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Species monitoring is fundamental to species conservation.The Chinese Government promulgated the Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation in China(2011—2030) in September 2010.One of the short-term targets of the strategy and action plan is to establish a preliminary monitoring system for China′s biodiversity by 2015.In the same year,the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted what is known as the 2020 targets or the Aichi Targets.It is necessary to enhance biodiversity monitoring to implement the strategy and action plan and to achieve the 2020 targets.Europe and North America have a long history of species monitoring.However,China has very limited skills in this area,with outdated techniques and often inadequate facilities.In this paper,we analyzed methods used to develop monitoring plans,select monitoring indicators,and design sampling,based on experience related to species monitoring in Europe and North America,so as to provide guidance for the design of species monitoring networks in China.Species monitoring usually involves four steps,such as developing monitoring plans,implementing field monitoring,analyzing and reporting monitoring data,and evaluating the monitoring plans.The development of monitoring plans should address four questions:(1) why monitor?(2) where should monitoring be done?(3) what should be monitored? and(4) how should monitoring be conducted? Objectives of species monitoring should be explicit,measureable,and practical.The following taxa should be considered in selecting indicator species:(1) threatened species;(2) species with social or economic value;(3) species important to the maintenance of ecosystem structure and processes;(4) species sensitive to management intervention;and(5) species sensitive to ecosystem or habitat change.Taxa with different ecological requirements and different life histories should be selected as indicator species.Monitoring indicators should be measurable,science-based,understandable by the public,with low monitoring cost and high benefits.Typical indicators include species richness,abundance,survival rate,community composition,habitat health,and human intervention.Monitoring methods should also be science-based and can detect relevant changes.Standardized monitoring methods with high efficiency and low cost should be employed.Random sampling should be used in species monitoring.Sampling units should be selected randomly from the target population,where appropriate,stratified sampling should be employed,so as to reflect the features of target regions and to reduce bias or errors as far as possible.Monitoring plans should address spatial variation and detectability.The main means to avoid errors are to estimate and correct detectability.The calculation of sample size should ensure that actual changes can be detected effectively under a given confidence level.Sampling sites should be representative,and should reflect,with limited monitoring areas,the species composition and quantitative features of communities in the monitoring region.The scope,shape and locations of sample sites should also be considered in the sampling design.Monitoring plans should fully address conditions such as human resources available,funding and support facilities,and should be regularly assessed.Results of and problems in species monitoring should be reported regularly to relevant government bodies,so as to link species monitoring closely with conservation policies and actions.All steps in species monitoring should address the issue of standardization.The key elements to enhancing data standardization are to:(1) select and establish sampling sites strictly according to relevant requirements;(2) use well qualified monitoring staff skillfully for operating monitoring protocols and collect data in line with the protocols;and(3) establish and implement data appraisal procedures,so as to completely and carefully evaluate monitoring data.

Invasive alien species (IAS) are a major global challenge requiring urgent action, and the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011–2020) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) includes a target on the issue. Meeting the target requires an understanding of invasion patterns. However, national or regional analyses of invasions are limited to developed countries. We identified 488 IAS in China’s terrestrial habitats, inland waters and marine ecosystems based on available literature and field work, including 171 animals, 265 plants, 26 fungi, 3 protists, 11 procaryots, and 12 viruses. Terrestrial plants account for 51.6% of the total number of IAS, and terrestrial invertebrates (104 species) for 21.3%. Of the total numbers, 67.9% of plant IAS and 34.8% of animal IAS were introduced intentionally. All other taxa were introduced unintentionally despite very few animal and plant species that invaded naturally. In terms of habitats, 64.3% of IAS occur on farmlands, 13.9% in forests, 8.4% in marine ecosystems, 7.3% in inland waters, and 6.1% in residential areas. Half of all IAS (51.1%) originate from North and South America, 18.3% from Europe, 17.3% from Asia not including China, 7.2% from Africa, 1.8% from Oceania, and the origin of the remaining 4.3% IAS is unknown. The distribution of IAS can be divided into three zones. Most IAS are distributed in coastal provinces and the Yunnan province; provinces in Middle China have fewer IAS, and most provinces in West China have the least number of IAS. Sites where IAS were first detected are mainly distributed in the coastal region, the Yunnan Province and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The number of newly emerged IAS has been increasing since 1850. The cumulative number of firstly detected IAS grew exponentially.

From April to September 1987, mark-recapture studies on Phrynocephalus przewalskii were conducted in a desert habitat of northwestern China. Captive lizards were coded using the toe-clipping method. Capture and recaptured lizards were measured according to body weight and snout-vent lenght. Growth pattern was obtained. It was found that Phynocephalus przewalskii can be divided into five age classes according to growth pattern: 30–41 mm, 39–53 mm, 52–61 mm, 62–70 mm, 71–81 mm. In addition to the mark-recapture studies, lizards were collected monthly from a similar habitat near the marked population. Snout-vent length, head width, head length, tail length and body weight were measured. A total of 576 lizards were obtained. In order to test the result of age classification further, Fuzzy Cluster analysis was employed to classify SVL groups. Five SVL categories were obtained: 30–40 mm, 41–51 mm, 52–61 mm, 62–70 mm, 71–81 mm. Both the biological and the mathematical method verify the correctness of age identification. Further studies concerning age identification were discussed. The recapture data collected during this study were used for estimating the parameters for growth models. It was found that the Von Bertalanffy model yielded the lowest residual mean square and was therefore considered the model providing the best fit to the recapture data.

National and local governments need to step up efforts to effectively implement the post-2020 global biodiversity framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity to halt and reverse worsening biodiversity trends. Drawing on recent advances in interdisciplinary biodiversity science, we propose a framework for improved implementation by national and subnational governments. First, the identification of actions and the promotion of ownership across stakeholders need to recognize the multiple values of biodiversity and account for remote responsibility. Second, cross-sectorial implementation and mainstreaming should adopt scalable and multifunctional ecosystem restoration approaches and target positive futures for nature and people. Third, assessment of progress and adaptive management can be informed by novel biodiversity monitoring and modeling approaches handling the multidimensionality of biodiversity change.