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Credibility, relevance and legitimacy are often cited as determinants of the effectiveness of interfaces between science and environmental policy and serve as criteria for their evaluation. However, these concepts are hazy and have a variety of meanings. In practice, the systematic evaluation of science–policy interfaces according to credibility, relevance and legitimacy is subject to a number of difficulties and is rarely done. In this paper we offer some clarification of these concepts and show how they influence the perception and evaluation of science–policy interfaces. Our findings reveal that, while the attributes of credibility, relevance and legitimacy are helpful when reflecting on the effectiveness of science–policy interfaces, they are difficult to apply as criteria when evaluating these interfaces. To apply these concepts in a meaningful way to the task of evaluation they need to be defined specifically for the particular context of the science–policy interface concerned.

As biodiversity continues to decline despite our increased knowledge of the drivers and consequences of biodiversity loss, much of the current focus is on strengthening interfaces between biodiversity knowledge and policy-making. While many of the challenges associated with science–policy interfaces are well known, what is less well studied is the more specific issue of how to integrate the broad range of knowledge relating to complex issues such as biodiversity and ecosystem services, to inform decision-making at regional and global scales. Based on a formative evaluation of the development of a European Network of Knowledge on biodiversity and ecosystem services, we identify key themes to build a broad biodiversity science community capable of developing integrated knowledge to inform decision-making. Based on these findings we outline future steps for the successful integration of knowledge in decision-making at the European, and also the global scale, in particular the Intergovernmental Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES).

Action 5 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 calls Member States to map andassess the state of ecosystems and their services in their national territory with theassistance of the European Commission. The objective of this discussion paper is tosupport the development of a coherent analytical framework to be applied by the EUand its Member States in order to ensure consistent approaches are used.In line with the Millennium Ecosystem assessment, the objective of the EUassessment is to provide a critical evaluation of the best available information forguiding decisions on complex public issues. It is therefore framed by a broad set ofkey policy questions. It is structured around a conceptual framework that links humansocieties and their well-being with the environment. More specifically, the paperproposes a typology of ecosystems to be assessed and mapped and the use of theCommon International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) developed forenvironmental accounting purposes.

Considering both within- and between-species functional diversities in plant communities has been recently suggested as a way to understand potential assembly mechanisms that control species coexistence. In particular, relating variations in species richness to within- and between-species functional diversities can provide a useful framework for evaluating the importance of alternative community assembly theories. In addition, little is known about whether the relationship between species richness and functional diversity components arises from direct or indirect effects of the abiotic environment.We tested the relationship between functional diversity and species richness by disentangling functional diversity components into within-species, between-species and total functional diversities and by considering potential direct and indirect effects of the abiotic conditions. Multi- and single-trait approaches were applied using three key plant functional traits (height, specific leaf area (SLA), LDMC). Traits were measured on species coexisting across sixteen species-rich limestone grasslands. Direct and indirect effects of the abiotic conditions were evaluated using multiple soil properties including heterogeneity in soil depths.The within-species functional diversity ranged between 13.5% and 33.6% of the total functional diversity. Within-species diversity was the main functional component linked to variations in species richness, despite the within-species functional diversity being lower than between-species functional diversity. Environmental soil properties had a direct effect on species richness but did not affect functional diversity components.Synthesis: Our results provide evidence that increasing the trait overlap between species, due to an increase in within-species diversity, may relate to greater species coexistence. Disentangling multiple functional diversity components indicated that there may be equalizing mechanisms that act as potential drivers of sp

The mechanisms driving nonrandom assembly patterns in plant communities have long been of interest in ecological research. Competing ecological theories predict that coexisting species may either be more functionally dissimilar than expected by chance (with functional ‘divergence’ mainly reflecting niche differentiation) or be functionally more similar than expected (with functional ‘convergence’ reflecting either the outcome of environmental filtering or weaker-competitor exclusion effects). Assembly patterns are usually assessed at a single scale and disturbance regime, whereas considering different spatial scales and disturbance regimes may clarify the underlying assembly mechanisms. We tested the prediction that convergence and divergence are scale- and disturbance- dependent in grazed and abandoned species-rich dry grasslands within a 22 km2 landscape in south-eastern Sweden. Convergence and divergence were tested for plant species' traits and phylogenetic relationships at three nested spatial scales: within 412 plots (50 × 50 cm, divided into 10 × 10 cm subplots), within 117 grassland patches (from 0.02 to 11.63 ha) and within the whole landscape (across patches). At the finest scale (10 × 10 cm subplots within plots), coexisting species were more different than expected by chance (divergence), both functionally and phylogenetically, suggesting niche differentiation. At the intermediate scale (50 × 50 cm plots within patches), coexisting species showed convergence, suggesting environmental filtering. No significant deviations from random expectations were detected at the broadest scale (patches within the 22 km2 landscape) – suggesting the prevalence of dispersal limitation at this scale. The fact that nonrandom patterns were particularly evident under grazed conditions is consistent with the predict

Question To what extent do historical and present-day management regimes and landscape characteristics affect the functional structure of semi-natural grassland communities? Location Semi-natural grasslands, the Baltic island of Öland, Sweden. Methods We assessed community functional structure within 475 (50 cm × 50 cm) semi-natural grassland vegetation plots using two indices: community-weighted mean trait values (CWM) and functional divergence (FD), calculated using the Rao quadratic entropy index. Spatially explicit regressions were used to assess the extent to which the CWM and FD for different plant traits are explained by past and present levels of local grazing management, and the present and historical characteristics of the surrounding landscape. Results Across traits, the CWM and FD of individual grasslands were strongly associated with current grazing intensity, but also with local management history and past landscape structure. Conclusions Our results indicate that grassland functional structure in the fragmented present-day landscape reflects not only present conditions, but also the historical context of the grassland fragments – where the presence of extensive grassland habitat in the surroundings provided a diverse pool of grazing-tolerant species. The study also suggests that information on landscape history, and its effects on the local species pool, may improve predictions of future plant community structure.

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Ecosystems are multifunctional and provide humanity with a broad array of vital services. Effective management of services requires an improved evidence base, identifying the role of ecosystems in delivering multiple services, which can assist policy-makers in maintaining them. Here, information from the literature and scientific experts was used to systematically document the importance of services and identify trends in their use and status over time for the main terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in Europe. The results from this review show that intensively managed ecosystems contribute mostly to vital provisioning services (e.g. agro-ecosystems provide food via crops and livestock, and forests provide wood), while semi-natural ecosystems (e.g. grasslands and mountains) are key contributors of genetic resources and cultural services (e.g. aesthetic values and sense of place). The most recent European trends in human use of services show increases in demand for crops from agro-ecosystems, timber from forests, water flow regulation from rivers, wetlands and mountains, and recreation and ecotourism in most ecosystems, but decreases in livestock production, freshwater capture fisheries, wild foods and virtually all services associated with ecosystems which have considerably decreased in area (e.g. semi-natural grasslands). The condition of the majority of services show either a degraded or mixed status across Europe with the exception of recent enhancements in timber production in forests and mountains, freshwater provision, water/erosion/natural hazard regulation and recreation/ecotourism in mountains, and climate regulation in forests. Key gaps in knowledge were evident for certain services across all ecosystems, including the provision of biochemicals and natural medicines, genetic resources and the regulating services of seed dispersal, pest/disease regulation and invasion resistance.

The RUBICODE project draws on expertise from a range of disciplines to develop and integrate frameworks for assessing the impacts of environmental change on ecosystem service provision, and for rationalising biodiversity conservation in that light. With such diverse expertise and concepts involved, interested parties will not be familiar with all the key terminology. This paper defines the terms as used within the project and, where useful, discusses some reasoning behind the definitions. Terms are grouped by concept rather than being listed alphabetically.

Research on ecosystem services has grown rapidly over the last decade. Two conceptual frameworks have been published to guide ecological assessments of organisms that deliver services-the concepts of service-providing units (SPUs) and ecosystem service providers (ESPs). Here, we unite these frameworks and present an SPU-ESP continuum that offers a coherent conceptual approach for synthesizing the latest developments in ecosystem service research, and can direct future studies at all levels of organization. In particular, we show how the service-provider concept can be applied at the population, functional group, and community levels. We strongly emphasize the need to identify and quantify the organisms and their characteristics (e.g., functional traits) that provide services, and to assess service provision relative to the demands of human beneficiaries. We use key examples from the literature to illustrate the new approach and to highlight gaps in knowledge, particularly in relation to the impact of species interactions and ecosystem dynamics on service provision.