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A methodology using stripping voltammetry has been elaborated to enable sensitive and reliable protein–chromium complexation measurements. Disturbing effects caused by adsorption of proteins on the mercury electrode were addressed. At low concentrations of proteins (

Titanium oxide (rutile, TiO2) and zircon (ZrSiO4), known insoluble ceramic materials, are commonly used for coatings of implant materials. We investigate the release of zirconium, titanium, aluminum, iron, and silicon from different micron-sized powders of 6 powders of natural rutile (TiO2) and zircon (ZrSiO4) from a surface perspective. The investigation includes five different synthetic body fluids and two time periods of exposure, 2 and 24 hours. The solution chemicals rather than pH are important for the release of zirconium. When exceeding a critical amount of aluminum and silicon in the surface oxide, the particles seem to be protected from selective pH-specific release at neutral or weakly alkaline pH. The importance of bulk and surface composition and individual changes between different kinds of the same material is elucidated. Changes in material properties and metal release characteristics with particle size are presented for zircon.

Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) studies clearly revealed a different crystallographic structure of the smallest particle size fraction of gas-atomized AISI 316 L stainless steel powder (&lt ...

Iron, chromium, nickel, and manganese released from gas-atomized AISI 316L stainless steel powders (sized

Membrane filtration is commonly performed for solid-liquid separation of aqueous solutions prior to trace metal analysis and when assessing "dissolved" metal fractions. Potential artifacts induced by filtration such as contamination and/or adsorption of metals within the membrane have been investigated for different membrane materials, metals, applied pressures and pre-cleaning steps. Measurements have been conducted on aqueous solutions including well-defined metal standards, ultrapure water, and on runoff water from corroded samples. Filtration using both non-cleaned and pre-cleaned filters revealed contamination and adsorption effects, in particular pronounced for zinc, evident for copper but non-significant for nickel. The results clearly show these artifacts to be non-systematic both for non-cleaned and pre-cleaned membranes. The applied pressure was of minor importance. Measurements of the labile fraction by means of stripping voltammetry clearly elucidate that membrane filtration followed by total metal analysis cannot accurately assess the labile or the dissolved metal fraction.

Transformation/dissolution (T/D) data for different Cr- and Fe-based alloys (a FeCr alloy, stainless steel AISI 316L, an alloy side product (SP) from stainless steel production) compared with their ...

The last 15 years of research related to atmospheric corrosion and the release of copper to the environment are shortly summarized. Brown and green patinas with high barrier properties for corrosion are gradually evolved on copper at atmospheric conditions. The corrosion process and repeated dry and wet cycles results in a partial dissolution of corrosion products within the patina. Dissolved copper can be released and dispersed into the environment via the action of rainwater, however the major part is rearranged within the patina during drying cycles. The majority of corrosion products formed have a poor solubility, very different from water soluble copper salts. The release process is very slow and takes place independent of patina color. Its extent has only a marginal effect on the adherent patina. Released copper rapidly interacts with organic matter and in contact with different surfaces already in the close vicinity of the building, such as drainage systems, storm water pipes, pavements, stone materials and soil systems. These surfaces all have high capacities to retain copper in the runoff water and to reduce its concentration and chemical form to non-available and non-toxic levels for aquatic organisms.

The long-term degradation of chromium(III) (Zn-Cr(III)) and chromium(VI)-based (Zn-Cr(VI)) surface treatments on galvanized steel and their capacities to hinder the release of zinc induced by atmospheric corrosion at nonsheltered urban and marine exposure conditions for 2 years are investigated. Compared to bare zinc sheet, both surface treatments revealed high corrosion protection abilities and capacities to hinder the release of zinc, still evident after 2 years of exposure. The zinc barrier properties of the thinner Zn-Cr(VI) (10 nm) treatment were during the first 100 days of urban exposure slightly improved compared with Zn-Cr(III) (35 nm). However, their long-term protection capacities were inverse. Released concentrations of total chromium correspond to annual release rates less than 0.000032 (Zn-Cr(III)) and 0.00014 g Cr m(-2) yr(-1) (Zn-Cr(VI)) after 1 year of urban exposure. Aging by indoor storage of the surface treatments prior to outdoor exposure reduced the released Cr concentrations from the surface treatments. No Cr(VI) was released from the aged surfaces but from the freshly exposed Zn-Cr(VI). Marine exposure conditions resulted in a faster reduction of chromate to chromium(III)oxide compared with urban conditions, and a significantly lower amount of both chromium(III) and chromium(VI) released from Zn-Cr(VI) at the marine site compared with the urban site.

The European product safety legislation, REACH, requires that companies that manufacture, import, or use chemicals demonstrate safe use and high level of protection of their products placed on the market from a human health and environmental perspective. This process involves detailed assessment of potential hazards for various toxicity endpoints induced by the use of chemicals with a minimum use of animal testing. Such an assessment requires thorough understanding of relevant exposure scenarios including material characteristics and intrinsic properties and how, for instance, physical and chemical properties change from the manufacturing phase, throughout use, to final disposal. Temporary or permanent adverse health effects induced by particles depend either on their shape or physical characteristics, and/or on chemical interactions with the particle surface upon human exposure. Potential adverse effects caused by the exposure of metal particles through the gastrointestinal system, the pulmonary system, or the skin, and their subsequent potential for particle dissolution and metal release in contact with biological media, show significant gaps of knowledge. In vitro bioaccessibility testing at conditions of relevance for different exposure scenarios, combined with the generation of a detailed understanding of intrinsic material properties and surface characteristics, are in this context a useful approach to address aspects of relevance for accurate risk and hazard assessment of chemicals, including metals and alloys and to avoid the use of in vivo testing. Alloys are essential engineering materials in all kinds of applications in society, but their potential adverse effects on human health and the environment are very seldom assessed. Alloys are treated in REACH as mixtures of their constituent elements, an approach highly inappropriate because intrinsic properties of alloys generally are totally different compared with their pure metal components. A large research effort was therefore conducted to generate quantitative bioaccessibility data for particles of ferro-chromium alloys compared with particles of the pure metals and stainless steel exposed at in vitro conditions in synthetic biological media of relevance for particle inhalation and ingestion. All results are presented combining bioaccessibility data with aspects of particle characteristics, surface composition, and barrier properties of surface oxides. Iron and chromium were the main elements released from ferro-chromium alloys upon exposure in synthetic biological media. Both elements revealed time-dependent release processes. One week exposures resulted in very small released particle fractions being less than 0.3% of the particle mass at acidic conditions and less than 0.001% in near pH-neutral media. The extent of Fe released from ferro-chromium alloy particles was significantly lower compared with particles of pure Fe, whereas Cr was released to a very low and similar extent as from particles of pure Cr and stainless steel. Low release rates are a result of a surface oxide with passive properties predominantly composed of chromium(III)-rich oxides and silica and, to a lesser extent, of iron(II,III)oxides. Neither the relative bulk alloy composition nor the surface composition can be used to predict or assess the extent of metals released in different synthetic biological media. Ferro-chromium alloys cannot be assessed from the behavior of their pure metal constituents.

Release of copper from a naturally aged copper roof on a shopping centre building in a suburban site of Stockholm has been measured during different rain events after its interaction with the internal drainage system and storm drains made of cast iron and concrete. Concentrations of copper removed by means of urban storm water from a nearby parking space have been determined for comparison. Predictions and measurements of the chemical speciation of released copper are discussed compared to the total concentration, and to threshold values for freshwater and drinking water. The results clearly illustrate that the major part of the released copper from the roof is readily retained already during transport through the internal drainage system of the building, a pathway that also changes the chemical speciation of released copper and its bioavailable fraction. Most copper, not retained by cast iron and concrete surfaces, was strongly complexed to organic matter. The median concentration of free cupric ions and weak copper complexes was less than, or within the range of reported no effect concentrations, NOECs, of copper in surface waters. The parking space contributed with significantly higher and time-dependent concentrations of total copper compared to measured concentrations of copper from the roof after the interaction with the drainage system. Most copper in the surface runoff water was strongly complexed with organic matter, hence reducing the bioavailable fraction significantly to concentrations within the NOEC range. Dilution with other sources of urban storm water will reduce the released concentration of copper even further. The results illustrate that already the internal drainage system and the storm drains made of cast iron and concrete act as efficient sinks for released copper which means that any installation of additional infiltration devices is redundant.

Due to its beneficial corrosion resistance, stainless steel is widely used in, e.g., biomedical applications, as surfaces in food contact, and for products intended to come into skin contact. Low levels of metals can be released from the stainless steel surface into solution, even for these highly corrosion resistant alloys. This needs to be considered in risk assessment and management. This review aims to compile the different metal release mechanisms that are relevant for stainless steel when used in different biological settings. These mechanisms include corrosion-induced metal release, dissolution of the surface oxide, friction-induced metal release, and their combinations. The influence of important physicochemical surface properties, different organic species and proteins in solution, and of biofilm formation on corrosion-induced metal release is discussed. Chemical and electrochemical dissolution mechanisms of the surface oxides of stainless steel are presented with a focus on protonation, complexation/ligand-induced dissolution, and reductive dissolution by applying a perspective on surface adsorption of complexing or reducing ligands and proteins. The influence of alloy composition, microstructure, route of manufacture, and surface finish on the metal release process is furthermore discussed as well as the chemical speciation of released metals. Typical metal release patterns are summarized.

The European chemical framework REACH requires that hazards and risks posed by chemicals, including alloys and metals, that are manufactured, imported or used in different products (substances or articles) are identified and proven safe for humans and the environment. Metals and alloys need hence to be investigated on their extent of released metals (bioaccessibility) in biologically relevant environments. Read-across from available studies may be used for similar materials. This study investigates the release of molybdenum and iron from powder particles of molybdenum metal (Mo), a ferromolybdenum alloy (FeMo), an iron metal powder (Fe), MoO2, and MoO3 in different synthetic body fluids of pH ranging from 1.5 to 7.4 and of different composition. Spectroscopic tools and cyclic voltammetry have been employed to characterize surface oxides, microscopy, light scattering and nitrogen absorption for particle characterization, and atomic absorption spectroscopy to quantify released amounts of metals. The release of molybdenum from the Mo powder generally increased with pH and was influenced by the fluid composition. The mixed iron and molybdenum surface oxide of the FeMo powder acted as a barrier both at acidic and weakly alkaline conditions. These findings underline the importance of the surface oxide characteristics for the bioaccessibility of metal alloys.

Predictions of the diffuse dispersion of metals from outdoor constructions such as roofs and facades are necessary for environmental risk assessment and management. An existing predictive model has been compared with measured data of copper runoff from copper sheets exposed at four different inclinations facing four orientations at two different urban sites (Stockholm, Sweden, and Milan, Italy) during a 4-year period. Its applicability has also been investigated for copper sheet exposed at two marine sites (Cadiz, Spain, for 5 years, and Brest, France, for 9 years). Generally the model can be used for all given conditions. However, vertical surfaces should be considered as surfaces inclined 60–80° due to wind-driven effects. The most important parameters that influence copper runoff, and not already included in the model, are the wind and rain characteristics that influence the actual rainfall volume impinging the surface of interest.

Industries that place metal and alloy products on the market are required to demonstrate that they are safe for all intended uses, and that any risks to humans, animals or the environment are adequately controlled. This requires reliable and robust in vitro test procedures. The aim of this study is to compare the release of alloy constituents from stainless steel powders of different grades (focus on AISI 316L) and production routes into synthetic body fluids with the release of the same metals from massive sheets in relation to material and surface characteristics. The comparison is justified by the fact that the difference between massive surfaces and powders from a metal release/dissolution and surface perspective is not clearly elucidated within current legislations. Powders and abraded and aged (24 h) massive sheets were exposed to synthetic solutions of relevance for biological settings and human exposure routes, for periods of up to one week. Concentrations of released iron, chromium, nickel, and manganese in solution were measured, and the effect of solution pH, acidity, complexation capacity, and proteins elucidated in relation to surface oxide composition and its properties. Implications for risk assessments based on in vitro metal release data from alloys are elucidated.

Stainless steel is widely used in biological environments, for example as implant material or in food applications, where adsorption-controlled ligand-induced metal release is of importance from a corrosion, health, and food safety perspective. The objective of this study was to elucidate potential correlations between surface energy and wettability of stainless steel surfaces and the release of iron in complexing biological media. This was accomplished by studying changes in surface energies calculated from contact angle measurements, surface oxide composition (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy), and released iron (graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy) for stainless steel grade AISI 304 immersed in fluids containing bovine serum albumin or citric acid, and non-complexing fluids such as NaCl, NaOH, and HNO3. It was shown that the surface wettability and polar surface energy components were all influenced by adventitious atmospheric carbon (surface contamination of low molecular weight), rather than differences in surface oxide composition in non-complexing solutions. Adsorption of both BSA and citrate, which resulted in ligand-induced metal release, strongly influenced the wettability and the surface energy, and correlated well with the measured released amount of iron.

This review on copper runoff dispersed from unsheltered naturally patinated copper used for roofing and facades summarizes and discusses influencing factors, available literature, and predictive models, and the importance of fate and speciation for environmental risk assessment. Copper runoff from outdoor surfaces is predominantly governed by electrochemical and chemical reactions and is highly dependent on given exposure conditions (size, inclination, geometry, degree of sheltering, and orientation), surface parameters (age, patina composition, and thickness), and site-specific environmental conditions (gaseous pollutants, chlorides, rainfall characteristics (amount, intensity, pH), wind direction, temperature, time of wetness, season). The corrosion rate cannot be used to assess the runoff rate. The extent of released copper varies largely between different rain events and is related to dry and wet periods, dry deposition prior to the rain event and prevailing rain and patina characteristics. Interpretation and use of copper runoff data for environmental risk assessment and management need therefore to consider site-specific factors and focus on average data of long-term studies (several years). Risk assessments require furthermore that changes in copper speciation, bioavailability aspects, and potential irreversible retention on solid surfaces are considered, factors that determine the environmental fate of copper runoff from outdoor surfaces.

The Globally Harmonized System for Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) considers metallic alloys, such as nickel (Ni)-containing stainless steel (SS), as mixtures of substances, without considering that alloys behave differently compared to their constituent metals. This study presents an approach using metal release, explained by surface compositional data, for the prediction of inhalation toxicity of SS AISI 316L. The release of Ni into synthetic biological fluids is >1000-fold lower from the SS powder than from Ni metal, due to the chromium(III)-rich surface oxide of SS. Thus, it was hypothesized that the inhalation toxicity of SS is significantly lower than what could be predicted based on Ni metal content. A 28-day inhalation study with rats exposed to SS 316L powder (

The objective of this study was to investigate the extent of released Co, Cr(III), Cr(VI), and Mo from a biomedical high-carbon CoCrMo alloy exposed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), without and with the addition of 10 µM H2 O2 (PBS + H2 O2 ), and 10 g L(-1) bovine serum albumin (PBS + BSA) for time periods up to 28 days. Comparative studies were made on AISI 316L for the longest time period. No Cr(VI) release was observed for any of the alloys in either PBS or PBS + H2 O2 at open-circuit potential (no applied potential). However, at applied potentials (0.7 V vs. Ag/AgCl), Cr was primarily released as Cr(VI). Co was preferentially released from the CoCrMo alloy at no applied potential. As a consequence, Cr was enriched in the utmost surface oxide reducing the extent of metal release over time. This passivation effect was accelerated in PBS + H2 O2 . As previously reported for 316L, BSA may also enhance metal release from CoCrMo. However, this was not possible to verify due to the precipitation of metal-protein complexes with reduced metal concentrations in solution as a consequence. This was particularly important for Co-BSA complexes after sufficient time and resulted in an underestimation of metals in solution.

An in-depth mechanistic understanding of the interaction between stainless steel surfaces and proteins is essential from a corrosion and protein-induced metal release perspective when stainless steel is used in surgical implants and in food applications. The interaction between lysozyme (LSZ) from chicken egg white and bovine serum albumin (BSA) and AISI 316L stainless steel surfaces was studied ex situ by means of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) after different adsorption time periods (0.5, 24, and 168 h). The effect of XPS measurements, storage (aging), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and elevated temperature (up to 200 °C) on the protein layers, as well as changes in surface oxide composition, were investigated. Both BSA and LSZ adsorption induced an enrichment of chromium in the oxide layer. BSA induced significant changes to the entire oxide, while LSZ only induced a depletion of iron at the utmost layer. SDS was not able to remove preadsorbed proteins completely, despite its high concentration and relatively long treatment time (up to 36.5 h), but induced partial denaturation of the protein coatings. High-temperature treatment (200 °C) and XPS exposure (X-ray irradiation and/or photoelectron emission) induced significant denaturation of both proteins. The heating treatment up to 200 °C removed some proteins, far from all. Amino acid fragment intensities determined from ToF-SIMS are discussed in terms of significant differences with adsorption time, between the proteins, and between freshly adsorbed and aged samples. Stainless steel-protein interactions were shown to be strong and protein-dependent. The findings assist in the understanding of previous studies of metal release and surface changes upon exposure to similar protein solutions.

Implantation using stainless steels (SS) is an example where an understanding of protein-induced metal release from SS is important when assessing potential toxicological risks. Here, the protein-induced metal release was investigated for austenitic (AISI 304, 310, and 316L), ferritic (AISI 430), and duplex (AISI 2205) grades in a phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) solution containing either bovine serum albumin (BSA) or lysozyme (LSZ). The results show that both BSA and LSZ induce a significant enrichment of chromium in the surface oxide of all stainless steel grades. Both proteins induced an enhanced extent of released iron, chromium, nickel and manganese, very significant in the case of BSA (up to 40-fold increase), whereas both proteins reduced the corrosion resistance of SS, with the reverse situation for iron metal (reduced corrosion rates and reduced metal release in the presence of proteins). A full monolayer coverage is necessary to induce the effects observed. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10856-013-4859-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A research effort is undertaken to understand the mechanism of metal release from, e.g., inhaled metal particles or metal implants in the presence of proteins. The effect of protein adsorption on the metal release process from oxidized chromium metal surfaces and stainless steel surfaces was therefore examined by quartz crystal microbalance with energy dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS). Differently charged and sized proteins, relevant for the inhalation and dermal exposure route were chosen including human and bovine serum albumin (HSA, BSA), mucin (BSM), and lysozyme (LYS). The results show that all proteins have high affinities for chromium and stainless steel (AISI 316) when deposited from solutions at pH 4 and at pH 7.4 where the protein adsorbed amount was very similar. Adsorption of albumin and mucin was substantially higher at pH 4 compared to pH 7.4 with approximately monolayer coverage at pH 7.4, whereas lysozyme adsorbed in multilayers at both investigated pH. The protein-surface interaction was strong since proteins were irreversibly adsorbed with respect to rinsing. Due to the passive nature of chromium and stainless steel (AISI 316) surfaces, very low metal release concentrations from the QCM metal surfaces in the presence of proteins were obtained on the time scale of the adsorption experiment. Therefore, metal release studies from massive metal sheets in contact with protein solutions were carried out in parallel. The presence of proteins increased the extent of metals released for chromium metal and stainless steel grades of different microstructure and alloy content, all with passive chromium(III)-rich surface oxides, such as QCM (AISI 316), ferritic (AISI 430), austentic (AISI 304, 316L), and duplex (LDX 2205).

Ferrochromium alloys are manufactured in large quantities and placed on the global market for use as master alloys (secondary raw materials), primarily for stainless steel production. Any potential human exposure to ferrochromium alloy particles is related to occupational activities during production and use, with 2 main exposure routes, dermal contact and inhalation and subsequent digestion. Alloy and reference particles exposed in vitro in synthetic biological fluids relevant for these main exposure routes have been investigated in a large research effort combining bioaccessibility; chemical speciation; and material, surface, and particle characteristics. In this paper, data for the dermal exposure route, including skin and eye contact, will be presented and discussed. Bioaccessibility data have been generated for particles of a ferrochromium alloy, stainless steel grade AISI 316L, pure Fe, pure Cr, iron(II,III)oxide, and chromium(III)oxide, upon immersion in artificial sweat (pH 6.5) and artificial tear (pH 8.0) fluids for various time periods. Measured released amounts of Fe, Cr, and Ni are presented in terms of average Fe and Cr release rates and amounts released per amount of particles loaded. The results are discussed in relation to bulk and surface composition of the particles. Additional information, essential to assess the bioavailability of Cr released, was generated by determining its chemical speciation and by providing information on its complexation and oxidation states in both media investigated. The effect of differences in experimental temperature, 30 degrees C and 37 degrees C, on the extent of metal release in artificial sweat is demonstrated. Iron was the preferentially released element in all test media and for all time periods and iron-containing particles investigated. The extent of metal release was highly pH dependent and was also dependent on the medium composition. Released amounts of Cr and Fe were very low (close to the limit of detection,0.008% of particles released or dissolved as iron or chromium) for the alloy particles (ferrochromium alloy and stainless steel), the pure Cr particles, and the metal oxide particles. The released fraction of Cr (Cr/[Cr + Fe]) varied with the material investigated, the test medium, and the exposure time and cannot be predicted from either the bulk or the surface composition. Chromium was released as noncomplexed Cr(III) and in addition in very low concentrations (3 microg/L). Nickel released was under the limit of detection (0.5 microg/L), except for ultrafine stainless steel particles (10 microg/L). It is evident that media chemistry and material properties from a bulk and surface perspective, as well as other particle characteristics, and the chemical speciation of released metals have to be considered when assessing any potential hazard or risk induced by sparingly soluble metal or alloy particles.

Background Production of ferrochromium alloys (FeCr), master alloys for stainless steel manufacture, involves casting and crushing processes where particles inevitably become airborne and potentially inhaled. The aim of this study was to assess potential health hazards induced by inhalation of different well-characterized iron- and chromium-based particles, i.e. ferrochromium (FeCr), ferrosiliconchromium (FeSiCr), stainless steel (316L), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), and chromium(III)oxide (Cr2O3), in different size fractions using in vitro methods. This was done by assessing the extent and speciation of released metals in synthetic biological medium and by analyzing particle reactivity and toxicity towards cultured human lung cells (A549). Results The amount of released metals normalized to the particle surface area increased with decreasing particle size for all alloy particles, whereas the opposite situation was valid for particles of the pure metals. These effects were evident in artificial lysosomal fluid (ALF) of pH 4.5 containing complexing agents, but not in neutral or weakly alkaline biological media. Chromium, iron and nickel were released to very low extent from all alloy particles, and from particles of Cr due to the presence of a Cr(III)-rich protective surface oxide. Released elements were neither proportional to the bulk nor to the surface composition after the investigated 168 hours of exposure. Due to a surface oxide with less protective properties, significantly more iron was released from pure iron particles compared with the alloys. Cr was predominantly released as Cr(III) from all particles investigated and was strongly complexed by organic species of ALF. Cr2O3 particles showed hemolytic activity, but none of the alloy particles did. Fine-sized particles of stainless steel caused however DNA damage, measured with the comet assay after 4 h exposure. None of the particles revealed any significant cytotoxicity in terms of cell death after 24 h exposure. Conclusion It is evident that particle and alloy characteristics such as particle size and surface composition are important aspects to consider when assessing particle toxicity and metal release from alloy particles compared to pure metal particles. Generated results clearly elucidate that neither the low released concentrations of metals primarily as a result of protective and poorly soluble surface oxides, nor non-bioavailable chromium complexes, nor the particles themselves of occupational relevance induced significant acute toxic response, with exception of DNA damage from stainless steel.

Stainless steels are commonly used in a variety of essential applications in our daily-life, for instance as biomaterials and in food contact applications. Even though the corrosion resistance of such grades is high, or very high, alloy components will be released to different extent in contact with biological media of varying composition, acidity and metal complexation capacity, a process that may induce adverse toxicological effects. Research activities have focused to quantitatively determine, and kinetically and mechanistically assess the metal release process in relation to material and surface properties of stainless steels of different grade as massive sheet and as powders in contact with biological systems of relevance for human exposure. Surface-protein interactions have been addressed from a combined surface chemistry, corrosion and material science and toxicological approach. Generated findings clearly show that both bulk and surface oxide properties such as phase, structure, morphology, chemical and electrochemical stability, largely influence the metal release process, biointerfacial interactions, bioavailability of released metals, and subsequent toxicity. For example, the cooling-rate dependent surface oxide speciation (surface oxide thickness, composition, phase and phase distribution, crystallinity etc.) of stainless steel particles strongly determines whether the dominant mechanism of metal release in complexing biological environments is corrosion-controlled or ligand-induced chemical dissolution. Research findings are of vital importance for risk assessments of stainless steel and alloys, to understand adsorption phenomena on stainless steel, metal release and corrosion processes, and the influence of surface oxide speciation on metal release, corrosion, and toxicity.