objective of this study was to find local by-products or leftovers which can be used in mass production of larvae as a main substrate. Feeding trials investigating twenty-nine different substrates were conducted to evaluate larval growth performance and adult reproduction by determining development times, survival rates, biomass, and fecundity. Several suitable by-products were identified that can be used in high quantities as single component diet for T. molitor rearing, revealing a high survival rate, short development time, high mean total biomass, and successful breeding. The most successful substrate—malt residual pellets—was found to be an alternative to the most used substrate, wheat bran. Furthermore, corn germ meal, sweet chestnuts, bread remains, soybeans, sweet potatoes, and wheat germs have been discovered to be suitable diets for T. molitor. Moreover, the findings of this study contribute towards using several substrates as supplements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Proteins play an important role in the human diet. While animal proteins have traditionally been a dietary staple due to their techno‐functional properties, factors such as cost, availability and sustainability concerns have driven the search for alternative protein sources. In this study, the techno‐functional properties of lupine proteins were studied. Protein isolates were shown to exhibit superior properties, with α‐La outperforming WPI and LPI in foaming and gelation properties. The combination of WPI and LPI displayed greater stability to pH changes, which is an important factor for the structural integrity of food products, contributing to quality, customer acceptance and shelf‐life. The findings of this study can contribute to existing knowledge on the functional properties of proteins from plant sources such as lupine, which can therefore help to enhance its usage and alleviate the overdependence on soy as an alternative protein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The market has observed a rapid increase in the demand for plant-based foods as an alternative to animal meat products. Technologies such as high-moisture extrusion (HME) have the potential to develop anisotropic structures using alternative protein ingredients. This article discusses the different possible mechanisms responsible for structure formation and the effect of extrusion process parameters and outlines the recent advances in the long cooling dies (LCDs) used for meat alternative development. The role of different protein ingredients and the impact of combining them with other biopolymers were also evaluated. The underlying mechanism behind anisotropic structure formation during HME is a synergistic effect, with substantial dependence on the source of ingredients and their processing background. Formulation including proteins derived from plants, insects, animals, and microalgae with other biopolymers could pave the way to develop structured meat alternatives and fill nutritional interstices. Dynamic or rotating annular gap cooling dies operating at freely controllable shear and static annular gap dies are recent developments and assist to produce layered or fibrous structures. The complex chemical sites created during the HME of plant protein favour flavour and colour retention. This paper summarises the recent information published in the scientific literature and patents, which could further help researchers to fill the present knowledge gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dried and grinded “mealworms” or the larvae of Tenebrio molitor in form of flour contain up to two thirds of protein and fat. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the possibility for partial replacement of pork meat by mealworm flour expressed through the changes in color, texture, microbiological status and morphology of cooked sausages. The experimental cooked sausages were prepared by substituting 1.5% (CM1), 2% (CM2) and 3% (CM3) pork meat with mealworm flour. It was found that up to 3% substitution of pork meat with mealworm flour (CM3) decreases the free water in the cooked sausages. The lack of difference in aW after replacement of pork meat with mealworm flour does not compromise the shelf life and safety of the produced cooked sausages. As the amount of added mealworm flour increases the structural strength, plastic strength and springiness of experimental cooked sausages decreases. The substitution of 1.5% pork meat with mealworm flour (CM1) was the most appropriate for sausage processing without negative color changes. The appropriate pH of mealworm flour, together with the formed stable emulsions and good water binding capacity both before and after cooking, confirmed the potential of suitable meat substitute in meat industry. The microbial status of the experimental cooked sausages (CM1, CM2 and CM3) increased during storage, but still in the regulated limits for cooked meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study investigated the feasibility of replacing pork meat with pea protein isolate in canned pâtés at proportions ranging from 12.5% to 50%. The results indicated that protein reformulation did not significantly impact the protein content and lipid oxidation of the pâtés. Reformulated products exhibited a decrease in a∗ values and an increase in b∗ values. These color changes were also sensorially identified in the Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) test, where the reformulated pâtés were associated with attributes such as 'yellow color' and 'unpleasant color', which were inversely related to product acceptance. The protein reformulation reduced the hardness, gumminess, and chewiness parameters of the pâtés. These textural changes were positively reflected in the CATA test, where the reformulated products were characterized by attributes like 'soft texture', 'pleasant texture', and 'good spreadability', which strongly correlated with higher consumer acceptance. Notably, pâtés with 37.5% and 50% substitutions of pork meat with pea protein showed acceptability levels comparable to the control, and those with up to a 25% substitution exhibited superior sensory acceptability. However, the color alteration suggests the need for future optimization, such as using natural colorants. In summary, the results of this study not only validate the feasibility of replacing pork meat with pea protein in pâtés but also offer valuable insights for future investigations to develop more innovative and sustainable meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal proteins have in the past been used in food production due to their functional properties that range from gelation and emulsification to foaming ability and stability. However, animal husbandry has been shown to be a major contributor to global warming and climate change. Consequently, there has been a drive toward the use of alternative proteins, for example, proteins from plant sources which are perceived to be cheaper, healthier, and sustainable. The use of trans and saturated fatty acids in the food industry has been associated with various health issues that include an increased risk of metabolic disorders. This has resulted in an increased search for fat substitutes that are healthier and sustainable. To contribute toward a reduction in the consumption of meats from animal sources and the consumption of trans and saturated fatty acids, the formulation of plant‐based meat and fat analogs/substitutes has been carried out. However, there has been a lower acceptance of these meat or fat substitutes which was attributed to their sensorial and textural properties that fail to mimic or resemble real fat or meat. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the advances that have been made when it comes to plant‐based meat and fat substitutes. Additionally, consumer perception and acceptance of these products will be reviewed as well as future markets will be discussed and the opportunities and challenges that exist in the formulation of these products will be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based meat analogs have been shown to cause less harm for both human health and the environment compared to real meat, especially processed meat. However, the intense pressure to enhance the sensory qualities of plant-based meat alternatives has caused their nutritional and safety aspects to be overlooked. This paper reviews our current understanding of the nutrition and safety behind plant-based meat alternatives, proposing fermentation as a potential way of overcoming limitations in these aspects. Plant protein blends, fortification, and preservatives have been the main methods for enhancing the nutritional content and stability of plant-based meat alternatives, but concerns that include safety, nutrient deficiencies, low digestibility, high allergenicity, and high costs have been raised in their use. Fermentation with microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Neurospora intermedia, and Rhizopus oryzae improves digestibility and reduces allergenicity and antinutritive factors more effectively. At the same time, microbial metabolites can boost the final product's safety, nutrition, and sensory quality, although some concerns regarding their toxicity remain. Designing a single starter culture or microbial consortium for plant-based meat alternatives can be a novel solution for advancing the health benefits of the final product while still fulfilling the demands of an expanding and sustainable economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative proteins are finding their way to market. Adequate denomination of such products has however shown not to be an easy task due to strong voices on both sides of the spectrum: those who wish to protect traditional agricultural products and/or fear misunderstanding by consumers, and those who wish to accelerate a protein transition by the strategic positioning and naming of substitutes for such. This paper looks at the communication on alternative proteins from a legal perspective. It provides an overview of the status quo for dairy and meat substitutes, including cultivated meat, supplemented with practical examples from the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several alternative proteins have emerged that may improve the environmental footprint of our food system. Evaluations into the impact of these protein sources on gastrointestinal health is limited. A study was performed to determine whether aqueous extracts from dietary protein sources, both traditional and alternative, had a differential impact on a leaky gut cell culture model. Aqueous extracts of soybean meal, fish meal, Cyberlindnera jadinii, Saccharomyces sp., Bio-Mos, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Methylobacterium extorquens, Escherichia coli, and Hermetia illucens were administered onto a Caco-2/THP-1 co-culture and the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, CXCL10, and MCP-1 concentrations, and NF-κB activity were determined. Principal components analysis and K means clustering were performed. Three clusters were identified: one for soybean meal, one for bacterial meals, and one for the remaining sources. The bacterial meal cluster exhibited pro-inflammatory properties, i.e., correlated with TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, and NF-κB. The soybean meal cluster exhibited both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties, whereas the third cluster containing the remaining proteins exhibited anti-inflammatory properties (correlated with TEER and IL-10). These results suggest that aqueous extracts from yeast proteins contribute more positively, and bacterial proteins contribute the least positively, towards intestinal health in a leaky gut model.

This study investigates consumer preference and acceptance of three meat alternatives—plant-based, lab-grown, and insect-based—as sustainable choices to meet the demands of a growing population and evolving food systems. Insights were gathered from European consumers regarding their perceptions and consumption patterns using a mixed-methods approach. The approach employed a questionnaire followed by focus group discussions conducted in Slovenia and the UK to understand the motivations and barriers behind their responses. The UK and Slovenia were chosen as they provided the highest response rates to the questionnaire and they have differing legislation. The results show that plant-based alternatives are the most familiar and accepted option, while lab-grown meat and insect-based products are less familiar and have lower acceptance rates. Moreover, they show that although sustainability factors are important to consumers, they are not their only concern; health and nutrition are the primary motivators for choosing meat alternatives. These are followed closely by sensory appeal, pricing, and a preference for natural, minimally processed options. Based on insights from the focus groups, strategies to overcome the barriers to the acceptance of meat alternatives should include targeted product categorisation and placement, educational campaigns, effective use of media, and greater transparency in product information.

Abstract Protein is one of the essential major nutrients required for the cell functioning in human body. Complete proteins, which are usually found in animal‐based proteins, despite of having high biovailability also cause adverse effect on the environment and increased the risk of diet‐related chronic diseases. Recent years have witnessed enhanced awareness about the health benefits of substituting animal‐based proteins with plant‐based proteins, especially in developed countries. Nitrogen‐fixing grain legumes are considered important sources of protein in many developing countries as they are generally cheaper than meat or cereals. Extensive research has been conducted on several underutilized legumes with similar nutritional properties to soybean; one of these legumes is velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens). Though it is rich in protein (27%), complementary amino acid pattern to that of cereal grains exerts health beneficial properties, including antiparkinson, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties, it is limited for human consumption due to the presence of antinutrients. This review provides insight into the potential use of this underutilized legume in resolving the global protein crisis and address food insecurity issues. Additionally, the review focuses on various processing conditions necessary to utilize velvet bean for the development of food products and by‐products like protein isolate, concentrate, flour and their functional properties, and toxicological viewpoint. This current might help in driving future research and applications in velvet bean as a sustainable, plant‐based protein source for human foods along with the critical research areas for their improvement.

Climate change is real and so are its unequal impacts on different geographies and societies. Food systems are estimated to produce a third of global greenhouse gas emissions, of which meat is a major contributor. An emerging challenge is feeding a growing population and fulfilling its protein needs, while limiting the climate footprint. Though more environment friendly alternative sources of proteins are becoming available, their acceptance will depend upon attitudes, beliefs, and behavioural choices. For Muslims, who comprise about a quarter of the world's population, religious guidance plays an important role in consumption patterns and food choices. This review looks at consumption practices among Muslims in the context of food system impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, and the need for optimal sources of protein for nutrition and achieving food security. It discusses what is permissible (halāl) or prohibited (harām) for Muslims and how that is determined based on two primary sources – the Qur'an and the Hadith – and other secondary sources relied upon by Muslim legists. It then reviews what is known about three alternative protein sources – plant-based diets, insects and cultured meat, and the Islamic ethical and legal position related to these foods. The findings show conflicting scholarly opinions and a limited understanding of Muslim attitudes to alternative protein sources. Better understanding will be required for enhancing food security, while limiting food related greenhouse gas emissions. • Greenhouse gas emissions from anthropogenic activities are drivers of climate change, with a third coming from food systems. • Balancing nutrition with the environmental costs of traditional protein sources is an emerging challenge. • Alternative proteins, which are eco-friendlier compared to meat, are becoming available and affordable. • Muslims make up a quarter of the world's population and rely on Islamic guidance for food consumption. • The attitudes of geographically diverse Muslim societies towards alternative proteins remains largely unexplored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The projections for the production of insects as food and feed show an enormous increase for insect production in the near future, which will subsequently lead to the increase of the stored quantities of insect meals and related products. However, information on the susceptibility of insect meals to infestations by stored-product insects is rather limited. To this end, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the potential of major storage insect species to grow and reproduce on insect meals that are based on larvae of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus. The progeny production of thirteen stored-product insects on A. diaperinus meal, as well as their instantaneous rate of increase, as a measure of population growth, was recorded for each species. Based on the results, six out of the thirteen examined insect species (A. diaperinus, Tenebrio molitor, Trogoderma granarium, Lasioderma serricorne, Tribolium confusum, and Tribolium castaneum) were able to infest pure A. diaperinus meal, as they grew well and developed progeny on the insect meal substrate. Tribolium confusum, T. castaneum, and especially T. granarium gave the highest progeny production numbers in the A. diaperinus meal with the latter giving an instantaneous rate of increase of 0.067. Expecting the upcoming increase in the production of insect-based products globally, further research in this field is needed for improved production and storage facilities, detection and estimation methods, and technologies to minimize insect infestations without causing negative effects to farmed insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultured meat (CM) has emerged as a breakthrough technology, which has the potential to minimise future negative impacts associated with the rapidly growing world population; such as serious environmental, sustainability, global public health, and animal welfare concerns. Recently numerous researchers in academia and companies have been putting significant efforts into scientific and translational development in this field. Since various pillars of CM manufacturing hold substantial translational potential, there has been a steady interest in filing patent applications globally in the past decade. For the first time, we have performed a patentometric analysis for cultured meat by highlighting the current patents landscape, determining prolific organisations and geographical locations active in the area, and identifying the overall outlook for the field. In total, > 190 patents published in the English language were collected from 1997 to 2020 for the analysis. Relevant data were extracted from the patents, including technology focus, country of origin, assignees, priority date, cooperative patent classification (CPC) code, to analyse the current patent landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Plant- and insect-based foods are promising alternative protein sources. Previous studies have shown that introducing plant-based foods to the diet can reduce meat intake, but no such intervention has explored the effects of insect-based foods. Methods This study aims to integrate alternative proteins to main meals of 80 Danish families through a 6-week two-arm randomized intervention trial to investigate acceptance, consumption, and potential for meat replacement. The primary outcome is the replacement of dietary meat protein with plant- or insect-based protein from the intervention foods assessed through change in daily meat protein intake, proportion of meat protein to total protein intake, and counts of dinner meals with meat and intervention products. Conclusion The results of this study will contribute to research in alternative proteins and explore the effects of long-term exposure of meat replacement. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05156853 . Registered 24 December 2021

In the past 20 years, the global per capita protein demand has been increasing year by year, and thus the search for sustainable and healthier alternative proteins is the focus of current food research. Yeast proteins are of microbial origin with environmentally friendly advantages. They are high-quality proteins with high bioavailability and are expected to be used as novel alternative proteins for food applications. Although reports on yeast extracts continue to increase, studies on the composition, production methods, and functional properties of yeast proteins lack systematic reviews. In addition, the application of yeast proteins in the food industry has not been summarized previously. This paper reviews the composition of yeast proteins and the approaches for their isolation and extraction, and systematically introduces the functional properties and the wide applications in food fields. Future perspectives for yeast proteins to sustainably and healthily meet the world's growing protein demand are also elucidated. Yeast proteins have great application potential as alternative proteins with a reasonable proportion of amino acid composition. Yeast proteins can be hydrolyzed to produce yeast peptides and can also be used as protein supplements, fining agents, meat extenders, etc. Overcoming the limitations of high nucleic acid content and high cost, and improving the functional properties and sensory acceptability of yeast proteins will greatly promote their market applications. This review will provide ideas and guidance for the research and development of yeast proteins in food applications. Yeast proteins have high nutritional value with an ideal amino acid composition and a wealth of functions and properties. The excellent characteristics allow yeast proteins to be used as sustainable alternative proteins in food applications. [Display omitted] • The compositions and extraction approaches of yeast proteins are overviewed. • The functional properties of yeast proteins are summarized. • The applications of yeast proteins as alternative proteins in food are reviewed. • The strategies to improve the utilization of yeast proteins are emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dietary proteins derived from animal sources, although containing well‐balanced profiles of essential amino acids, have considerable environmental and adverse health effects associated with the intake of some animal protein‐based products. Consuming foods based on animal proteins carries a higher risk of developing non‐communicable diseases such as cancer, heart disease, non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Moreover, dietary protein consumption is increasing due to population growth, posing a supply challenge. There is, therefore, growing interest in discovering novel alternative protein sources. In this context, microalgae have been recognized as strategic crops that can provide a sustainable source of protein. Compared to conventional high‐protein crops, using microalgal biomass for protein production presents several advantages in food and feed in terms of productivity, sustainability, and nutritional value. Moreover, microalgae positively impact the environment by not exploiting land or causing water pollution. Many studies have revealed the potential of microalgae as an alternative protein source with the added value of positive effects on human health due to their anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti‐cancer properties. The main emphasis of this review is on the potential health‐promoting applications of microalgae‐based proteins, peptides, and bioactive substances for IBD and NAFLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Alternative proteins are essential for human nutrition, they consist of macronutrients that help build muscle groups, strengthen the immune system and many essential functions for life. Adopting any useful habit requires a change of mindset and consequently a change of behavior. When the person is trained to recognize and manage a pathogenic condition that is a brake on their health then they can see a substantial change in the way they think. When the person is trained to recognize and manage a pathogenic condition that is a brake on their health then they can see a substantial change in the way they think. Aim: Investigating the modification of eating behavior by introducing alternative proteins in the diet of health professionals. Methodology: A review of peer-reviewed articles and studies published in English and Greek over the last decade in the PubMed, Cohrane Libray and Google Scholar databases from January 1, 2022 to April 1, 2022. Results: Alternative proteins are rich in nutrients and their production and consumption is encouraged. However, it has been shown that the consumption and nutritional behavior of individuals concerning alternative proteins is determined by biological, psychological and socio-political factors. Conclusions: It is important that there is sufficient information of the population about the nutritional value of alternative proteins, which could be undertaken by health professionals since they are responsible for informing and following the medical instructions given to patients. Any form of behavior that is consolidated can be modified through a new learning process that will be personalized and will aim at the best possible health of the person concerned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adverse consequences of contemporary agri‐food relations, particularly in terms of public health and environmental sustainability, have led to growing calls—across interdisciplinary research and policy perspectives—for fundamental systemic change. Focusing on the interconnections and 'workings' of agri‐food systems, these accounts have coalesced around the vernacular of transformation to think through the possible ways in which these relations might be configured differently. Against this backdrop, the relationship between food 'production' and food 'consumption' emerges as a key problem. This article revisits debates developed within Sociologia Ruralis approximately two decades ago concerning the terms on which consumption and consumers are brought into agri‐food scholarship, arguing that these are given renewed impetus in the context of contemporary calls for agri‐food transformation. We build on and advance these previous integrative efforts both by taking stock of recent advances in consumption studies and by responding to the shifting contours of food politics. The analysis focuses on the case of alternative proteins and outlines three substantive bodies of scholarship—the geographies of edibility, the economy of qualities and visceral politics—that we suggest offer considerable potential for renewing and updating the development of integrative perspectives on production and consumption. To conclude, we reflect on the theoretical and practical risks of seeking to reconcile 'production' and 'consumption' and argue that these new integrative concepts may themselves provide more suitable conceptual 'building blocks' for exploring the transformation of agri‐food relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, brewer's spent grain (BSG) has gained attention as a plant-based protein source because it occurs in large quantities as a by-product of beer brewing. BSG can contribute to future food requirements and support the development of a circular economy. In light of the dynamic developments in this area, this review aims to understand the proteins present in BSG, and the effect of extraction techniques and conditions on the composition, physicochemical, and techno-functional properties of the obtained protein extracts. The water-insoluble hordeins and glutelins form the major protein fractions in BSG. Depending on the beer brewing process, the extraction technique, and conditions, the BSG protein isolates predominantly contain B, C, and ϒ hordeins, and exhibit a broad molecular weight distribution ranging between <5 kDa and >250 kDa. While the BSG isolates obtained through chemical extraction methods seem promising to obtain gelled food products, physical and enzymatic modifications of BSG proteins through ultrasound and proteolytic hydrolysis offer an effective way to produce soluble and functional protein isolates with good emulsifying and foaming capabilities. Specifically tailored protein extracts to suit different applications can thus be obtained from BSG, highlighting that it is a highly valuable protein source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to improve the visual aspects and chemical, techno-functional and rheological characteristics of Gryllus bimaculatus cricket powder through the use of different solvents, with the objective of using it as a protein source in food production. Four treatments (pH 5 aqueous solution, ethanol 20%, ethanol 99.5%, and hexane) were applied to the powder, and analyses were conducted to assess changes in the previously mentioned parameters. The results showed that the treatments led to an increase in protein concentration (from 55.4 to 72.5%) and a decrease in fat concentration (from 33.0 to 6.8%) in ethanol 99.5% treated powder, as well as a reduction in anti-nutritional compounds concentration, such as tannins (from 13.3 to 5.9 g/kg), in pH 5 treated powder, which is important for the nutritional value of the final product. The color of the powders was improved, being lighter after hexane and ethanol 99.5% treatments due to the removal of melanin with the defatting process. Flowability, water, and oil holding capacity were also improved in the defatted powders. All the results suggest that the main composition of the powder directly influences the analyzed parameters. These findings suggest that cricket powder treated with solvents can be used as a protein source in different food applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing size of the human population and the shortage of highly valuable proteinaceous ingredients has prompted the international community to scout for new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (e.g., insects) and underutilized legume crops, unexploited terrestrial and aquatic weeds, and fungi. Insect proteins are known for their nutritional value, being rich in proteins with a good balance of essential amino acids and being a valuable source of essential fatty acids and trace elements. Unconventional legume crops were found rich in nutritional, phytochemical, and therapeutic properties, showing excellent abilities to survive extreme environmental conditions. This review evaluates the recent state of underutilized legume crops, aquatic weeds, fungi, and insects intended as alternative protein sources, from ingredient production to their incorporation in food products, including their food formulations and the functional characteristics of alternative plant-based proteins and edible insect proteins as novel foods. Emphasis is also placed on safety issues due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors and allergenic proteins in insects and/or underutilized legumes. The functional and biological activities of protein hydrolysates from different protein sources are reviewed, along with bioactive peptides displaying antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and/or antimicrobial activity. Due to the healthy properties of these foods for the high abundance of bioactive peptides and phytochemicals, more consumers are expected to turn to vegetarianism or veganism in the future, and the increasing demand for such products will be a challenge for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green leaf biomass is one of the largest underutilized sources of nutrients worldwide. Whether it is purposely cultivated (forage crops, duckweed) or upcycled as a waste stream from the mass-produced agricultural crops (discarded leaves, offcuts, tops, peels, or pulp), the green biomass can be established as a viable alternative source of plant proteins in food and feed processing formulations. Rubisco is a major component of all green leaves, comprising up to 50% of soluble leaf protein, and offers many advantageous functional features in terms of essential amino acid profile, reduced allergenicity, enhanced gelation, foaming, emulsification, and textural properties. Nutrient profiles of green leaf biomass differ considerably from those of plant seeds in protein quality, vitamin and mineral concentration, and omega 6/3 fatty acid profiles. Emerging technological improvements in processing fractions, protein quality, and organoleptic profiles will enhance the nutritional quality of green leaf proteins as well as address scaling and sustainability challenges associated with the growing global demand for high quality nutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Cultivated meat (CM) is attracting increased attention as an environmentally sustainable and animal-friendly alternative to conventional meat. As the technology matures, more data are becoming available and uncertainties decline. The goal of this ex-ante life cycle assessment (LCA) was to provide an outlook of the environmental performance of commercial-scale CM production in 2030 and to compare this to conventional animal production in 2030, using recent and often primary data, combined with scenario analysis. Methods: This comparative attributional ex-ante LCA used the ReCiPe Midpoint impact assessment method. System boundaries were cradle-to-gate, and the functional unit was 1 kg of meat. Data were collected from over 15 companies active in CM production and its supply chain. Source data include lab-scale primary data from five CM producers, full-scale primary data from processes in comparable manufacturing fields, data from computational models, and data from published literature. Important data have been cross-checked with additional experts. Scenarios were used to represent the variation in data and to assess the influence of important choices such as energy mix. Ambitious benchmarks were made for conventional beef, pork, and chicken production systems, which include efficient intensive European animal agriculture and incorporate potential improvements for 2030. Results and discussion: CM is almost three times more efficient in turning crops into meat than chicken, the most efficient animal, and therefore agricultural land use is low. Nitrogen-related and air pollution emissions of CM are also lower because of this efficiency and because CM is produced in a contained system without manure. CM production is energy-intensive, and therefore the energy mix used for production and in its supply chain is important. Using renewable energy, the carbon footprint is lower than beef and pork and comparable to the ambitious benchmark of chicken. Greenhouse gas profiles are different, being mostly CO2 for CM and more CH4 and N2O for conventional meats. Climate hotspots are energy used for maintaining temperature in reactors and for biotechnological production of culture medium ingredients. Conclusions: CM has the potential to have a lower environmental impact than ambitious conventional meat benchmarks, for most environmental indicators, most clearly agricultural land use, air pollution, and nitrogen-related emissions. The carbon footprint is substantially lower than that of beef. How it compares to chicken and pork depends on energy mixes. While CM production and its upstream supply chain are energy-intensive, using renewable energy can ensure that it is a sustainable alternative to all conventional meats. Recommendations: CM producers should optimize energy efficiency and source additional renewable energy, leverage supply chain collaborations to ensure sustainable feedstocks, and search for the environmental optimum of culture medium through combining low-impact ingredients and high-performance medium formulation. Governments should consider this emerging industry's increased renewable energy demand and the sustainability potential of freed-up agricultural land. Consumers should consider CM not as an extra option on the menu, but as a substitute to higher-impact products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successful commercialization of cultivated meat products as alternative sources of dietary protein for a growing global population will require development of efficient and inexpensive serum-free cell culture media. It is known that serum-free media elicit dissimilar cell growth behavior compared to serum-based media, but data comprehensively exploring the effects of serum-free culture on the nutrient requirements of cultivated meat-relevant cell types have yet to be reported. We performed spent media analysis of C2C12 cells growing in Essential 8 serum-free media and in conventional serum-containing media. Data indicated that although the cell growth rates were similar in the two media over seven days, there were significant differences in the utilization rates of some key nutrients such as glucose, glutamine, glycine, and cystine. We extrapolated from the data that roughly 250–275 g of amino acids and 1100–1500 g of glucose would be required to produce 1 kg of C2C12 cells, though these requirements may change when using more optimized cells, media, and feed strategies. Our results highlight the influence of serum and serum replacements on cell metabolism, and indicate that previous data from metabolic studies performed using serum-containing media may not directly translate to serum-free systems.