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Corneal opacification due to fibrosis is a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Fibrosis occurs from many causes including trauma, photorefractive surgery, microbial keratitis (infection of the cornea), and chemical burns, yet there is a paucity of therapeutics to prevent or treat corneal fibrosis. This study aimed to determine if andrographolide, a labdane diterpenoid found in Andrographis paniculate, has anti-fibrotic properties. Furthermore, we evaluated if andrographolide could prevent the differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts in vitro, given that the transforming growth factor beta-1(TGF-β1) stimulated persistence of myofibroblasts in the cornea is a primary component of fibrosis. We demonstrated that andrographolide inhibited the upregulation of alpha smooth muscle actin (αSMA) mRNA and protein in rabbit corneal fibroblasts (RCFs), thus, demonstrating a reduction in the transdifferentiation of myofibroblasts. Immunofluorescent staining of TGF-β1-stimulated RCFs confirmed a dose-dependent decrease in αSMA expression when treated with andrographolide. Additionally, andrographolide was well tolerated in vivo and had no impact on corneal epithelialization in a rat debridement model. These data support future studies investigating the use of andrographolide as an anti-fibrotic in corneal wound healing.

Contractile actomyosin bundles are key force-producing and mechanosensing elements in muscle and non-muscle tissues. Whereas the organization of muscle myofibrils and mechanism regulating their contractility are relatively well-established, the principles by which myosin-II activity and force-balance are regulated in non-muscle cells have remained elusive. We show that Caldesmon, an important component of smooth muscle and non-muscle cell actomyosin bundles, is an elongated protein that functions as a dynamic cross-linker between myosin-II and tropomyosin-actin filaments. Depletion of Caldesmon results in aberrant lateral movement of myosin-II filaments along actin bundles, leading to irregular myosin distribution within stress fibers. This manifests as defects in stress fiber network organization and contractility, and accompanied problems in cell morphogenesis, migration, invasion, and mechanosensing. These results identify Caldesmon as critical factor that ensures regular myosin-II spacing within non-muscle cell actomyosin bundles, and reveal how stress fiber networks are controlled through dynamic cross-linking of tropomyosin-actin and myosin filaments.

Focal polarization is necessary for finely arranged cell-cell interactions. The yeast mating projection, with its punctate polarisome, is a good model system for this process. We explored the critical role of the polarisome scaffold protein Spa2 during yeast mating with a hypothesis motivated by mathematical modeling and tested by in vivo experiments. Our simulations predicted that two positive feedback loops generate focal polarization, including a novel feedback pathway involving the N-terminal domain of Spa2. We characterized the latter using loss-of-function and gain-of-function mutants. The N-terminal region contains a Spa2 Homology Domain (SHD) which is conserved from yeast to humans, and when mutated largely reproduced the spa2Δ phenotype. Our work together with published data show that the SHD domain recruits Msb3/4 that stimulates Sec4-mediated transport of Bud6 to the polarisome. There, Bud6 activates Bni1-catalyzed actin cable formation, recruiting more Spa2 and completing the positive feedback loop. We demonstrate that disrupting this loop at any point results in morphological defects. Gain-of-function perturbations partially restored focal polarization in a spa2 loss-of-function mutant without restoring localization of upstream components, thus supporting the pathway order. Thus, we have collected data consistent with a novel positive feedback loop that contributes to focal polarization during pheromone-induced polarization in yeast.

Actin assembly facilitates vesicle formation in several trafficking pathways, including clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Interestingly, actin does not assemble at all CME sites in mammalian cells. How actin networks are organized with respect to mammalian CME sites and how assembly forces are harnessed, are not fully understood. Here, branched actin network geometry at CME sites was analyzed using three different advanced imaging approaches. When endocytic dynamics of unperturbed CME sites are compared, sites with actin assembly show a distinct signature, a delay between completion of coat expansion and vesicle scission, indicating that actin assembly occurs preferentially at stalled CME sites. In addition, N-WASP and the Arp2/3 complex are recruited to one side of CME sites, where they are positioned to stimulate asymmetric actin assembly and force production. We propose that actin assembles preferentially at stalled CME sites where it pulls vesicles into the cell asymmetrically, much as a bottle opener pulls off a bottle cap.

Many key insights into actin regulation have been derived through examining how microbial pathogens intercept the actin cytoskeleton during infection. Mycobacterium marinum, a close relative of the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, polymerizes host actin at the bacterial surface to drive intracellular movement and cell-to-cell spread during infection. However, the mycobacterial factor that commandeers actin polymerization has remained elusive. Here, we report the identification and characterization of the M. marinum actin-based motility factor designated mycobacterial intracellular rockets A (MirA), which is a member of the glycine-rich PE_PGRS protein family. MirA contains an amphipathic helix to anchor into the mycobacterial outer membrane and, surprisingly, also the surface of host lipid droplet organelles. MirA directly binds to and activates the host protein N-WASP to stimulate actin polymerization through the Arp2/3 complex, directing both bacterial and lipid droplet actin-based motility. MirA is dissimilar to known N-WASP activating ligands and may represent a new class of microbial and host actin regulator. Additionally, the MirA-N-WASP interaction represents a model to understand how the enigmatic PE_PGRS proteins contribute to mycobacterial pathogenesis.

Motile cells can use and switch between different modes of migration. Here, we use traction force microscopy and fluorescent labeling of actin and myosin to quantify and correlate traction force patterns and cytoskeletal distributions in Dictyostelium discoideum cells that move and switch between keratocyte-like fan-shaped, oscillatory, and amoeboid modes. We find that the wave dynamics of the cytoskeletal components critically determine the traction force pattern, cell morphology, and migration mode. Furthermore, we find that fan-shaped cells can exhibit two different propulsion mechanisms, each with a distinct traction force pattern. Finally, the traction force patterns can be recapitulated using a computational model, which uses the experimentally determined spatiotemporal distributions of actin and myosin forces and a viscous cytoskeletal network. Our results suggest that cell motion can be generated by friction between the flow of this network and the substrate.

TMEM132D is a human gene identified with multiple risk alleles for panic disorders, anxiety and major depressive disorders. Defining a conserved family of transmembrane proteins, TMEM132D and its homologs are still of unknown molecular functions. By generating loss-of-function mutants of the sole TMEM132 ortholog in C. elegans, we identify abnormal morphologic phenotypes in the dopaminergic PDE neurons. Using a yeast two-hybrid screen, we find that NAP1 directly interacts with the cytoplasmic domain of human TMEM132D, and mutations in C. elegans tmem-132 that disrupt interaction with NAP1 cause similar morphologic defects in the PDE neurons. NAP1 is a component of the WAVE regulatory complex (WRC) that controls F-actin cytoskeletal dynamics. Decreasing activity of WRC rescues the PDE defects in tmem-132 mutants, whereas gain-of-function of TMEM132D in mammalian cells inhibits WRC, leading to decreased abundance of select WRC components, impaired actin nucleation and cell motility. We propose that metazoan TMEM132 family proteins play evolutionarily conserved roles in regulating NAP1 protein homologs to restrict inappropriate WRC activity, cytoskeletal and morphologic changes in the cell.

Volatile anesthetics (VAs) are medicinal chemistry compounds commonly used to enable surgical procedures for patients who undergo painful treatments and can be partially or fully sedated, remaining in an unconscious state during the operation. The specific molecular mechanism of anesthesia is still an open issue, but scientific evidence supports the hypothesis of the involvement of both putative hydrophobic cavities in membrane receptors as binding pockets and interactions between anesthetics and cytoplasmic proteins. Previous studies demonstrated the binding of VAs to tubulin. Since actin is the other major component of the cytoskeleton, this study involves an investigation of its interactions with four major anesthetics: halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. Molecular docking was implemented using the Molecular Operating Environment (MOE) software (version 2022.02) and applied to a G-actin monomer, extrapolating the relative binding affinities and root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) values. A comparison with the F-actin was also made to assess if the generally accepted idea about the enhanced F-to-G-actin transformation during anesthesia is warranted. Overall, our results confirm the solvent-like behavior of anesthetics, as evidenced by Van der Waals interactions as well as the relevant hydrogen bonds formed in the case of isoflurane and sevoflurane. Also, a comparison of the interactions of anesthetics with tubulin was made. Finally, the short- and long-term effects of anesthetics are discussed for their possible impact on the occurrence of mental disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Children from pregnancies affected by preeclampsia have an increased risk of cognitive and behavioral alterations via unknown pathophysiology. We tested the hypothesis that preeclampsia generated reduced brain cortex angiogenesis in the offspring. METHODS: The preeclampsia-like syndrome (PELS) mouse model was generated by administering the nitric oxide inhibitor NG-nitroarginine methyl ester hydrochloride. Confirmatory experiments were done using 2 additional PELS models. While in vitro analysis used mice and human brain endothelial cells exposed to serum of postnatal day 5 pups or umbilical plasma from preeclamptic pregnancies, respectively. RESULTS: We report significant reduction in the area occupied by blood vessels in the motor and somatosensory brain cortex of offspring (postnatal day 5) from PELS compared with uncomplicated control offspring. These data were confirmed using 2 additional PELS models. Furthermore, circulating levels of critical proangiogenic factors, VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), and PlGF (placental growth factor) were lower in postnatal day 5 PELS. Also we found lower VEGF receptor 2 (KDR [kinase insert domain-containing receptor]) levels in mice and human endothelial cells exposed to the serum of postnatal day 5 PELS or fetal plasma of preeclamptic pregnancies, respectively. These changes were associated with lower in vitro angiogenic capacity, diminished cell migration, larger F-actin filaments, lower number of filopodia, and lower protein levels of F-actin polymerization regulators in brain endothelial cells exposed to serum or fetal plasma of offspring from preeclampsia. CONCLUSIONS: Offspring from preeclampsia exhibited diminished brain cortex angiogenesis, associated with lower circulating VEGF/PlGF/KDR protein levels, impaired brain endothelial migration, and dysfunctional assembly of F-actin filaments. These alterations may predispose to structural and functional alterations in long-term brain development [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Proper nuclear organization is critical for cardiomyocyte function, because global structural remodeling of nuclear morphology and chromatin structure underpins the development and progression of cardiovascular disease. Previous reports have implicated a role for DNA damage in cardiac hypertrophy; however, the mechanism for this process is not well delineated. AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) family of proteins regulates metabolism and DNA damage response (DDR). Here, we examine whether a member of this family, SNRK (SNF1-related kinase), which plays a role in cardiac metabolism, is also involved in hypertrophic remodeling through changes in DDR and structural properties of the nucleus. METHODS: We subjected cardiac-specific Snrk-/- mice to transaortic banding to assess the effect on cardiac function and DDR. In parallel, we modulated SNRK in vitro and assessed its effects on DDR and nuclear parameters. We also used phosphoproteomics to identify novel proteins that are phosphorylated by SNRK. Last, coimmunoprecipitation was used to verify Destrin (DSTN) as the binding partner of SNRK that modulates its effects on the nucleus and DDR. RESULTS: Cardiac-specific Snrk-/- mice display worse cardiac function and cardiac hypertrophy in response to transaortic banding, and an increase in DDR marker pH2AX (phospho-histone 2AX) in their hearts. In addition, in vitro Snrk knockdown results in increased DNA damage and chromatin compaction, along with alterations in nuclear flatness and 3-dimensional volume. Phosphoproteomic studies identified a novel SNRK target, DSTN, a member of F-actin depolymerizing factor proteins that directly bind to and depolymerize F-actin. SNRK binds to DSTN, and DSTN downregulation reverses excess DNA damage and changes in nuclear parameters, in addition to cellular hypertrophy, with SNRK knockdown. We also demonstrate that SNRK knockdown promotes excessive actin depolymerization, measured by the increased ratio of G-actin to F-actin. Last, jasplakinolide, a pharmacological stabilizer of F-actin, rescues the increased DNA damage and aberrant nuclear morphology in SNRK-downregulated cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that SNRK is a key player in cardiac hypertrophy and DNA damage through its interaction with DSTN. This interaction fine-tunes actin polymerization to reduce DDR and maintain proper cardiomyocyte nuclear shape and morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellular events require the spatiotemporal interplay between actin assembly and actin disassembly. Yet, how different factors promote the integration of these two opposing processes is unclear. In particular, cellular monomeric (G)-actin is complexed with profilin, which inhibits spontaneous actin nucleation but fuels actin filament (F-actin) assembly by elongation-promoting factors (formins, Ena/VASP). In contrast, site-specific F-actin oxidation by Mical promotes F-actin disassembly and release of polymerization-impaired Mical-oxidized (Mox)-G-actin. Here we find that these two opposing processes connect with one another to orchestrate actin/cellular remodeling. Specifically, we find that profilin binds Mox-G-actin, yet these complexes do not fuel elongation factors'-mediated F-actin assembly, but instead inhibit polymerization and promote further Mox-F-actin disassembly. Using Drosophila as a model system, we show that similar profilin-Mical connections occur in vivo - where they underlie F-actin/cellular remodeling that accompanies Semaphorin-Plexin cellular/axon repulsion. Thus, profilin and Mical combine to impair F-actin assembly and promote F-actin disassembly, while concomitantly facilitating cellular remodeling and plasticity.

Multimeric cytoskeletal protein complexes orchestrate normal cellular function. However, protein-complex distributions in stressed, heterogeneous cell populations remain unknown. Cell staining and proximity-based methods have limited selectivity and/or sensitivity for endogenous multimeric protein-complex quantification from single cells. We introduce micro-arrayed, differential detergent fractionation to simultaneously detect protein complexes in hundreds of individual cells. Fractionation occurs by 60 s size-exclusion electrophoresis with protein complex-stabilizing buffer that minimizes depolymerization. Proteins are measured with a ~5-hour immunoassay. Co-detection of cytoskeletal protein complexes in U2OS cells treated with filamentous actin (F-actin) destabilizing Latrunculin A detects a unique subpopulation (~2%) exhibiting downregulated F-actin, but upregulated microtubules. Thus, some cells may upregulate other cytoskeletal complexes to counteract the stress of Latrunculin A treatment. We also sought to understand the effect of non-chemical stress on cellular heterogeneity of F-actin. We find heat shock may dysregulate filamentous and globular actin correlation. In this work, our assay overcomes selectivity limitations to biochemically quantify single-cell protein complexes perturbed with diverse stimuli.

Cataracts, a clouding of the eye lens, are a leading cause of visual impairment and are responsible for one of the most commonly performed surgical procedures worldwide. Although generally safe and effective, cataract surgery can lead to a secondary lens abnormality due to transition of lens epithelial cells to a mesenchymal phenotype (EMT) and opacification of the posterior lens capsular bag. Occurring in up to 40% of cataract cases over time, posterior capsule opacification (PCO) introduces additional treatment costs and reduced quality of life for patients. Studies have shown that PCO pathogenesis is driven in part by TGF-β, signaling through the action of the family of Smad coactivators to effect changes in gene transcription. In the present study, we evaluated the ability of Smad-7, a well characterized inhibitor of TGF-β -mediated Smad signaling, to suppress the EMT response in lens epithelial cells associated with PCO pathogenesis. Treatment of lens epithelial cells with a cell-permeable form of Smad7 variant resulted in suppressed expression of EMT markers such as alpha smooth muscle actin and fibronectin. A single application of cell-permeable Smad7 variant in the capsular bag of a mouse cataract surgery model resulted in suppression of gene transcripts encoding alpha smooth muscle actin and fibronectin. These results point to Smad7 as a promising biotherapeutic agent for prevention or substantial reduction in the incidence of PCO following cataract surgery.

Cadherin cell-cell adhesion proteins play key roles in tissue morphogenesis and wound healing. Cadherin ectodomains bind in two conformations, X-dimers and strand-swap dimers, with different adhesive properties. However, the mechanisms by which cells regulate ectodomain conformation are unknown. Cadherin intracellular regions associate with several actin-binding proteins including vinculin, which are believed to tune cell-cell adhesion by remodeling the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we show at the single-molecule level, that vinculin association with the cadherin cytoplasmic region allosterically converts weak X-dimers into strong strand-swap dimers and that this process is mediated by myosin II-dependent changes in cytoskeletal tension. We also show that in epithelial cells, ∼70% of apical cadherins exist as strand-swap dimers while the remaining form X-dimers, providing two cadherin pools with different adhesive properties. Our results demonstrate the inside-out regulation of cadherin conformation and establish a mechanistic role for vinculin in this process.

The N2A segment of titin is a main signaling hub in the sarcomeric I-band that recruits various signaling factors and processing enzymes. It has also been proposed to play a role in force production through its Ca2+-regulated association with actin. However, the molecular basis by which N2A performs these functions selectively within the repetitive and extensive titin chain remains poorly understood. Here, we analyze the structure of N2A components and their association with F-actin. Specifically, we characterized the structure of its Ig domains by elucidating the atomic structure of the I81-I83 tandem using x-ray crystallography and computing a homology model for I80. Structural data revealed these domains to present heterogeneous and divergent Ig folds, where I81 and I83 have unique loop structures. Notably, the I81-I83 tandem has a distinct rotational chain arrangement that confers it a unique multi-domain topography. However, we could not identify specific Ca2+-binding sites in these Ig domains, nor evidence of the association of titin N2A components with F-actin in transfected C2C12 myoblasts or C2C12-derived myotubes. In addition, F-actin cosedimentation assays failed to reveal binding to N2A. We conclude that N2A has a unique architecture that predictably supports its selective recruitment of binding partners in signaling, but that its mechanical role through interaction with F-actin awaits validation.

Sensing physical forces is a critical first step in mechano-transduction of cells. Zyxin, a LIM domain-containing protein, is recruited to force-bearing actin filaments and is thought to repair and strengthen them. Yet, the precise force-induced protein interactions surrounding zyxin remain unclear. Using BioID analysis, we identified proximal proteins surrounding zyxin under normal and force-bearing conditions by label-free mass spectrometry analysis. Under force-bearing conditions, increased biotinylation of α-actinin 1, α-actinin 4, and AFAP1 were detected, and these proteins accumulated along force-bearing actin fibers independently from zyxin, albeit at a lower intensity than zyxin. VASP also accumulated along force-bearing actin fibers in a zyxin-dependent manner, but the biotinylation of VASP remained constant regardless of force, supporting the model of a free zyxin-VASP complex in the cytoplasm being corecruited to tensed actin fibers. In addition, ARHGAP42, a RhoA GAP, was also identified as a proximal protein of zyxin and colocalized with zyxin along contractile actin bundles. The overexpression of ARHGAP42 reduced the rate of small wound closure, a zyxin-dependent process. These results demonstrate that the application of proximal biotinylation can resolve the proximity and composition of protein complexes as a function of force, which had not been possible with traditional biochemical analysis.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common inherited form of heart disease, associated with over 1,000 mutations, many in β-cardiac myosin (MYH7). Molecular studies of myosin with different HCM mutations have revealed a diversity of effects on ATPase and load-sensitive rate of detachment from actin. It has been difficult to predict how such diverse molecular effects combine to influence forces at the cellular level and further influence cellular phenotypes. This study focused on the P710R mutation that dramatically decreased in vitro motility velocity and actin-activated ATPase, in contrast to other MYH7 mutations. Optical trap measurements of single myosin molecules revealed that this mutation reduced the step size of the myosin motor and the load sensitivity of the actin detachment rate. Conversely, this mutation destabilized the super relaxed state in longer, two-headed myosin constructs, freeing more heads to generate force. Micropatterned human induced pluripotent derived stem cell (hiPSC)-cardiomyocytes CRISPR-edited with the P710R mutation produced significantly increased force (measured by traction force microscopy) compared with isogenic control cells. The P710R mutation also caused cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and cytoskeletal remodeling as measured by immunostaining and electron microscopy. Cellular hypertrophy was prevented in the P710R cells by inhibition of ERK or Akt. Finally, we used a computational model that integrated the measured molecular changes to predict the measured traction forces. These results confirm a key role for regulation of the super relaxed state in driving hypercontractility in HCM with the P710R mutation and demonstrate the value of a multiscale approach in revealing key mechanisms of disease.

Visceral myopathies (VMs) encompass a spectrum of disorders characterized by chronic disruption of gastrointestinal function, with or without urinary system involvement. Pathogenic missense variation in smooth muscle γ-actin gene (ACTG2) is associated with autosomal dominant VM. Whole-genome sequencing of an infant presenting with chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction revealed a homozygous 187 bp (c.589_613 + 163del188) deletion spanning the exon 6-intron 6 boundary within ACTG2 The patient's clinical course was marked by prolonged hospitalizations, multiple surgeries, and intermittent total parenteral nutrition dependence. This case supports the emerging understanding of allelic heterogeneity in ACTG2-related VM, in which both biallelic and monoallelic variants in ACTG2 are associated with gastrointestinal dysfunction of similar severity and overlapped clinical presentation. Moreover, it illustrates the clinical utility of rapid whole-genome sequencing, which can comprehensively and precisely detect different types of genomic variants including small deletions, leading to guidance of clinical care decisions.

Macrophages perform diverse functions within tissues during immune responses to pathogens and injury, but molecular mechanisms by which physical properties of the tissue regulate macrophage behavior are less well understood. Here, we examine the role of the mechanically activated cation channel Piezo1 in macrophage polarization and sensing of microenvironmental stiffness. We show that macrophages lacking Piezo1 exhibit reduced inflammation and enhanced wound healing responses. Additionally, macrophages expressing the transgenic Ca2+ reporter, Salsa6f, reveal that Ca2+ influx is dependent on Piezo1, modulated by soluble signals, and enhanced on stiff substrates. Furthermore, stiffness-dependent changes in macrophage function, both in vitro and in response to subcutaneous implantation of biomaterials in vivo, require Piezo1. Finally, we show that positive feedback between Piezo1 and actin drives macrophage activation. Together, our studies reveal that Piezo1 is a mechanosensor of stiffness in macrophages, and that its activity modulates polarization responses.

YAP/TAZ is a master regulator of mechanotransduction whose functions rely on translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in response to diverse physical cues. Substrate stiffness, substrate dimensionality, and cell shape are all input signals for YAP/TAZ, and through this pathway, regulate critical cellular functions and tissue homeostasis. Yet, the relative contributions of each biophysical signal and the mechanisms by which they synergistically regulate YAP/TAZ in realistic tissue microenvironments that provide multiplexed input signals remain unclear. For example, in simple two-dimensional culture, YAP/TAZ nuclear localization correlates strongly with substrate stiffness, while in three-dimensional (3D) environments, YAP/TAZ translocation can increase with stiffness, decrease with stiffness, or remain unchanged. Here, we develop a spatial model of YAP/TAZ translocation to enable quantitative analysis of the relationships between substrate stiffness, substrate dimensionality, and cell shape. Our model couples cytosolic stiffness to nuclear mechanics to replicate existing experimental trends, and extends beyond current data to predict that increasing substrate activation area through changes in culture dimensionality, while conserving cell volume, forces distinct shape changes that result in nonlinear effect on YAP/TAZ nuclear localization. Moreover, differences in substrate activation area versus total membrane area can account for counterintuitive trends in YAP/TAZ nuclear localization in 3D culture. Based on this multiscale investigation of the different system features of YAP/TAZ nuclear translocation, we predict that how a cell reads its environment is a complex information transfer function of multiple mechanical and biochemical factors. These predictions reveal a few design principles of cellular and tissue engineering for YAP/TAZ mechanotransduction.

During clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) in eukaryotes, actin assembly is required to overcome large membrane tension and turgor pressure. However, the molecular mechanisms by which the actin machinery adapts to varying membrane tension remain unknown. In addition, how cells reduce their membrane tension when they are challenged by hypotonic shocks remains unclear. We used quantitative microscopy to demonstrate that cells rapidly reduce their membrane tension using three parallel mechanisms. In addition to using their cell wall for mechanical protection, yeast cells disassemble eisosomes to buffer moderate changes in membrane tension on a minute time scale. Meanwhile, a temporary reduction in the rate of endocytosis for 2-6 min and an increase in the rate of exocytosis for at least 5 min allow cells to add large pools of membrane to the plasma membrane. We built on these results to submit the cells to abrupt increases in membrane tension and determine that the endocytic actin machinery of fission yeast cells rapidly adapts to perform CME. Our study sheds light on the tight connection between membrane tension regulation, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Cytonemes are specialized filopodia that mediate paracrine signaling in Drosophila and other animals. Studies using fluorescence confocal microscopy (CM) established their general paths, cell targets, and essential roles in signaling. To investigate details unresolvable by CM, we used high-pressure freezing and EM to visualize cytoneme structures, paths, contents, and contacts. We observed cytonemes previously seen by CM in the Drosophila wing imaginal disc system, including disc, tracheal air sac primordium (ASP), and myoblast cytonemes, and identified cytonemes extending into invaginations of target cells, and cytonemes connecting ASP cells and connecting myoblasts. Diameters of cytoneme shafts vary between repeating wide (206 ± 51.8 nm) and thin (55.9 ± 16.2 nm) segments. Actin, ribosomes, and membranous compartments are present throughout; rough ER and mitochondria are in wider proximal sections. These results reveal novel structural features of filopodia and provide a basis for understanding cytoneme cell biology and function.

Epithelia are continuously self-renewed, but how epithelial integrity is maintained during the morphological changes that cells undergo in mitosis is not well understood. Here, we show that as epithelial cells round up when they enter mitosis, they exert tensile forces on neighboring cells. We find that mitotic cell-cell junctions withstand these tensile forces through the mechanosensitive recruitment of the actin-binding protein vinculin to cadherin-based adhesions. Surprisingly, vinculin that is recruited to mitotic junctions originates selectively from the neighbors of mitotic cells, resulting in an asymmetric composition of cadherin junctions. Inhibition of junctional vinculin recruitment in neighbors of mitotic cells results in junctional breakage and weakened epithelial barrier. Conversely, the absence of vinculin from the cadherin complex in mitotic cells is necessary to successfully undergo mitotic rounding. Our data thus identify an asymmetric mechanoresponse at cadherin adhesions during mitosis, which is essential to maintain epithelial integrity while at the same time enable the shape changes of mitotic cells.

During actin-based cell migration, the actin cytoskeleton in the lamellipodium both generates and responds to force, which has functional consequences for the ability of the cell to extend protrusions. However, the material properties of the lamellipodial actin network and its response to stress on the timescale of motility are incompletely understood. Here, we describe a dynamic wrinkling phenotype in the lamellipodium of fish keratocytes, in which the actin sheet buckles upward away from the ventral membrane of the cell, forming a periodic pattern of wrinkles perpendicular to the cell's leading edge. Cells maintain an approximately constant wrinkle wavelength over time despite new wrinkle formation and the lateral movement of wrinkles in the cell frame of reference, suggesting that cells have a preferred or characteristic wrinkle wavelength. Generation of wrinkles is dependent upon myosin contractility, and their wavelength scales directly with the density of the actin network and inversely with cell adhesion. These results are consistent with a simple physical model for wrinkling in an elastic sheet under compression and suggest that the lamellipodial cytoskeleton behaves as an elastic material on the timescale of cell migration despite rapid actin turnover.

Actin is one of the most abundant proteins in eukaryotes. Discovered in muscle and described as far back as 1887, actin was first purified in 1942. It plays myriad roles in essentially every eukaryotic cell. Actin is central to development, muscle contraction, and cell motility, and it also functions in the nucleus, to name a spectrum of examples. The flexibility of actin function stems from two factors: firstly, it is dynamic, transitioning between monomer and filament, and, secondly, there are hundreds of actin-binding proteins that build and organize specific actin-based structures. Of prime importance are actin nucleators - proteins that stimulate de novo formation of actin filaments. There are three known classes of actin nucleators: the Arp2/3 complex, formins, and tandem WASP homology 2 (WH2) nucleators. Each class nucleates by a distinct mechanism that contributes to the organization of the larger structure being built. Evidence shows that the Arp2/3 complex produces branched actin filaments, remaining bound at the branch point, while formins create linear actin filaments, remaining bound at the growing end. Here, we focus on the formin family of actin nucleators.

Striated muscle responds to mechanical overload by rapidly up-regulating the expression of the cardiac ankyrin repeat protein, CARP, which then targets the sarcomere by binding to titin N2A in the I-band region. To date, the role of this interaction in the stress response of muscle remains poorly understood. Here, we characterise the molecular structure of the CARP-receptor site in titin (UN2A) and its binding of CARP. We find that titin UN2A contains a central three-helix bundle fold (ca 45 residues in length) that is joined to N- and C-terminal flanking immunoglobulin domains by long, flexible linkers with partial helical content. CARP binds titin by engaging an α-hairpin in the three-helix fold of UN2A, the C-terminal linker sequence, and the BC loop in Ig81, which jointly form a broad binding interface. Mutagenesis showed that the CARP/N2A association withstands sequence variations in titin N2A and we use this information to evaluate 85 human single nucleotide variants. In addition, actin co-sedimentation, co-transfection in C2C12 cells, proteomics on heart lysates, and the mechanical response of CARP-soaked myofibrils imply that CARP induces the cross-linking of titin and actin myofilaments, thereby increasing myofibril stiffness. We conclude that CARP acts as a regulator of force output in the sarcomere that preserves muscle mechanical performance upon overload stress.

Abnormal human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cell function and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling contribute to HTM stiffening in primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG). Most current cellular HTM model systems do not sufficiently replicate the complex native three dimensional (3D) cell-ECM interface, limiting their use for investigating POAG pathology. Tissue-engineered hydrogels are ideally positioned to overcome shortcomings of current models. Here, we report a novel biomimetic HTM hydrogel and test its utility as a POAG disease model. HTM hydrogels were engineered by mixing normal donor-derived HTM cells with collagen type I, elastin-like polypeptide and hyaluronic acid, each containing photoactive functional groups, followed by UV crosslinking. Glaucomatous conditions were induced with dexamethasone (DEX), and effects of the Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) inhibitor Y27632 on cytoskeletal organization and tissue-level function, contingent on HTM cell-ECM interactions, were assessed. DEX exposure increased HTM hydrogel contractility, f-actin and alpha smooth muscle actin abundance and rearrangement, ECM remodeling, and fibronectin deposition - all contributing to HTM hydrogel condensation and stiffening consistent with glaucomatous HTM tissue behavior. Y27632 treatment produced precisely the opposite effects and attenuated the DEX-induced pathologic changes, resulting in HTM hydrogel relaxation and softening. For model validation, confirmed glaucomatous HTM (GTM) cells were encapsulated; GTM hydrogels showed increased contractility, fibronectin deposition, and stiffening vs. normal HTM hydrogels despite reduced GTM cell proliferation. We have developed a biomimetic HTM hydrogel model for detailed investigation of 3D cell-ECM interactions under normal and simulated glaucomatous conditions. Its bidirectional responsiveness to pharmacological challenge and rescue suggests promising potential to serve as screening platform for new POAG treatments with focus on HTM biomechanics.

The ability of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to instruct progenitor cell differentiation has generated excitement for the development of materials-based regenerative solutions. Described a nanoparticulate mineralized collagen glycosaminoglycan (MC-GAG) material capable of inducing in vivo skull regeneration without exogenous growth factors or ex vivo progenitor cell-priming is described previously. Here, the contribution of titrating stiffness to osteogenicity is evaluated by comparing noncrosslinked (NX-MC) and crosslinked (MC) forms of MC-GAG. While both materials are osteogenic, MC demonstrates an increased expression of osteogenic markers and mineralization compared to NX-MC. Both materials are capable of autogenously activating the canonical BMPR signaling pathway with phosphorylation of Smad1/5. However, unlike NX-MC, human mesenchymal stem cells cultured on MC demonstrate significant elevations in the major mechanotransduction mediators YAP and TAZ expression, coincident with β-catenin activation in the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Inhibition of YAP/TAZ activation reduces osteogenic expression, mineralization, and β-catenin activation in MC, with less of an effect on NX-MC. YAP/TAZ inhibition also results in a reciprocal increase in Smad1/5 phosphorylation and BMP2 expression. The results indicate that increasing MC-GAG stiffness induces osteogenic differentiation via the mechanotransduction mediators YAP/TAZ and the canonical Wnt signaling pathway, whereas the canonical BMPR signaling pathway is activated independent of stiffness.

Engineered culture substrates have proven invaluable for investigating the role of cell and extracellular matrix geometry in governing cell behavior. While the mechanisms relating geometry to phenotype are complex, it is clear that the actin cytoskeleton plays a key role in integrating geometric inputs and transducing these cues into intracellular signals that drive downstream biology. Here, we review recent progress in elucidating the role of the cell and matrix geometry in regulating actin cytoskeletal architecture and mechanics. We address new developments in traditional two-dimensional culture paradigms and discuss efforts to extend these advances to three-dimensional systems, ranging from nanotextured surfaces to microtopographical systems (e.g. channels) to fully three-dimensional matrices.

Mesenchymal hamartoma of the liver (MHL) is rare. Less than 50 adult cases have been described. Due to their potential degeneration or recurrence, a complete surgical resection must be performed. We describe a case of a 26-year-old with a palpable solid lesion, which displaced abdominal organs. Percutaneous needle biopsies suggested the diagnosis of MHL. A right hemi-hepatectomy without segment 1 was performed; the post-operative course was uneventful. The mesenchymal component of the tumour was reactive to desmin and smooth muscle actin. Low proliferation index was confirmed (MIB1). Genetic counselling: the sequencing analysis of DICER1 and CDKN1C gene was negative, DNA methylation analysis on the chromosome 11p15 region was normal. After 42 months, there was no recurrence. In conclusion, clinicians should consider MHL in the differential diagnosis. The dimension and the need of radicality impose major liver resections or liver transplantations, which should be performed in referral centres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) proteins are a diverse family of nonstructural viral proteins. Once expressed on the plasma membrane of infected cells, they drive fusion with neighboring cells, increasing viral spread and pathogenicity. Unlike viral fusogens with tall ectodomains that pull two membranes together through conformational changes, FAST proteins have short fusogenic ectodomains that cannot bridge the intermembrane gap between neighboring cells. One orthoreovirus FAST protein, p14, has been shown to hijack the actin cytoskeleton to drive cell-cell fusion, but the actin adaptor-binding motif identified in p14 is not found in any other FAST protein. Here, we report that an evolutionarily divergent FAST protein, p22 from aquareovirus, also hijacks the actin cytoskeleton but does so through different adaptor proteins, Intersectin-1 and Cdc42, that trigger N-WASP-mediated branched actin assembly. We show that despite using different pathways, the cytoplasmic tail of p22 can replace that of p14 to create a potent chimeric fusogen, suggesting they are modular and play similar functional roles. When we directly couple p22 with the parallel filament nucleator formin instead of the branched actin nucleation promoting factor N-WASP, its ability to drive fusion is maintained, suggesting that localized mechanical pressure on the plasma membrane coupled to a membrane-disruptive ectodomain is sufficient to drive cell-cell fusion. This work points to a common biophysical strategy used by FAST proteins to push rather than pull membranes together to drive fusion, one that may be harnessed by other short fusogens responsible for physiological cell-cell fusion.

The heart has a dynamic mechanical environment contributed by its unique cellular composition and the resultant complex tissue structure. In pathological heart tissue, both the mechanics and cell composition can change and influence each other. As a result, the interplay between the cell phenotype and mechanical stimulation needs to be considered to understand the biophysical cell interactions and organization in healthy and diseased myocardium. In this work, we hypothesized that the overall tissue organization is controlled by varying densities of cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts in the heart. In order to test this hypothesis, we utilized a combination of mechanical strain, co-cultures of different cell types, and inhibitory drugs that block intercellular junction formation. To accomplish this, an image analysis pipeline was developed to automatically measure cell type-specific organization relative to the stretch direction. The results indicated that cardiac cell type-specific densities influence the overall organization of heart tissue such that it is possible to model healthy and fibrotic heart tissue in vitro. This study provides insight into how to mimic the dynamic mechanical environment of the heart in engineered tissue as well as providing valuable information about the process of cardiac remodeling and repair in diseased hearts.

Dendritic spines, small protrusions of the dendrites, enlarge upon LTP induction, linking morphological and functional properties. Although the role of actin in spine enlargement has been well studied, little is known about its relationship with mechanical membrane properties, such as membrane tension, which is involved in many cell processes, like exocytosis. Here, we use a 3D model of the dendritic spine to investigate how polymerization of actin filaments can effectively elevate the membrane tension to trigger exocytosis in a domain close to the tip of the spine. Moreover, we show that the same pool of actin promotes full membrane fusion after exocytosis and spine stabilization.

Osteoclasts, bone-specified multinucleated cells produced by monocyte/macrophage, are involved in numerous bone destructive diseases such as arthritis, osteoporosis, and inflammation-induced bone loss. The osteoclast differentiation mechanism suggests a possible strategy to treat bone diseases. In this regard, we recently examined the in vivo impact of kalkitoxin (KT), a marine product obtained from the marine cyanobacterium Moorena producens (previously Lyngbya majuscula), on the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and on the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)-stimulated in vitro osteoclastogenesis and inflammation-mediated bone loss. We have now examined the molecular mechanism of KT in greater detail. KT decreased RANKL-induced bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-multinucleated cells at a late stage. Likewise, KT suppressed RANKL-induced pit area and actin ring formation in BMM cells. Additionally, KT inhibited several RANKL-induced genes such as cathepsin K, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-9), TRAP, and dendritic cell-specific transmembrane protein (DC-STAMP). In line with these results, RANKL stimulated both genes and protein expression of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFATc1), and this was also suppressed by KT. Moreover, KT markedly decreased RANKL-induced p-ERK1/2 and p-JNK pathways at different time points. As a result, KT prevented inflammatory bone loss in mice, such as bone mineral density (BMD) and osteoclast differentiation markers. These experiments demonstrated that KT markedly inhibited osteoclast formation and inflammatory bone loss through NFATc1 and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. Therefore, KT may have potential as a treatment for destructive bone diseases.

Rationale: Antral peristalsis is responsible for gastric emptying. Its failure is called gastroparesis and often caused by dysfunction of enteric neurons and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). Current treatment options, including gastric electrical stimulation, are non-satisfying and may improve symptoms but commonly fail to restore gastric emptying. Herein, we explore direct optogenetic stimulation of smooth muscle cells (SMC) via the light-gated non-selective cation channel Channelrhodopsin2 (ChR2) to control gastric motor function. Methods: We used a transgenic mouse model expressing ChR2 in fusion with eYFP under the control of the chicken-β-actin promoter. We performed patch clamp experiments to quantify light-induced currents in isolated SMC, Ca2+ imaging and isometric force measurements of antral smooth muscle strips as well as pressure recordings of intact stomachs to evaluate contractile responses. Light-induced propulsion of gastric contents from the isolated stomach preparation was quantified in video recordings. We furthermore tested optogenetic stimulation in a gastroparesis model induced by neuronal- and ICC-specific damage through methylene blue photo-toxicity. Results: In the stomachs, eYFP signals were restricted to SMC in which blue light (460 nm) induced inward currents typical for ChR2. These depolarizing currents led to contractions in antral smooth muscle strips that were stronger than those triggered by supramaximal electrical field stimulation and comparable to those evoked by global depolarization with high K+ concentration. In the intact stomach, panoramic illumination efficiently increased intragastric pressure achieving 239±46% (n=6) of the pressure induced by electrical field stimulation and triggered gastric transport. Within the gastroparesis model, electric field stimulation completely failed but light still efficiently generated pressure waves. Conclusions: We demonstrate direct optogenetic stimulation of SMC to control gastric contractility. This completely new approach could allow for the restoration of motility in gastroparesis in the future.

KASH proteins in the outer nuclear membrane comprise the cytoplasmic half of linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes that connect nuclei to the cytoskeleton. Caenorhabditis elegans ANC-1, an ortholog of Nesprin-1/2, contains actin-binding and KASH domains at opposite ends of a long spectrin-like region. Deletion of either the KASH or calponin homology (CH) domains does not completely disrupt nuclear positioning, suggesting neither KASH nor CH domains are essential. Deletions in the spectrin-like region of ANC-1 led to significant defects, but only recapitulated the null phenotype in combination with mutations in the transmembrane (TM) span. In anc-1 mutants, the endoplasmic reticulum ER, mitochondria, and lipid droplets were unanchored, moving throughout the cytoplasm. The data presented here support a cytoplasmic integrity model where ANC-1 localizes to the ER membrane and extends into the cytoplasm to position nuclei, ER, mitochondria, and other organelles in place.

During chemotaxis, neutrophils use cell surface G Protein Coupled Receptors to detect chemoattractant gradients. The downstream signaling system is wired with multiple feedback loops that amplify weak inputs and promote spatial separation of cell front and rear activities. Positive feedback could promote rapid signal spreading, yet information from the receptors is transmitted with high spatial fidelity, enabling detection of small differences in chemoattractant concentration across the cell. How the signal transduction network achieves signal amplification while preserving spatial information remains unclear. The GTPase Cdc42 is a cell-front polarity coordinator that is predictive of cell turning, suggesting an important role in spatial processing. Here we directly measure information flow from receptors to Cdc42 by pairing zebrafish parapinopsina, an optogenetic G Protein Coupled Receptor with reversible ON/OFF control, with a spectrally compatible red/far red Cdc42 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer biosensor. Using this toolkit, we show that positive and negative signals downstream of G proteins shape a rapid, dose-dependent Cdc42 response. Furthermore, F-actin and Cdc42 itself provide two distinct negative signals that limit the duration and spatial spread of Cdc42 activation, maintaining output signals local to the originating receptors.

Despite the well-established role of actin polymerization as a driving mechanism for cell protrusion, upregulated actin polymerization alone does not initiate protrusions. Using a combination of theoretical modeling and quantitative live-cell imaging experiments, we show that local depletion of actin-membrane links is needed for protrusion initiation. Specifically, we show that the actin-membrane linker ezrin is depleted prior to protrusion onset and that perturbation of ezrin's affinity for actin modulates protrusion frequency and efficiency. We also show how actin-membrane release works in concert with actin polymerization, leading to a comprehensive model for actin-driven shape changes. Actin-membrane release plays a similar role in protrusions driven by intracellular pressure. Thus, our findings suggest that protrusion initiation might be governed by a universal regulatory mechanism, whereas the mechanism of force generation determines the shape and expansion properties of the protrusion.

Lax phenotypic characterization of these morphologically distinct pericytes has delayed our understanding of their role in neurological disorders. We herein establish markers which uniquely distinguish different subpopulations of human brain microvascular pericytes and characterize them independently from cerebrovascular smooth muscle cells. Furthermore, we begin to elucidate the roles of these subsets in blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown by studying natural aging and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection in rhesus macaques. We demonstrate that the main type-1 pericyte subpopulation in the brain of young uninfected adults is positive for platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β (PDGFRB) and negative for α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and myosin heavy chain 11 (MYH11), whereas PDGFRB+/SMA+/MYH11- (type-2) pericytes are found more frequently in older adults and are associated with SIV infection and progression. Interestingly, we find a strong positive correlation between the degree of BBB breakdown and the percentage of type-2 pericytes regardless of age or SIV status. Taken together, our findings suggest that type-2 pericytes may be a cellular biomarker related to BBB disruption independent of disease status.

In vertebrates, epithelial permeability is regulated by the tight junction (TJ) formed by specialized adhesive membrane proteins, adaptor proteins, and the actin cytoskeleton. Despite the TJ's critical physiological role, a molecular-level understanding of how TJ assembly sets the permeability of epithelial tissue is lacking. Here, we identify a 28-amino-acid sequence in the TJ adaptor protein ZO-1, which is responsible for actin binding, and show that this interaction is essential for TJ permeability. In contrast to the strong interactions at the adherens junction, we find that the affinity between ZO-1 and actin is surprisingly weak, and we propose a model based on kinetic trapping to explain how affinity could affect TJ assembly. Finally, by tuning the affinity of ZO-1 to actin, we demonstrate that epithelial monolayers can be engineered with a spectrum of permeabilities, which points to a promising target for treating transport disorders and improving drug delivery.

This work sought to compare aqueous angiographic segmental patterns with bead-based methods which directly visualize segmental trabecular meshwork (TM) tracer trapping. Additionally, segmental protein expression differences between aqueous angiographic-derived low- and high-outflow human TM regions were evaluated. Post-mortem human eyes (One Legacy and San Diego eye banks; n = 15) were perfused with fluorescent tracers (fluorescein [2.5%], indocyanine green [0.4%], and/or fluorescent microspheres). After angiographic imaging (Spectralis HRA+OCT; Heidelberg Engineering), peri-limbal low- and high-angiographic flow regions were marked. Aqueous angiographic segmental outflow patterns were similar to fluorescent microsphere TM trapping segmental patterns. TM was dissected from low- and high-flow areas and processed for immunofluorescence or Western blot and compared. Versican expression was relatively elevated in low-flow regions while MMP3 and collagen VI were relatively elevated in high-flow regions. TGF-β2, thrombospondin-1, TGF-β receptor1, and TGF-β downstream proteins such as α-smooth muscle actin were relatively elevated in low-flow regions. Additionally, fibronectin (FN) levels were unchanged, but the EDA isoform (FN-EDA) that is associated with fibrosis was relatively elevated in low-flow regions. These results show that segmental aqueous angiographic patterns are reflective of underlying TM molecular characteristics and demonstrate increased pro-fibrotic activation in low-flow regions. Thus, we provide evidence that aqueous angiography outflow visualization, the only tracer outflow imaging method available to clinicians, is in part representative of TM biology.

Macromolecules can phase separate to form liquid condensates, which are emerging as critical compartments in fields as diverse as intracellular organization and soft materials design. A myriad of macromolecules, including the protein FUS, form condensates which behave as isotropic liquids. Here, we investigate the influence of filament dopants on the material properties of protein liquids. We find that the short, biopolymer filaments of actin spontaneously partition into FUS droplets to form composite liquid droplets. As the concentration of the filament dopants increases, the coalescence time decreases, indicating that the dopants control viscosity relative to surface tension. The droplet shape is tunable and ranges from spherical to tactoid as the filament length or concentration is increased. We find that the tactoids are well described by a model of a quasi bipolar liquid crystal droplet, where nematic order from the anisotropic actin filaments competes with isotropic interfacial energy from the FUS, controlling droplet shape in a size-dependent manner. Our results demonstrate a versatile approach to construct tunable, anisotropic macromolecular liquids.

The mechanical phenotype of a cell is an inherent biophysical marker of its state and function, with many applications in basic and applied biological research. Microfluidics-based methods have enabled single-cell mechanophenotyping at throughputs comparable to those of flow cytometry. Here, we present a standardized cross-laboratory study comparing three microfluidics-based approaches for measuring cell mechanical phenotype: constriction-based deformability cytometry (cDC), shear flow deformability cytometry (sDC) and extensional flow deformability cytometry (xDC). All three methods detect cell deformability changes induced by exposure to altered osmolarity. However, a dose-dependent deformability increase upon latrunculin B-induced actin disassembly was detected only with cDC and sDC, which suggests that when exposing cells to the higher strain rate imposed by xDC, cellular components other than the actin cytoskeleton dominate the response. The direct comparison presented here furthers our understanding of the applicability of the different deformability cytometry methods and provides context for the interpretation of deformability measurements performed using different platforms.

The dynamin GTPase is known to bundle actin filaments, but the underlying molecular mechanism and physiological relevance remain unclear. Our genetic analyses revealed a function of dynamin in propelling invasive membrane protrusions during myoblast fusion in vivo. Using biochemistry, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy and cryo-electron tomography, we show that dynamin bundles actin while forming a helical structure. At its full capacity, each dynamin helix captures 12-16 actin filaments on the outer rim of the helix. GTP hydrolysis by dynamin triggers disassembly of fully assembled dynamin helices, releasing free dynamin dimers/tetramers and facilitating Arp2/3-mediated branched actin polymerization. The assembly/disassembly cycles of dynamin promote continuous actin bundling to generate mechanically stiff actin super-bundles. Super-resolution and immunogold platinum replica electron microscopy revealed dynamin along actin bundles at the fusogenic synapse. These findings implicate dynamin as a unique multifilament actin-bundling protein that regulates the dynamics and mechanical strength of the actin cytoskeletal network.

The mechanisms underlying mammalian neural tube closure remain poorly understood. We report a unique cellular process involving multicellular rosette formation, convergent cellular protrusions, and F-actin cable network of the non-neural surface ectodermal cells encircling the closure site of the posterior neuropore, which are demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy and genetic fate mapping analyses during mouse spinal neurulation. These unique cellular structures are severely disrupted in the surface ectodermal transcription factor Grhl3 mutants that exhibit fully penetrant spina bifida. We propose a novel model of mammalian neural tube closure driven by surface ectodermal dynamics, which is computationally visualized.

The actin cytoskeleton plays a pivotal role in cell development, morphogenesis, and other cellular functions. Precise control of actin dynamics requires actin-binding proteins. Here, we characterize multifarious regulation of SHTN1 (shootin1) and show that, unlike known actin-binding proteins, SHTN1's actin binding activity is intrinsically inhibited by a putative coiled-coil domain (CCD) and the autoinhibition is overcome by alternative splicing regulation. We found SHTN1 contains a noncanonical WH2 domain and an upstream proline-rich region (PRR) that by themselves are sufficient for actin interaction. Alternative splicing of Shtn1 at the C terminus and downstream of the WH2-PRR domain produces a long (SHTN1L or shootin1b) and a short (SHTN1S or shootin1a) isoform, which both contain the described PRR and WH2 domains. However, SHTN1S does not interact with actin due to inhibition mediated by an N-terminal CCD. A SHTN1L-specific C-terminal motif counters the intramolecular inhibition and allows SHNT1L to bind actin. A nuclear localization signal is embedded between PRR and WH2 and is subject to similar autoinhibition. SHTN1 would be the first WH2-containing molecule that adopts CCD-dependent autoinhibition and alternative splicing-dependent actin interaction.

The structure and mechanics of many connective tissues are dictated by a collagen-rich extracellular matrix (ECM), where collagen fibers provide topological cues that direct cell migration. However, comparatively little is known about how cells navigate the hyaluronic acid (HA)-rich, nanoporous ECM of the brain, a problem with fundamental implications for development, inflammation, and tumor invasion. Here, we demonstrate that glioblastoma cells adhere to and invade HA-rich matrix using microtentacles (McTNs), which extend tens of micrometers from the cell body and are distinct from filopodia. We observe these structures in continuous culture models and primary patient-derived tumor cells, as well as in synthetic HA matrix and organotypic brain slices. High-magnification and superresolution imaging reveals McTNs are dynamic, CD44-coated tubular protrusions containing microtubules and actin filaments, which respectively drive McTN extension and retraction. Molecular mechanistic studies reveal that McTNs are stabilized by an interplay between microtubule-driven protrusion, actomyosin-driven retraction, and CD44-mediated adhesion, where adhesive and cytoskeletal components are mechanistically coupled by an IQGAP1-CLIP170 complex. McTNs represent a previously unappreciated mechanism through which cells engage nanoporous HA matrix and may represent an important molecular target in physiology and disease.

The outer segments (OS) of rod and cone photoreceptor cells are specialized sensory cilia that contain hundreds of opsin-loaded stacked membrane disks that enable phototransduction. The biogenesis of these disks is initiated at the OS base, but the driving force has been debated. Here, we studied the function of the protein encoded by the photoreceptor-specific gene C2orf71, which is mutated in inherited retinal dystrophy (RP54). We demonstrate that C2orf71/PCARE (photoreceptor cilium actin regulator) can interact with the Arp2/3 complex activator WASF3, and efficiently recruits it to the primary cilium. Ectopic coexpression of PCARE and WASF3 in ciliated cells results in the remarkable expansion of the ciliary tip. This process was disrupted by small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based down-regulation of an actin regulator, by pharmacological inhibition of actin polymerization, and by the expression of PCARE harboring a retinal dystrophy-associated missense mutation. Using human retinal organoids and mouse retina, we observed that a similar actin dynamics-driven process is operational at the base of the photoreceptor OS where the PCARE module and actin colocalize, but which is abrogated in Pcare-/- mice. The observation that several proteins involved in retinal ciliopathies are translocated to these expansions renders it a potential common denominator in the pathomechanisms of these hereditary disorders. Together, our work suggests that PCARE is an actin-associated protein that interacts with WASF3 to regulate the actin-driven expansion of the ciliary membrane at the initiation of new outer segment disk formation.

Synaptic activity in neurons leads to the rapid activation of genes involved in mammalian behavior. ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers such as the BAF complex contribute to these responses and are generally thought to activate transcription. However, the mechanisms keeping such "early activation" genes silent have been a mystery. In the course of investigating Mendelian recessive autism, we identified six families with segregating loss-of-function mutations in the neuronal BAF (nBAF) subunit ACTL6B (originally named BAF53b). Accordingly, ACTL6B was the most significantly mutated gene in the Simons Recessive Autism Cohort. At least 14 subunits of the nBAF complex are mutated in autism, collectively making it a major contributor to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Patient mutations destabilized ACTL6B protein in neurons and rerouted dendrites to the wrong glomerulus in the fly olfactory system. Humans and mice lacking ACTL6B showed corpus callosum hypoplasia, indicating a conserved role for ACTL6B in facilitating neural connectivity. Actl6b knockout mice on two genetic backgrounds exhibited ASD-related behaviors, including social and memory impairments, repetitive behaviors, and hyperactivity. Surprisingly, mutation of Actl6b relieved repression of early response genes including AP1 transcription factors (Fos, Fosl2, Fosb, and Junb), increased chromatin accessibility at AP1 binding sites, and transcriptional changes in late response genes associated with early response transcription factor activity. ACTL6B loss is thus an important cause of recessive ASD, with impaired neuron-specific chromatin repression indicated as a potential mechanism.