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Intermittent planted filters are extensive biological purification techniques aimed at oxidizing and decontaminating urban wastewater at a low cost and with minimum environmental impacts. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the performances of intermittent planted filters in treating urban wastewater under arid conditions of southern Tunisia. The experimental study was carried out on a pilot scale plant comprising five constructed gravel-sand basins. Screened urban wastewater effluent was intermittently applied with a daily hydraulic load of 400 L/m2. Several water quality parameters were monitored at the inlet and outlet of this treatment plant. The average removal rate were 94.8%, 92.3%, 99.3%, 89.9% and 93.3% for chemical and biological oxygen demand, total suspended solids, ammonium nitrogen and orthophosphate, respectively. Additionally, results demonstrated that this treatment system is capable of removing 3.67, 3.22 and 2.44 log units of total and faecal coliforms, and faecal streptococci, respectively. Results showed that Phragmites australis allowed the development of biofilm in the sand filter beds, improving their purification efficiency. Furthermore, no bio-sludge production, no mechanical aeration, low energy requirement (0.02 kW/m2) and green aesthetic ambience are the additional particular strengths of the proposed pilot plant. HIGHLIGHTS Planted filters are efficient in treating urban wastewater under arid conditions.; Results showed that Phragmites australis improved the purification efficiency of the planted filters.; Planted filters accomplished significant removal rates of organic and nitrogen matter.; This treatment system led a significant abatement of pathogens.; The treated wastewater can be reused in irrigation.;

The development of a “wood waste” supply chain using treated urban waste is proposed for fertirrigation of eucalypt clonal plantations. We used the simplified SI-UNIBAS urban waste water purification system, a modification of the conventional activated sludge system which allows for the production of water with variable loads of organic carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), thus adapting the treated water to the crop requirements. A prototype of this system already exists since more than a decade in the municipality of Ferrandina, near Matera (southern Italy), where the purified wastewater is used to fertirrigate olive trees in an extensive experimentation with excellent results. We hypothesized the use of the SI-UNIBAS system to fertirrigate plantations of fast-growing eucalyptus clones in order to evaluate the obtainable wood production and the surfaces to be planted in areas of central and southern Italy characterized by evergreen and deciduous oak forests. In summary, the development of the “wood waste” chain could result in: (i) a reduction of up to 50% in waste treatment costs and CO2 emissions, compared to the conventional activated sludge system; (ii) a high and constant wood production (8 million m3 per year) over a short time (8-15 years rotation) on limited surfaces (about 400.000 ha) to be used as timber and/or biomass for energy use; (iii) savings on the cost of irrigation water, fertilizers or organic matter for wood production, while maintaining the soil fertility; (iv) savings on the use of chemical fertilizers and therefore no CO2 emissions from their production; (v) a lower logging from national forests and/or imports from abroad; (vi) the possibility of managing parts of forests currently subject to logging in a more efficient way in terms of absorption and conservation of atmospheric CO2 and biodiversity conservation. However, before large-scale applications of the SI-UNIBAS system, pilot studies need to be implemented in sites with soil, climatic and socio-economic conditions typical of central and southern Italy. We concluded that the SI-UNIBAS system has the potential to be applied in large-scale projects at the national level.

This paper aims to assess purification performances and explore wastewater byproducts valorization strategies from a full scale urban wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Process performance indicators and effluent discharge parameters were assessed during a review period of one year and compared to WWTP design criteria and applied discharge standards. Treated wastewater, sewage sludge and energy production lines were investigated. Results highlight that Marrakesh WWTP performed adequately depending its design characteristics and generally fulfilled applied discharge standards depending established requirements. Sludge line constitute an important component of Marrakesh WWTP, it allows clean energy production, which contributes up to 50% of its electrical self-sufficiency.

Aerobic granular sludge is an interesting alternative to the conventional activated sludge (CAS) system and modified-Ludzack–Ettinger (MLE) process for biological wastewater treatment, as it allows a more cost-effective and simultaneous removal of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) compounds in a single stage. In this study, (micro)aerobic C and N removal from synthetic urban wastewater was investigated in a continuous-double-column-upflow aerobic granular sludge blanket (UAGSB) system. The UAGSB reactor was operated under different dissolved oxygen (DO) ranges (0.01–6.00 mg∙L−1), feed C/N ratios (4.7–13.6), and hydraulic retention times (HRTs) (6–24 h). At a DO range of 0.01–0.30 mg∙L−1, feed C/N ratio of 13.6, and HRT of 24 h, the UAGSB achieved the highest chemical oxygen demand (COD), N-NH4+, and total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) removal efficiencies of 86, 99, and 84%, respectively. A preliminary assessment of the energy and economic savings associated with the process investigated was also carried out. The impact of capital and operating costs mainly related to the energy consumption of the aeration was taken into account. The assessment reveals that the capital and energy expenses of the UAGSB reactor would result in cost savings of around 14 and 7%, respectively, compared with a MLE system.

Biological treatment methods are the most important part of the treatment process for domestic wastewater, the amounts of which are increasing every year due to rapid, unregulated urbanization and the rising number of people living in such areas. At the same time, microorganisms existing in treatment facilities should not only effectively utilize organic pollutants, but also be resistant to a variety of organic and inorganic contaminants. This study's objective is to isolate and identify—using molecular genetic techniques—strains of bacteria that tolerate concentrations of heavy metals (Ni, Cd, Pb, Zn and Cu) in the 3–5 mM range. They were sourced from water and sludge samples obtained from sewage treatment facilities in a large city. Outcomes of phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that tolerant strains of bacteria belonged to the genera Pseudomonas, Serratia and Klebsiella; strains belonging to the genus Pseudomonas dominated. Of ten resistant strains, nine were isolated from sludge and water samples of the secondary sedimentation tank, and the other one from a treatment plant's digester. Changes in the color of microorganisms' colonies became evident when cultivated on media enriched with heavy metals. Cultivating nonpathogenic strains of these bacteria and their introduction into communities of other activated sludge microorganisms could have practical application to biological decontamination of wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Municipal water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs) are important sources of antibiotic‐resistant bacteria and genes (ARB and ARGs). In this study, antibiotic‐resistant total heterotrophic bacteria (THBR) counts (CFU/ml) cultivated from influent, effluent of activated sludge process, and outflow of disinfection unit of an urban WRRF were investigated for the presence of 16, 32, 64, and 128 μg/ml of nine antibiotics. The isolates of Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., and Escherichia coli obtained from effluent of activated sludge process were subjected for molecular identification by detecting the 16S rRNA gene sequences. Additionally, using the polymerase chain reaction method (PCR), the isolates were investigated for the presence of blaSHV, blaTEM, blaCTX‐M, blaVIM, sul1, and qnrS genes. According to the results, the abundance of THBR counts was not significantly reduced by the biological treatment except for cefixime and sulfamethoxazole; it also increased for some antibiotics after disinfection unit. The average removal efficiency of THBR resistant to ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and ceftazidime were 7.9 ± 1.7%, 41.8 ± 2.1%, and 14.4 ± 6.2%, respectively. Also, all the tested isolates were resistant to at least four antibiotics. For all antibiotics, the resistance ratio (THBR/THB) significantly increased in the effluent and after chlorination unit. Among 12 resistant isolates, blaTEM and sul1 genes were the most frequently detected ones involved in 92% and 83% of the isolates, respectively. Both blaTEM and sul1 genes were found in 100% of E. coli, and 83% and 67% of Pseudomonas spp. isolates, respectively. Further efforts are necessary to limit the transmission of ARB and ARGs from WRRFs into the environment and prevent human health threats. Practitioner Points: The ratio of resistance significantly increased after biological treatment.Up to 40% of heterotrophic bacteria in the effluent was antibiotic resistant.blaTEM and sul1 genes were more prevalent (92%) in all isolates of bacteria.Both blaTEM and sul1 genes were found in 100% of E. coli isolates.Pseudomonas spp. holds blaTEM and sul1 genes in 83% and 67% of isolates, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to assess the physical-chemical quality of urban wastewater from the city of Boumerdès, in northern Algeria with regard to the threshold values for irrigation or their discharge in aquatic ecosystems. Five sampling points were carried out of the study area in April 2017. The results obtained of physical-chemical parameters indicating pollution show that the water course is exposed to pollution mainly of organic origin. It's expressed by a high maximum value according to Algerian and World Health Organisation standards: chemical oxygen demand (COD 886 mg O2⋅dm-3), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 490 mg O2⋅dm-3), nitrate (NO3- 73.09 mg⋅dm-3), nitrite (NO2- 6 mg⋅dm-3), ammonium (NH4+ 23 mg⋅dm-3) and phosphates (PO43- 7.3 mg⋅dm-3). The COD to BOD5 rate of 1.8, show that the effluents must be treated before being discharged into the receiving environment. However, it is lower than 2, which makes them easily biodegradable and can be treated by a biological system such as a natural lagoon. It shows also a diversified origin of the pollution. It is predominantly domestic origin, it could have an adverse effect on public health, presenting a risk of environmental eutrophication, contamination of soil and water resources. The physical-chemical characterisation of the urban wastewater shows that they are quite loaded and present a pollution in nitrogenous compounds, a treatment is requested before the direct discharge to the receiving environment or their reuse in the irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This revision work focuses on the recent advances in the separation of microcontaminants from urban wastewaters, using ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration membranes. Conventional systems show advantages such as low pressure and fouling, competitive energetic- and maintenance costs compared to reverse osmosis, and higher rejection rates of organic microcontaminants compared to membrane distillation. However, these rejection rates strongly depend on temperature, flow, and pressure, as well as surface charge and concentration, challenging the adequate treatment of more complex matrices. Recent advances in material science strongly improved the implementation possibilities of different membrane types. In conventional industrial processes and especially in wastewater treatment, offering not only cost reducing solutions for urban wastewaters, but also more efficiency for the remediation of a high variety of industrial wastewaters. Moreover, membrane separation systems show great potential and applicability for added value substance recovery from wastewaters for the agricultural, chemical and consumer industry, for more sustainable natural resources use. Finally, perspectives on promising technologies for the implementation and combination of different membrane separation methods in treatment trains, such as advanced oxidation processes, are given, also aiming for zero-liquid discharge, to prevent microcontaminants and valuable resources from passing through conventional methods and focusing on closing the water cycle.

In wastewater treatment, the development of low-cost separation methods is of significant importance. Low-cost membranes based on natural materials have become a highly active research topic in recent years. Herein, using low-cost natural Moroccan sand, new ceramic supports have been developed and characterized using different techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), along with scanning electron microscope (SEM). Plastic paste (average particle size ≤125 µm) was blended with organic additives and water, then the obtained paste was extruded into porous tubular supports. The support had a porosity of 43%, water permeability of 1928 L/h m2 bar, excellent chemical and mechanical properties and an average pore diameter in the range of 8–15 µm after firing at 950 °C/2 h. As per SEM analysis, the tubular supports had a smooth and crack-free surface. The slip casting process was used to create a microfiltration layer from the same natural sand powder (average particle size ≤63 µm) using a mixture of powder sand, water, and polyvinyl alcohol solution. The water permeability of the microfiltration membrane sintered at 950 °C/2 h was 1052 L/h m2 bar, the average pore size diameter was about 0.90 µm and 82% of pores had a diameter ≤1.00 µm. The obtained microfiltration membrane was tested for the treatment of urban wastewater. The membrane showed excellent separation performance in turbidity removal and chemical oxygen demand.

Background and Objective: Limited water resources in arid and semi-arid regions are one of the major limiting factors in agricultural production. Thus, unconventional water resources, such as urban treated wastewater, may be used for irrigation. Application of wastewater to the soil may cause accumulation of heavy metals (HMs). Soil pollution causes uptake of these metals by plants and their entrance to the food chain. In the present greenhouse research, concentration variations of HMs (lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd)( in soil and sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) plant were investigated. Materials and Methods: The experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design with three replications and irrigation with different wastewater treated (well water, wastewater treatment and diluted wastewater). To evaluate the effects of different irrigation treatments on soil, parameters of acidity (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), the concentration of heavy metals Pb and Cd in soil were studied. Additionally, for the effects of irrigation treatments on sweet pepper plant, parameters of biomass weight, fresh and dry weight and Pb and Cd concentrations (in branches, fruits and roots) were measured. The amount of Pb and Cd in the pepper were measured by ICP-OES. The obtained average concentrations were compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the Duncan test was used to determine the differences between groups (p

This work describes a comprehensive assessment of operating parameters of a bench-scale electrodialysis (ED) plant for nutrient concentration from an Anaerobic Membrane BioReactor (AnMBR) effluent. The ED bench-scale plant serves a dual purpose. Firstly, to generate a concentrated stream with a high nutrient content, and secondly, to produce high-quality reclaimed water in the diluted stream, both sourced from real wastewater coming from the effluent of an AnMBR. Two sets of experiments were conducted: 1) short-term experiments to study the effect of some parameters such as the applied current and the type of anionic exchange membrane (AEM), among others, and 2) a long-term experiment to verify the feasibility of the process using the selected parameters. The results showed that ED produced concentrated ammonium and phosphate streams using a 10-cell pair stack with 64 cm2 of unitary effective membrane area, working in galvanostatic mode at 0.24 A, and operating with an Acid-100-OT anionic exchange membrane. Concentrations up to 740 mg/L and 50 mg/L for NH 4 –N and PO 4 –P, respectively, were achieved in the concentrated stream along with removal efficiencies of 70% for ammonium and 60% for phosphate in the diluted stream. The average energy consumption was around 0.47 kWh·m−3. [Display omitted] • ED can effectively concentrate NH 4 -N and PO 4 -P from AnMBR real effluent. • Lower current values are preferable when working with real urban wastewater. • Selecting an adequate AEM is crucial due to low PO 4 -P recovery efficiencies. • Increasing the number of cell pairs in the ED stack enhances recovery and removal efficiencies. • Determining the most suitable parameters is critical for reducing energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focused on removing salts and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from tertiary treated urban wastewater by capacitive deionization. The performance of a pilot-scale radial capacitive deionizer subjected to varying feed flow rates during the purification stage and constant flow rates during the reject stage was evaluated. This operational strategy aimed to maximize the water recovery rates of the system, with electrical adjustments being made proportionally to the water recovery rate. Lower hydraulic loads resulted in the radial capacitive deionizer removing more ions from the sewage, albeit with higher specific energy consumption. Optimal operational conditions reduced conductivity by 92.8 %, with a specific energy consumption of 2.17 kWhm−3. Significant removals of ammonium, nitrite, nitrate, and orthophosphate ions were observed, with average specie reductions of up to 84, 91.4, 100, and 60.5 %, respectively. Higher rates of treated water recovery resulted in lower ion removal reduction and energy consumption. The limiting step of the process referred to ion desorption, requiring the correct adjustment of the time lapse, flow rate, and applied electrical voltage to ensure the efficiency of the subsequent purification stage. A loss of efficiency was observed when the process was run continuously, thus emphasizing the strategic significance of capacitor rinsing during the rejection phase across multiple subsequent treatment cycles. • Significant removals of NH 4 +, NO 2 −, NO 3 −, and PO 4 3− from the effluent were observed. • The lower the hydraulic loads, the higher the removing rates of ions from the sewage. • The best ions removals were achieved with the higher specific energy consumption. • The limiting step of the process was the ion desorption during capacitor rinsing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In urban wastewater treatment plants, bacteria lead the biological component of the depuration process, but the microbial community is also rich in fungi (mainly molds, yeasts and pseudo-yeasts), whose taxonomical diversity and relative frequency depend on several factors, e.g., quality of wastewater input, climate, seasonality, and depuration stage. By joining morphological and molecular identification, we investigated the fungal diversity in two different plants for the urban wastewater treatment in the suburbs of the two major cities in Lombardia, the core of industrial and commercial activities in Italy. This study presents a comparison of the fungal diversity across the depuration stages by applying the concepts of α-, β- and ζ-diversity. Eurotiales (mainly with Aspergillus and Penicillium), Trichosporonales (Trichosporon sensu lato), Saccharomycetales (mainly with Geotrichum) and Hypocreales (mainly with Fusarium and Trichoderma) are the most represented fungal orders and genera in all the stages and both the plants. The two plants show different trends in α-, β- and ζ-diversity, despite the fact that they all share a crash during the secondary sedimentation and turnover across the depuration stages. This study provides an insight on which taxa potentially contribute to each depuration stage and/or keep viable propagules in sludges after the collection from the external environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analytical method has been developed for the quantitative evaluation of 64 pharmaceuticals and personal care products in urban wastewater using solid‐phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry. Design of experiments approach was used in the multiparametric optimization of solid‐phase extraction method for the analysis of pharmaceuticals and personal care products. The method was found to be linear within the range of 0.01–1 μg/L with coefficient of determination (R2) ranging from 0.990 to 0.999. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were found to be in the range of 0.002–0.028 and 0.007–0.091 μg/L, respectively. The accuracy was calculated with respect to percent recovery, and it was found to be in the range of 70.0–129% for all the analytes. The intra‐ and interday precisions were found to be less than 15% relative standard deviation for all the analytes. The developed analytical method was applied to real samples collected from four different sampling sites of Musi River in Hyderabad to evaluate its performance. The method found a wide application for the analysis of urban wastewater samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the ways to reduce the amount of wastewater pollution is the use of constructed wetlands. In this research, the performance of a hybrid constructed wetland with pumice ore and vetiver plant on urban wastewater has been investigated. Hybrid wetlands with these specifications were constructed in the vicinity of wastewater treatment at the Isfahan University of Technology. To evaluate the performance of constructed wetland the effects of three and six days of retention time on the removal efficiency were studied using a completely randomized design. On average, for three days of retention time, in the wetland with the vertical flow, the horizontal flow, and hybrid wetland, fecal coliform was 47.4, 98.3, and 99.1 percent, BOD5 was 7.6, 20.9, and 26.9 percent, and the COD was 4.6, 40.0, and 42.7 percent decreased, respectively. Also, during the six days of retention time in the wetland with the vertical flow, the horizontal flow, and hybrid wetland, fecal coliform was 61.6, 99.3, and 99.8 percent, BOD5 was 10.7, 29.9, and 37.4 percent, and COD was 16.0, 86.8, and 88.9 percent decreased, respectively. The combination of Pumice as a porous material with the ability to absorb the elements as well as vetiver as a plant capable of phytoremediation indicated a very suitable performance during low retention time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over 70 per cent of India's surface water is polluted by human excreta and other waste and less than 35 per cent of urban wastewater is treated. This poses a severe risk to public and environmental health. Urban waterbody rejuvenation in India often focuses on aesthetic improvements rather than addressing its systemic interdependencies with sanitation. This paper establishes these systemic links through a mixed-methods study using water-quality testing and stakeholder interviews in the city of Bengaluru, India. A conceptual system dynamics model of technical, social, institutional and environmental factors is developed. Results show that sewage leaks into lakes via stormwater drains are a major pollution pathway, among others. Three system levers for positive change have been identified: coordination of government entities, adequate faecal sludge management and strong citizen involvement. Citywide inclusive sanitation (CWIS) is proposed as an approach to provide leverage and solve the intertwined issues of public and environmental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to fill the data gap analysis in urban wastewaters characteristics in Benin and its statistical analysis. Physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN), Total Phosphorus (TP) and UV Absorbance at 254 nm, were determined on domestic (greywater and blackwater) and industrial (hospital, pharmaceutical and commercial laundry) wastewater in Cotonou city. Analysis of variance showed a strong significant difference in the physico-chemistry of the various effluents. The pharmaceutical wastewater has the highest concentration of organic pollution (COD = 5,912 ± 1,026 mg/L, Abs.UV254 = 2.667 ± 0.327 cm−1). The organic load of blackwater is mainly in particulate and biodegradable form. Besides, the correlation study showed the limits of pH and EC as an indicator of organic load. Furthermore, the choice of COD or BOD5 as the main design parameter would be limited to blackwater treatment. Abs.UV254 was found to be the parameter having a strong relationship with other parameters of all effluents except blackwater. It then takes priority over COD for the treatment of greywater and industrial wastewater. For future wastewater treatment plant design, we recommend to consider Abs.UV254 as an important parameter.

In its 30 years of existence, there are still many improvement possibilities in studies performing the life cycle assessment (LCA) of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Hence, this paper aims to start a guideline development for LCA of urban WWTPs based on the information available in the scientific literature on the topic. The authors used the ProKnow-C systematic review methodology for paper selection and 111 studies were analyzed. The most significant points that can be improved are caused by missing essential information (e.g. functional unity and input data). Other important methodological aspects are covered: allocation process, functional unit choice, sensitivity analysis, and important fluxes to be considered. Many opportunities within the LCA of WWTPs were identified, such as optimization of WWTP operational aspects and resource recovery. Furthermore, LCA should be combined with other methodologies such as big data, data envelopment analysis, life cycle cost assessment, and social life cycle assessment. To achieve this potential, it is clear that the scientific and technical community needs to converge on a new protocol to ensure that LCA application becomes more reliable and transparent.

Wastewater treatment is a priority, as most of this is discharged into rivers, lakes, seas, and soil. Since there is no treatment facility in Martnez de la Torre, Veracruz, these fluids are released straight into the Filobobos River without treatment. Hence, the Moringa oleifera seed was evaluated as a primary treatment. In this study using wastewater from a direct discharge, pH, turbidity, total suspended solids, and conductivity were determined as control measures. In the jar test, the treatments were carried out using different amounts of coagulant salts (aluminum and iron sulfate) and moringa powder; starting the agitation at 120 rpm for 5 minutes and immediately it was reduced to 60 rpm in 10 minutes with a rest time of 1 hour. After that, the quality parameters were analyzed. The moringa coagulant achieved an average maximum reduction of 71.84 per cent and 89.36 per cent in turbidity and Total Suspended Solids, respectively, which was higher than the salts used. Furthermore, its application had no effect on pH and conductivity parameters, and the coagulant based on Moringa oleifera as a primary treatment agent, since these qualities do not alter and post-treatment is not required, as in the case with salts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of present study is to evaluate thedisinfection efficiency and regrowth control of microorganism in urban wastewater effluent using cold atmospheric plasma. Two voltages of spark of 20 and 25 kV were applied to wastewater samples of Tehran wastewater treatment plant, Tehran, Iran on 1, 3, and 6 min using oxygen gas supply. The physicochemical characteristics of the effluent sample were determined before and after the treatments. The disinfection efficiency was assessed based on the total colony count and total coliform. The results showed that the COD, BOD5, and the total nitrogen became less than the maximum allowed for agriculture purposes in both treatments, however, this reduction was significantly more in the higher voltage. In terms of bacterial regrowth after disinfection, disinfection efficiency was 100 percent at the beginning of the experiment in all spark treatments, however, total coliform population has become higher than the allowed limit after only one day. This confims the importance of investigating microbial regrowth in wastewater disinfection studies. The spark plasma had no effect on permanent and irreversible inactivation of the total coliform and microbial regrowth occurred.

Constructed wetland as a purification system plays an important role in water and wastewater treatment and so many research studies have been conducted to examine their efficiency for wastewater treatment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of constructed wetland for Arak wastewater treatment plant. In this research, the efficiency of three horizontal subsurface constructed wetlands built with 3*12 meters in dimensions and 1 meter in depth was examined. In these constructed wetlands, two plants including Common reed (Phragmites australis) and Cattails (Typha latifolia) were planted and one unit was left unplanted. TSS, COD, BOD and TC parameters were measured in the 2 week samples and the results were analyzed by SPSS and Excel. The results showed that the type of vegetation had no significant influence on the organic matter removal in the subsurface constructed wetlands; however, the removal efficiencies in the planted constructed wetlands were more than those in the unplanted control one. The TSS, COD, BOD, FC and TC removal efficiency in the constructed wetlands changes was 79%, 60.7%, 45.6%, 86.1% and 90.1%, respectively, for Common reed wetland and 77%, 61.4%, 59.8%, 92.4% and 93.1%, respectively, for Cattails wetland; thee were 69%, 44.5%, 43%, 83.6% and 88.8% for the unplanted wetland, respectively. The results of this research also showed that the organic matter removal was dependent on the influent organics nature and biodegradability. The organic concentration in the wetland effluents met the Iranian regulation limits for different reuse applications, showing the constructed wetland could be a suitable technology for wastewater treatment in Iran.

The Bellecombe pilot site – SIPIBEL – was created in 2010 in order to study the characterisation, treatability and impacts of hospital effluents in an urban wastewater treatment plant. This pilot site is composed of: i) the Alpes Léman hospital (CHAL), opened in February 2012, ii) the Bellecombe wastewater treatment plant, with two separate treatment lines allowing to fully separate the hospital wastewater and the urban wastewater, and iii) the Arve River as the receiving water body and a tributary of the Rhône River and the Geneva aquifer. The database includes in total 48 439 values measured on 961 samples (raw and treated hospital and urban wastewater, activated sludge in aeration tanks, dried sludge after dewatering, river and groundwater, and a few additional campaigns in aerobic and anaerobic sewers) with 44 455 physico-chemistry values (including 15 pharmaceuticals and 14 related transformation products, biocides compounds, metals, organic micropollutants), 2 193 bioassay values (ecotoxicity), 1 679 microbiology values (including microorganisms and antibioresistance indicators) and 112 hydrobiology values.

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of samples from urban wastewater treatment plants using anoxic/oxic processes in Slovakia and Taiwan, focusing on microbiome, resistome, mobilome, and virulome, which were analyzed using a shotgun metagenomic approach. Distinct characteristics were observed; in Taiwan, a higher abundance and diversity of antibiotic resistance genes were found in both influent and effluent samples, while there was a higher prevalence of mobile genetic elements and virulence factor genes in Slovakia. Variations were noted in microbial community structures; influent samples in Taiwan were reflected from fecal and hospital sources, and those in Slovakia were derived from environmental elements. At the genus level, the samples from Taiwan's sewage treatment plants were dominated by Cloacibacterium and Bacteroides , while Acinetobacter was predominant in samples from Slovakia. Despite similar antibiotic usage patterns, distinct wastewater characteristics and operational disparities influenced microbiome, resistome, mobilome, and virulome compositions, with limited reduction of most resistance genes by the studied anoxic/oxic processes. These findings underscore the importance of region-specific insights into microbial communities for understanding the dynamics of antimicrobial resistance and pathogenicity in urban wastewater treatment systems. Such insights may lay the groundwork for optimizing treatment processes and reducing the dissemination of antibiotic resistance and pathogenicity genes for safeguarding public health., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Authors.)

Microalgae have received much attention in the last few years. Their use is being extended to different fields of application and technologies, such as food, animal feed, and production of valuable polymers. Additionally, there is interest in using microalgae for removal of nutrients from wastewater. Wastewater treatment with microalgae allows for a reduction in the main chemicals responsible for eutrophication (nitrogen and phosphate), the reduction of organic substrates (by decreasing parameters such as BOD and COD) and the removal of other substances such as heavy metals and pharmaceuticals. By selecting and reviewing 202 articles published in Scopus between 1992 and 2020, some aspects such as the feasibility of microalgae cultivation on wastewater and potential bioremediation have been investigated and evaluated. In this review, particular emphasis was placed on the different types of wastewaters on which the growth of microalgae is possible, the achievable bioremediation and the factors that make large-scale microalgae treatment feasible. The results indicated that the microalgae are able to grow on wastewater and carry out effective bioremediation. Furthermore, single-step treatment with mixotrophic microalgae could represent a valid alternative to conventional processes. The main bottlenecks are the large-scale feasibility and costs associated with biomass harvesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of fast-growing tree species, such as Casuarina glauca for wastewater treatment could improve the quality of wastewater and offer an ecological and sustainable system. A hydroponically experiment was conducted to evaluate C. glauca ability to remove heavy metals from secondary treated urban wastewater (SWW). The effect of the SWW on plant biomass, some physiological parameters, heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn) bioaccumulation and removal from wastewater was evaluated. After 28 days, wastewater treatment C. glauca showed high efficiency for the removal of pathogenic bacteria such as faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci from SWW. A significant reduction was found for electrical conductivity, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand and suspended solids with 31%, 92%, 83% and 31% respectively. Casuarina glauca plants were able to remove heavy metal ions Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn from SWW and the removal efficiency was 92%, 77%, 83% and 73%, respectively. Casuarina glauca plants accumulated concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn) in their roots higher than the shoots. SWW had a remarkable effect on plant growth and photosynthetic capacity in C. glauca compared with plants grown in tap water (control). The results indicated that C. glauca can act as scavengers of heavy metal ions from polluted water and confirms their ability for wastewater treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of a "wood waste" supply chain using treated urban waste is proposed for fertirrigation of eucalypt clonal plantations. We used the simplified SI-UNIBAS urban waste water purification system, a modification of the conventional activated sludge system which allows for the production of water with variable loads of organic carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), thus adapting the treated water to the crop requirements. A prototype of this system already exists since more than a decade in the municipality of Ferrandina, near Matera (southern Italy), where the purified wastewater is used to fertirrigate olive trees in an extensive experimentation with excellent results. We hypothesized the use of the SI-UNIBAS system to fertirrigate plantations of fast-growing eucalyptus clones in order to evaluate the obtainable wood production and the surfaces to be planted in areas of central and southern Italy characterized by evergreen and deciduous oak forests. In summary, the development of the "wood waste" chain could result in: (i) a reduction of up to 50% in waste treatment costs and CO2 emissions, compared to the conventional activated sludge system; (ii) a high and constant wood production (8 million m3 per year) over a short time (8-15 years rotation) on limited surfaces (about 400,000 ha) to be used as timber and/or biomass for energy use; (iii) savings on the cost of irrigation water, fertilizers or organic matter for wood production, while maintaining the soil fertility; (iv) savings on the use of chemical fertilizers and therefore no CO2 emissions from their production; (v) a lower logging from national forests and/or imports from abroad; (vi) the possibility of managing parts of forests currently subject to logging in a more efficient way in terms of absorption and conservation of atmospheric CO2 and biodiversity conservation. However, before large-scale applications of the SI-UNIBAS system, pilot studies need to be implemented in sites with soil, climatic and socio-economic conditions typical of central and southern Italy. We concluded that the SI-UNIBAS system has the potential to be applied in large-scale projects at the national level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the occurrence of micropollutants (n = 46) in raw sewage, as well as the fate of the removal performance for these substances by the Al-Hoceima city wastewater treatment plant. The treatment process removed more than 50-90% of heavy metals from the wastewater. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Polychlorinated Biphenyls were eliminated from wastewater by 20-50%. The quality of the effluent discharged complied with national and international wastewater discharge standards. Statistical methods were applied to examine the relationships between the concentrations of micropollutants and macropollutants entering and leaving the wastewater treatment plant, and a model for estimating the production of micropollutants, based on a measurement of macro pollution parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aims to study the use of a powdered activated carbon with magnetic properties as adsorbent to remove common pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment. This hybrid material was prepared from powdered activated carbon that was combined with iron oxide nanoparticles and was characterized by infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry. It was also assessed for its adsorption ability using ibuprofen and amoxicillin as model drugs. Under the tested conditions, adsorption equilibrium was reached at 160 min for both drugs, with removal rates of 95% for the former and 90% for the latter. Adsorption data were fit to several adsorption kinetics and isotherm models. The adsorption of ibuprofen seems to follow a pseudo-order n kinetics and fits best the Redlich–Peterson isotherm model, whilst that of amoxicillin shows best fits to the Bangham kinetics and Temkin isotherm models. The new adsorbent also proved to be efficient in an urban wastewater spiked with both drugs and to keep its adsorption ability upon regeneration by desorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The validation of a cross-country, national-scale SARS-CoV-2 wastewater surveillance system for the monitoring of public health in the Republic of Cyprus, took place during October 2021-September 2022. The chronicle of SARS-CoV-2 genetic marker concentrations and prevailing Variants of Concern (VoCs) in all large Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) of Cyprus for a continuous period of 1 year, was recorded through an integrated, multi-disciplinary sewage-based surveillance system set up to track, visualize and make the collected information and statistical analysis outcomes, publicly available. Composite sampling and physicochemical parameter normalization of Population Equivalents (PE) and SARS-CoV-2 genetic marker concentration loads were utilized. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) was selected for normalization of genetic fragment loads. The selection of a normalization method should be tailored according to the characteristics of each individual city/WWTP population structure, flows and wastewater origin. Metagenomic sequencing showed the transition of the SARS-CoV-2 genome from the Delta to the Omicron variant prevalence, in agreement with changes in wastewater gene concentrations. Differences in the early detection of SARS-CoV-2 genetic markers were found among cities. The established system was able to track and monitor the trend of SARS-CoV-2, even in times of absence of other public health measures such as tracing of confirmed COVID-19 cases, showing the capacity of the wastewater system to quickly capture shifts in infections. The work done herein, confirmed the ability of the national-scale system to timely observe pandemic trends, evaluate effects of control measures implemented and monitor the burden of infected patients that shed SARS-CoV-2 fragments. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objective: Algal wastewater treatment is a new and economic technology to remove and recycle nutrients from wastewater. In order to investigate the effect of vinasse on microalgae growth and also the effect of its growth on nitrogen and phosphate removal in a mixture of urban wastewater and vinasse, the growth of Spirulina platensis was studied. Materials and Methods: Growth ability of spirulina in the urban wastewater and the effect of vinasse on growth rate was investigated by the calculation of biomass. The effect of concentration of vinasse, intensity of light and light-dark cycle on growth rate were studied by DESIGN EXPERT and CCD method. By selecting the optimized conditions, rates of nitrogen, phosphate and COD removal was investigated at the end of the growth period. Results: The results showed that adding vinasse to wastewater increased the growth rate and the highest amount of biomass of 3.19 mg/mL was obtained in the sedimentary stream containing 0.25% vinasse. By evaluating the effect of vinasse concentration, intensity of light and light-dark cycle on growth rate, optimal conditions at vinasse concentration 0.4% (v/v), light intensity of 5000 lux and light period of 10 hours, 480 (mg/L) of biomass was obtained. The percentage of removal of nitrogen, phosphate and COD was 63%, 97% and 73% respectively. Conclusion: The results of this study indicated the capability of urban wastewater and vinasse in order to replace Zaroukchr('39')s culture medium for growth of Spirulina microalgae. These microalgae were able to remove high percentage of nutrients in the wastewater.

Due to water scarcity and population growth the use of treated wastewater in agriculture has become more frequent. With this motivation, several technologies have been introduced for the treatment of wastewater. The present work aimed at the tertiary treatment of the polluted water of Tataouine sewage treatment plant (Tunisia) using three alternative processes, namely electro-coagulation (EC), electro-Fenton (EF), and advanced electro-oxidation (AEO). After 180 min, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) abatement rates reached respectively 56% and 14% with sharp deterioration of germs by EC process, and 75% and 52% with complete degradation of germs when EF process was applied. On the other hand, with AEO process, abatement rates of COD and BOD5 were 92% and 57%, respectively, with complete degradation of germs. The economic study showed that the EF process is technically and economically the best of these alternatives for treatment of this wastewater.

Today, the use of refined urban wastewater for agriculture is growing considerably. One of the methods for the natural treatment of wastewater is the constructed wetland. In this study, the effects of three and six days retention time on the vertical, horizontal and hybrid constructed wetland (first vertical and then horizontal) with perlite beds and Cyperus plants on the urban wastewater were investigated. In this study, horizontal wetlands were designed with 0.75 m width, 0.5 m depth and 6 m length; the vertical wetlands were designed as cylinders with a diameter of 0.7 m and the height of 1.2 m. On average, for the three days retention time, in the wetland with the vertical flow, 5the horizontal flow and the hybrid wetland, nitrate was 31.0, 36.7 and 56.3 percent, ammonium was 7.6, 32.7 and 37.8 percent, and the fecal coliform was decreased by 53.3, 93.4 and 96.9 percent, respectively. Also, during the six days retention time in the wetland with the vertical flow, the horizontal flow and the hybrid wetland, nitrate was 45.7, 58.5 and 77.5 percent, ammonium was 16.8, 75.2 and 79.4 percent, and fecal coliform was decreased by 58.0, 97.5 and 99.0 percent, respectively. Overall, the results showed that constructed wetland with perlite beds and Cyperus plants had a good function in removing pollutants, especially fecal coliform.

Introduction: Due to the development of cities and increasing water consumption per day, a large amount of wastewater is being daily produced. The use of refined sewage in irrigating the green space prevents environmental pollution. This research was carried out to investigate the effects of refined sewage treatment on plant growth and its effects on physical and chemical properties of soil. Material and methods: After studying the research carried out inside and outside the country, a certain geographic area, facilities and equipment were evaluated. Then, with coordination with the related organizations, this study was carried out in Shahid Bagheri highway in Tehran. Irrigation of the plants as treatments were done as a completely randomized block design (CRD) under through two treatments (100% wastewater and 0% wastewater (well water which is current irrigation system)). Considering the irrigations as treatments for green space plants, characteristics of the applied sewage which was provided from wastewater Ekbatan treatment plant the effects of midterm period use of effluent (in one-year) physical and chemical properties of soil was carried out.the effect of irrigation with treated wastewater on the vegetative characteristics of selected species of green space (donut) by clay meter was recorded every three days regarding to the curved parts of the plant. Due to the limited amount of wastewater parameters and in order to verify and evaluate the results, the quality of the waste water was measured monthly in Ekbatan's WWTP laboratory and was compared to the standard of the Iranian Environment Organization. Results and discussion: By studying the role of wastewater on the growth and maintenance of urban green spaces in the form of a pilot study, the possibility of reuse of the wastewater from the sewage treatment plant of Ekbatan town was assessed. The aim of this study was to identify sustainable water sources in order to maximize of the wastewater recycling for the implementation of human ecology goals for sustainable development. The results showed that the effluent was in the permitted range for irrigation of green space. On the other hand, to investigate the effect of treated wastewater on the soil before and after the experiment, 18 soil samples were randomly selected, nine of which were sampled from 0 to 30 cm depth and nine others from the depths of 30 to 60 cm. All samples were mixed and transferred to the laboratory. The physico-chemical properties of the soil were measured at both depth ranges. The concentration of each element was within the standard limits, which is a proof of the non-contamination of the soil. In other words, the use of wastewater for irrigation does not lead to soil contamination and irrigation with wastewater causes an increase in the nutrition and fertility of the soil. Also, the growth rate of the organs as a function of the treatment conditions during the experiment had a significant difference. Conclusion: In general, the results of this study showed that the amount of physiological parameters of plants irrigated with wastewater was greater than that of well water. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of wastewater for irrigation of green space is possible and has no negative effect on soil.

Background and Objective: Limited water resources in arid and semi-arid regions are one of the major limiting factors in agricultural production. Thus, unconventional water resources, such as urban treated wastewater, may be used for irrigation. Application of wastewater to the soil may cause accumulation of heavy metals (HMs). Soil pollution causes uptake of these metals by plants and their entrance to the food chain. In the present greenhouse research, concentration variations of HMs (lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd)) in soil and sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) plant were investigated. Materials and Methods: The experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design with three replications and irrigation with different wastewater treated (well water, wastewater treatment and diluted wastewater). To evaluate the effects of different irrigation treatments on soil, parameters of acidity (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), the concentration of heavy metals Pb and Cd in soil were studied. Additionally, for the effects of irrigation treatments on sweet pepper plant, parameters of biomass weight, fresh and dry weight and Pb and Cd concentrations (in branches, fruits and roots) were measured. The amount of Pb and Cd in the pepper were measured by ICP-OES. The obtained average concentrations were compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the Duncan test was used to determine the differences between groups (p <0.05). The independent t-test was also used to investigate the difference in concentrations of Pb and Cd in soil and water (p <0.05). Results: The results of chemical analysis of soil and pepper showed that irrigation with wastewater did not cause a significant increase in the concentration of Pb and Cd in the soil and in the branches, fruits and roots of the pepper. The concentration of Pb and Cd in the soil and in the branches, fruits and roots of the pepper was within the allowable and standard concentration range. The difference in lead and cadmium concentrations in the soil before planting was not significant; however, at the end of the study period, the Pb concentration in pepper was higher than the Cd concentration. The use of wastewater increased the fresh and dry weight of branches, fruits and roots of the pepper. Conclusion: The results showed that Pb and Cd concentration in roots and aerial parts of pepper plant was not increased significantly as a result of wastewater irrigation (p <0.05). The results of this study are limited to one growing season and by the continued use of municipal wastewater, the concentration of Pb and Cd in the soil and then in the plant may exceed the standard. Especially in the case of Pb, which seems to have shown a slight tendency to increase relative to the primary soil and the pepper. Therefore, the continuation of this study is recommended to evaluate the long-term effects of Bushehr municipal treated wastewater on the concentration of heavy elements in soil and plants, and soil properties. Overall, it should be acknowledged that based on technical recommendations, the use of treated wastewater are not recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of treated urban wastewater and different harvesting times on the yield and yield components of Sorghum (cv. Speed feed) in the greenhouse condition. The research was done based on a completely randomized design including 3 replications as pot planting in Ferdowsi university of Mashhad in 2016. In this study, the effects of four mixtures consisting of the moderations use of the treated urban wastewater and freshwater (0, 25, 75 and 100 percent mixture of treated urban wastewater and freshwater) and three harvesting times level (preflowering, after 50 percent of the plant to flowering, and grain filling stage) on the yield and yield components of Sorghum were evaluated. The results inducted that the effect of different moderations of irrigation regimes on all of them parameter was highly significant (P<0.01), but plant height was non-significant; it was also revealed that the effect of harvesting times on all of the parameters was highly significant (P<0.01), but leaf width was non-significant. The results also exhibited that the interaction effects of irrigated regimes and harvesting times on the leaf number, panicle length and width, leaf, panicle, and stem was highly significant (P<0.01), but plant height, stem diameter, branches number, and leaf length and width were significant at the 5 percent level (P<0.05). Also, the use of 25, 75, and 100 percent mixture of wastewater resulted in the forage yield of 37.5, -29.3, and 12.9 percent (pre-flowering); -31, -15.3, and -47.4 percent (after 50 percent of the plant to flowering), and -11.8, -35.7 and -28.4 percent (grain filling stage), respectively. The highest forage weights (46.2 g per plant) showed, in the study, irrigated by a mixture of 75 treated wastewater and 25 freshwater, and harvesting the plant after 50 percent in flowering stage; on the other hand, the best treatment in this study irrigation by the mixture of 75 treated wastewater and 25 freshwater and harvesting the plant after 50 percent in the flowering stage, Thus, using the treatment in farm experiment required the field research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present research, an alternative eco-efficient biotechnology system, both selective and environmentally viable, is proposed and compared to a conventional scheme. The results showed an optimal process function and a significant difference (p < 0.001) in wastewater measured quality parameters compared to the conventional scheme. Indeed, the treated wastewater from the eco-efficient process revealed significant concentrations of organic matter and nutrients. Accordingly, there was an improvement in soil and plant quality parameters as a result of irrigation with raw urban wastewater and treated wastewater from the eco-efficient system compared to ground water.

In urban wastewater treatment plants, bacteria lead the biological component of the depuration process, but the microbial community is also rich in fungi (mainly molds, yeasts and pseudo-yeasts), whose taxonomical diversity and relative frequency depend on several factors, e.g., quality of wastewater input, climate, seasonality, and depuration stage. By joining morphological and molecular identification, we investigated the fungal diversity in two different plants for the urban wastewater treatment in the suburbs of the two major cities in Lombardia, the core of industrial and commercial activities in Italy. This study presents a comparison of the fungal diversity across the depuration stages by applying the concepts of α-, β- and ζ-diversity. Eurotiales (mainly with Aspergillus and Penicillium), Trichosporonales (Trichosporon sensu lato), Saccharomycetales (mainly with Geotrichum) and Hypocreales (mainly with Fusarium and Trichoderma) are the most represented fungal orders and genera in all the stages and both the plants. The two plants show different trends in α-, β- and ζ-diversity, despite the fact that they all share a crash during the secondary sedimentation and turnover across the depuration stages. This study provides an insight on which taxa potentially contribute to each depuration stage and/or keep viable propagules in sludges after the collection from the external environment.

This study describes the design and construction of a wastewater treatment package using an electrocoagulation system and examines the optimization of the system. For optimization, the factors including number of electrodes, gap between electrodes, current density, time and pH were optimized using the Design-Expert Software. According to response surface tests, the optimum range was selected to maximize the removal efficiency of chemical oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, and biological oxygen demand. This range for current density was between 49.8 and 80 A/m², the process time was from 9 to 15 min, and the pH between 6.5 and 8, the number of electrodes was 2 pairs and the gap between the electrodes was 1 cm. It was observed that with increasing the current density, time, number of electrodes and the electrode gap, energy consumption increases and pH changes do not affect energy consumption. The optimum range in which the treatment efficiency is above 80% and the energy consumption is less than 5 kWh/m³ of the sewage is current density between 49.8 and 63 A/m2 , time between 9 and 11 min, pH 6.5–8, the number of electrodes 1 pair and the gap between the electrodes, 1 cm. In this optimal range, the energy consumption per one cubic meter of wastewater is between 4.5 and 5 kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nutrient loads transported by the Danube River to the Black Sea peaked around the late 1980s, causing massive hypoxia that was accompanied with a severe algae growth. Since then, emissions and loads have declined in response to the measures implemented in the Danube River Basin, together with the declining intensity of agriculture. The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) initiated Basin-wide activities to support national water policy-making to ensure both the sustainable development of wastewater infrastructure and agricultural production, and the effective protection of freshwater and marine ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population growth and an increase in communities' economies have led to a worldwide rise in water demand. The development of urban areas will cause excessive groundwater extraction, which will trigger environmental impacts, including a decline in groundwater levels. Changes in rainfall, land use, and the volume of urban wastewater recharge patterns will affect groundwater level fluctuations over a period of time. This study investigates the effects of rainfall, changes in irrigated agricultural land, and urban wastewater volume trends on groundwater level fluctuations in the Yogyakarta-Sleman groundwater basin, Indonesia, from 2011 to 2017. Analysis of the trend of each parameter was performed using the Mann-Kendall test. The results showed that the recharge area had a trend of deeper groundwater levels positively correlated with the decrease of irrigated agricultural land. In contrast, precipitation trends and urban wastewater volume were negatively associated with the groundwater level fluctuation trend. In the transit area, shallow groundwater levels were positively correlated with precipitation and urban wastewater volume. In contrast, there was an opposite trend in the area of irrigated agricultural land. In the discharge area, groundwater levels became deeper, which positively correlates with precipitation and irrigated agricultural land, while the urban wastewater trend was the opposite. Increasing of groundwater level in the transit area was 0.21–0.25 m/year, where recharge and discharge areas had a decreasing 0.10–0.26 m/year. Import water from municipal water networks and urban wastewater recharge significantly contributed to rising groundwater levels in the transit area. It occurs because urban wastewater in the transit is evenly distributed, but in recharge and discharge areas, groundwater recharge from urban wastewater is localized. The urbanization process did not always negatively impact groundwater resources and contribute to groundwater recharge, depending on managing the urban sewage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]