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This paper applies a generalized ordered logit model to estimate the effects of commute trip reduction (CTR) activities, journey to work distance, job characteristics, and employers’ major business types on telecommuting choices by using Washington State CTR data. Regression results suggest that employers’ CTR promotion activities play an important and positive role in commuters’ telecommuting choices. Employees are more likely to make a transition from not telecommuting to telecommuting at least 1 day per 2 weeks if employers consistently promote CTR strategies to enhance commuters’ awareness of support from employers. Employees commuting longer distances are more likely to make the transition from not telecommuting to telecommuting at least 1 day. Employees’ job characteristics and the employer's major business type act either to drive or constrain employees’ telecommuting decisions.

This paper considers the length of time that parents are willing to travel to an existing or new job. Using data for over 12,000 parents it finds that many characteristics were associated with being less likely to be willing to travel to work for at least an hour (roundtrip). These include: being a women, those out of work, having children under 5, being a lone parent and using formal childcare. Professionals and associate professions were more willing to travel for longer periods. In terms of location, those in accessible small towns and rural areas were willing to travel more than those in larger urban areas and those in remote rural areas willing to travel most. Policy implications are also set out.

Increasing traffic levels are causing concern in all of Australia's large cities. The sustainability of current urban transport patterns is also being questioned, in light of climate change and the...

The reference point hypothesis of prospect theory is applied to commuters' departure time decision-making and to obtain a better understanding of how commuters use arrival time information in daily departure time choice. There are two reference points defined in this study: the earliest acceptable arrival time and the work starting time for a given commuter. An arrival is defined as an early-side arrival if the arrival time is earlier than his/her preferred arrival time, and a late-side arrival otherwise. A gain occurs when a commuter experiences an arrival time that is between his/her earliest acceptable arrival time and work starting time; this is assumed to enhance the likelihood of choosing the same departure time. Similarly, a loss is observed when the commuter experiences an arrival time which is outside that range; this is assumed to reduce the likelihood of choosing that departure time. The empirical results indicate that around 20% of commuters are likely to switch their departure times and routes and most of commuters experience gains, and that preferred arrival times of commuters tend to be near their work starting times. Most importantly, it is shown that, consistent with prospect theory, commuters react asymmetrically to gains and losses.

Overestimated forecasts of the impacts of new policies, that is, over-prediction of the successes of the policies, are a well-known problem. Study of the effects of forecasting methods on potential bias may help modelers, planners, and policy makers better use forecasting tools. This paper addresses the overestimation of the success of telecommuting as a travel demand management policy. The research hypothesis underlying this study posits that overestimates of performance are virtually inevitable when the effects of new policies that aim to change travel behavior are forecast but that these biases eventually decline over time. The sources of overestimated forecasts are the prediction tools used and the ways in which modelers use these tools. The sources of the reduction in overestimation are the changes made to these tools and the knowledge and the data gained over time.

This paper has two objectives: to examine the volatility of travel behaviour over time and consider the factors explaining this volatility; and to estimate the factors determining car ownership and commuting by car. The analysis is based on observations of individuals and households over a period of up to 11 years obtained from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS). Changes in car ownership, commuting mode and commuting time over a period of years for the same individuals/households are examined to determine the extent to which these change from year-to-year. This volatility of individual behaviour is a measure of the ease of change or adaptation. If behaviour changes easily, policy measures are likely to have a stronger and more rapid effect than if there is more resistance to change. The changes are “explained” in terms of factors such as moving house, changing job and employment status. The factors determining car ownership and commuting by car are analysed using a dynamic panel-data models.

Without a clearer understanding of the range of suburban typologies which presently exists and of the relationship between typology and travel behaviour it will be difficult to progress towards the development of appropriate strategies to reduce unnecessary travel by car. With this in mind it is valuable to develop a framework for a better representation of different suburban typologies and to examine the way in which personal mobility varies across these typologies. Five cities in the United Kingdom - Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leicester, Oxford and Sheffield - are examined in order to identify and characterize suburban typologies, and data from different surveys are used to analyse differences in travel to work journeys.

The question of how home and workplace are linked through commuting is at the heart of much recent work on metropolitan areas. However, the emphasis tends to be either on spatial-economic models or on the impact of empirically measured individual, household, neighborhood, and transport mode characteristics; relatively little work has focused on job characteristics and place of employment as they relate to travel to work. In this article, I investigate whether people travel different distances to access different types of job location, with particular attention to the different distances traveled by men and women. My points of reference are the major employment centers (poles) in the Montreal region. After controlling for a wide range of explanations that may account for different travel distances, I conclude that differences in commuting length between different places of work are, by and large, independent of possible explanatory factors such as residential location, economic sector, occupation, income, ...

Este artículo demuestra como el uso de categorías como prostitución, turismo sexual y “tráfico”, por parte de representantes de gobiernos, proyectos sociales y académicos, borra la diversidad entre las situaciones e impulsos de la gente que viaja, participa en redes que facilitan los viajes y vive del comercio sexual. Así se reproducen discursos estigmatizantes y controladores que justifican intervenciones de los que quieren “ayudar” pero que entienden muy poco de lo que pasa sobre el terreno. Estos discursos también esquivan la colaboración de los europeos en la problemática de la migración: turistas que quieren disfrutar de sus vacaciones, que pueden formar vínculos afectivos con “nativos” y que cada vez más quieren pagar a gente de fuera por servicios domésticos, de cuidado y sexuales en EuropaAbstract When academics and social agents use categories such as prostitution, sex tourism and ‘trafficking’, they erase the diversity of projects and impulses that are found among people who travel to work, who facilitate travels to work and who live from the sex trade. This erasing in turn reproduces stigmatizing and controlling discourses that justify interventions by those who want to ‘help’ but who understand very little of what actually goes on in the ground during migration processes. These discourses also fail to examine how Europeans participate in migration questions: tourists who want to enjoy their holidays, who may become fond of ‘natives’ and who more and more often wish to pay others for domestic, caring and sexual services in Europe.Key Words: Prostitution, Sex Tourism, Trafficking, Smuggling, Sex Work, Governmental.

This paper focuses on the nature and structure of spatial industrial property market areas within today's pattern of dispersed stage urban development. It seeks to achieve four main objectives. First, it considers the underlying factors influencing the intra-regional location of industry through a review of industrial location theories, theories of industrial clustering and Alonso's urban land use model. Next the paper assesses the concept of a local industrial property market. The third step attempts to identify, empirically, the spatial pattern and structure of local industrial property markets in west central Scotland. The research is based on a unique stock database and the empirical analysis draws on parallel research criteria developed in the analysis of local labour and housing markets. These primarily apply criteria of spatial containment. The final section re-appraises the theoretical elements and makes some conclusions for public policy. The results of our analysis suggest that local industrial property market areas are relatively small and embedded within travel to work areas.

Roca Cladera J. and Moix Bergada M. (2005) The interaction value: its scope and limits as an instrument for delimiting urban systems, Regional Studies 39 , 357–373. There is a long tradition of different approaches relating to the delimitation of urban systems, such as those pertaining to the delimitation of Statistical Metropolitan Areas and Daily Urban Systems, and Local Labour Markets. This paper is primarily concerned with the theoretical and practical interest of the concept of the interaction value, a notion found embedded in the methodology of travel to work areas used in the UK. The paper applies the interaction value to the delimitation of territorial systems in the spatial context of Catalonia, Spain, based upon patterns of commuting for employment purposes. The paper makes a call for a more integrated approach to the delimitation of urban systems, drawing upon the interaction value. This approach allows for the identification of hierarchical and diffuse interactions, characteristic of the inter...

Rural areas present special challenges for meeting the transportation needs of individuals, especially people without cars. Congress established the Job Access and Reverse Commute (JARC) program in 1998 to assist states and localities in developing transportation services to connect welfare recipients and other low-income residents to jobs and other support programs. There are key results of a study examining eight rural areas receiving JARC funding in Fiscal Year 1999. Specific program elements include the implementation process, transportation services provided, and solutions developed to deal with the challenges of distance and low population densities that rural transit systems frequently face.

A wide array of initiatives supporting job access and reverse commuting has been introduced in California over the past 5 years. Experiences were reviewed in five areas: schedule extensions, new fixed bus routes, shuttle services, user-side assistance, and automobile loan programs. Schedule extensions have provided much-valued mobility for the poor, but at high costs. New bus routes have been most productive when operating over long distances and delivering inner-city patrons to concentrated job hubs. Door-to-door shuttle services have mainly supplemented fixed bus routes and in some instances have been used to train former welfare recipients how to drive. Santa Cruz County has been a leader in crafting client-based programs that provide a menu of mobility options from which unique programs are custom designed to meet the job access needs of individuals. Automobile loan initiatives have been controversial; statistical evidence from San Bernardino County and case experiences from San Mateo County indicate that automobiles have aided Welfare-to-Work transitions.

That industrial specialization is inversely correlated with regional size is an established empirical finding. However in establishing this relationship, authors have used several different measures of regional industrial specialization or diversification. This review paper investigates whether the choice of measure is important in such work. Eleven different measures found in the literature are compared with respect to their distributions, their degree of correspondence and their behaviour over time. It is found that there appear, within this set, to be three groups of measures. Within each group results are relatively consistent, whereas between each group the differences are quite marked. This suggests that results might be influenced by the choice of specialization measure used.

Dynamic user equilibrium has received considerable theoretical attention for morning peak-period travel but very little for the evening peak. In an attempt to redress this imbalance, morning and evening travel are characterized and compared by using Vickrey’s bottleneck model. To focus ideas, it is assumed that morning and evening travel differ in just one respect: scheduling preferences for the morning are defined in terms of arrival time at work, whereas preferences for the evening are defined in terms of departure time from work. Sufficient conditions are identified for the existence and uniqueness of a deterministic dynamic user equilibrium in terms of departure times for the morning and evening peaks. These conditions, which go well beyond previous work, involve relatively general assumptions about the schedule delay cost functions for morning and evening and essentially no restrictions on the degree of heterogeneity in trip-timing preferences of travelers. Plausibility of the conditions is examined in light of the limited empirical evidence. A numerical example is developed at length to illustrate the importance of traveler heterogeneity and the extent of differences between morning and evening in the time pattern of departures and aggregate travel costs.

This study examines the appropriateness of the New Deal in targeting specific groups of unemployed job-seekers. This was achieved using a survey of unemployed job-seekers carried out prior to the implementation of the New Deal framework in April 1998. A sample of 169 unemployed job-seekers in two Travel to Work Areas in central Scotland is divided into those who were successful and those who were un successful in finding employment an d each group is analysed in terms of a set of labour market related attributes. The study generates a 'typical' profile for those who were successful in job search and a 'typical' profile for those who were less successful. These are compared and contrasted with the New Deal target groups. The findings support most of the target grouping basis of the policy but not all and we conclude that the generic aim of the New Deal, to reduce social exclusion , is un likely to be achieved as effectively if spatial priorities, focused on the most deprived areas, are allowed to supersede the needs of the individual job-seeker.

Some studies suggest that, among other obstacles to employment, welfare participants face a spatial separation from jobs and employment-related services. Using data on welfare participants, low-wage jobs, and public transit in Los Angeles County, an examination was made of the relative access that welfare participants have to employment opportunities. The analysis shows that welfare participants’ access to employment varies dramatically depending on their residential location and commute mode. Many welfare participants live in job-rich neighborhoods and are able to reach numerous jobs without difficulty by either car or public transit. Others, however, live in job-poor neighborhoods where a reliance on public transit significantly reduces their access to employment. In these neighborhoods long and unreliable commutes on public transit often severely limit their ability to find and reliably travel to and from work. Therefore, given the distinctly uneven patterns of employment opportunities in metropolitan areas, policies to address the transportation needs of welfare participants should be targeted to reflect the characteristics of the neighborhoods in which welfare participants live.

The effectiveness of intra-regional job search is influenced by how far people are willing to travel to new employment. While much has been written on the commuting patterns of those in work, relatively little research has been carried out on how far unemployed job seekers are prepared to commute. This paper presents and tests a model of factors influencing the maximum time unemployed job seekers would be willing to travel to a potential new job. Significant effects are found for a range of personal and demographic characteristics, including gender, years of education, type of job, and location. The evidence suggests support for the spatial mismatch hypothesis and shows differing accessibility to employment opportunities for certain types of unemployed people. The findings also suggest that models of the trade-off between leisure and work time should fully include travel-to-work time as part of this trade-off.

One potential solution to reducing peak hour congestion has been to identify a role for the employer in reducing car-based travel to work and promoting more sustainable alternatives through comprehensive ‘employee travel plans’ (Rye, T., 1995. Employee Transport Plans—An Easy Means to Cut Congestion? The 23rd European Transport Forum, Proceedings of Seminar B, Planning for Sustainability, PTRC, pp. 229–241). In the UK such plans have seen a steady increase in interest since the early 1990s culminating in their recognition in the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions DETR, 1998 (DETR, 1998. A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone, The Government's White Paper on the Future of Transport, HMSO, London) Transport White Paper as a policy tool for reducing car-based travel. Despite their inclusion as a policy tool little information exists on the views of employers towards such plans (Rye, T., 1995. Employee Transport Plans—An Easy Means to Cut Congestion? The 23rd European Transport Forum, Proceedings of Seminar B, Planning for Sustainability, PTRC, pp. 229–241; Rye, T., MacLeod, M., 1998. An Investigation of Employer Attitudes to Employer Transport Plans, AET European Transport Conference 1998, Policy Planning and Sustainability Seminar (Seminar C), vol. 2, PTRC). This is of considerable concern given that employers by default are the key implementers. Studies to date on employers’ attitudes have concentrated on the views of the large employer (over 100 employees). The Transport White Paper however suggests that there is also a role for the small employer. This paper therefore investigates the attitudes and policy of the small employer (under 100 employees) towards staff travel and green commuter plans. The paper is based on the analysis of data collected in 1998 from 352 small Oxfordshire employers. The research was funded under the DETR's Seedcorn Research Programme. The paper outlines selected findings of this research, and concludes by suggesting that while ultimately there should be a role for the small employer in developing green commuter plans it is the large firms that are more likely to implement green commuter plans in the short term. In policy terms, the continuing focus of green commuter plans on large employers is therefore the best way forward. In the long term however consideration needs to be given to the role that the small employer can play in reducing employee travel.

This article reviews, with particular attention to cities and towns, travel to work data collected at censuses of population held in the Republic of Ireland between 1981 and 1996. Notwithstanding certain data limitations, among them the uncertainties associated with a significant ‘not stated’ component, some clear trends are discernible. There has been a significant and widely-spread increase in car-based, longer-distance commuting, to such extent that across the stale in 1996 some 20 percent of persons at work commuted ten miles or more. Cities, particularly Dublin, intensified and expanded their hinterland impact during the eighties and early nineties. While must county and sub-regional centres still have a very significant proportion of their resident population working locally, this group now co-exists with a growing population of longer-distance commuters. The implications of these developments are discussed briefly, with particular reference to the ‘sustainability debate’.

In Tokyo Megalopolis, long-distance commuting between residences in the suburbs and work places in the centre of the city was examined. Using a questionnaire, heads of household in two suburbs were asked about the influences of long commuting hours on their daily time budgets. The results showed that on workdays, the workers who spent longer commuting rose and left home for work earlier, and came back home and retired later; accordingly, both time spent on in-home activities on workdays and hours slept on the day before a workday were shorter. Comparison of time budgets between the subjects who work 5 and 6 days per week revealed more vulnerable influences of long commuting hours in the former than the latter. The expected health consequences of these findings are discussed from a biosocial/human ecological viewpoint.

Survey nonresponse bias is an important consideration in the development of survey designs for transportation studies. Researchers at the University of Delaware have developed a technique for reducing the survey nonresponse, as well as the cost of the travel survey. The method involves obtaining complete household and person characteristics for each household member; however, detailed travel data are gathered for only one randomly selected household member. Although the University of Delaware survey technique provides multiple benefits with respect to survey response rates and costs, it presents complications for travel model developers, particularly with respect to the development of trip production models. Because the trip production models are typically developed at the household level, the person-level trip rates from such a survey need to be expanded to represent a household’s trip rates. A method is presented for generating synthesized household trip production rates by using the 1995/96 Delaware Household Travel Survey, which gathered travel information for only one household member.

The transportation impacts of center-based telecommuting for 24 participants (representing 69 person-days of travel and 295 trips) in the California Neighborhood Telecenters Project are analyzed. Comparing non-telecommuting (NTC) day to telecommuting (TC) day travel shows that person-trips did not change significantly, whereas vehicle-trips increased significantly (by about one trip) on TC days. Both PMT and VMT decline significantly on TC days: by an average of 68 miles (74%) and 38 miles (65%), respectively. When these savings are weighted by the frequency of telecommuting, overall reductions in PMT and VMT come to 19% and 17%, respectively, of total weekday travel. Commute trips increase slightly (by 0.5 trips) but significantly, mainly due to lunch-time trips made home from the telecenter. Total non-commute travel does not increase, but there is a significant shift from other modes to driving alone on TC days. Commute mode split on NTC days is not affected by telecommuting. Travel on TC days tends to be compressed into fewer hours. Higher numbers of return home, eat meal, shopping, and social/recreational trips are made on TC days, in exchange for a reduction (to zero) in the number of change mode trips.

Journey to Work (JTW) describes the transportation mode used by an individual to travel from home to work. The paper analyses and models the spatial patterns of JTW. Using South East Queensland – a large conurbation and a popular destination for seachange, this study examined the aggregate JTW census data to capture travel to work patterns and the contextual factors that underpin different transportation modes. The results show heavy reliance on private cars to commute to work. Employment concentration, accessibility to the CBD and the number of bus stops per square kilometre all have a positive impact on public transport users; while the proportion of industrial land use to total zoned land elicits a negative impact on public transport users. These data suggest that the commute to industrial zones, which are largely located in suburban areas, necessitates the use of private cars; conversely better accessibility to the Central Business District via public transport encourages commuters to use public transport. However, the data uses in this study do not account for people who work from home, or whether the commuter’s employment is temporary or permanent, or account for the extent to which people’s work involves visiting multiple locations in one day.

This chapter discusses the practical difficulties in the habilitation and employment of handicapped young adults. A diagnostic and assessment clinic is conducted each week at Rhuemore. Patients, referred through the social workers, are seen at this clinic by a neurologist, psychologist, and an orthopedic surgeon, and by members of staff from each therapy department. A meeting is held afterward to discuss the management of each case, and to arrange for the prescribed treatment to be implemented. The aims of treatment must vary for individual patients referred within these broadly defined categories. These patients are generally aware that their training has limited aims and are not usually over-ambitious. Besides their multiple handicaps, inability to travel to work is a very obvious barrier to paid employment.

Bien que les chercheurs reconnaisssent l'experience du changement comme source potentielle de stress, les resultats concernant son impact sur des conduites variees individuelles ou organisationnelles ont ete peu concluants. Dans le present article, une revue des etudes qui examinerent l'influence potentielle du stress de changement sur des mesures de contraintes psychologiques, physiologiques et comportementales, est proposee et releve des contradictions. Un modele est decrit, liant des mesures objectives et subjectives de l'agent de stress, directement ou indirectement aux conduites. Il est suggere qu'en incluant plusieurs moderateurs critiques, par exemple le controle, la predictibilite et l'urgence dans le temps, des predictions emanant de stimuli de stress de changement pourraient etre mises en avant.

A persistent empirical finding in the research on travel patterns is that women tend to engage in shorter work commutes than men. Research evaluating the degree to which this gender differential in commuting may be explained by the division of labor in the household has produced decidedly mixed findings. This paper presents a critical review of the methods and results of recent research on the gender differential in commuting along with the associated implications for the household responsibility hypothesis (HRH). While all of the articles reviewed are informative and unique, not all conclusions are well supported. The paper then tests the HRH using the 1990 NPTS travel data. The new evidence confirms that women continue to exhibit shorter commute times and distances than men and provides support for the HRH. The paper concludes with a summary of findings and recommendations for further research.

The epidemic dynamics of infectious diseases vary among cities, but it is unclear how this is caused by patterns of infectious contact among individuals. Here, we ask whether systematic differences in human mobility patterns are sufficient to cause inter-city variation in epidemic dynamics for infectious diseases spread by casual contact between hosts. We analyse census data on the mobility patterns of every full-time worker in 48 Canadian cities, finding a power-law relationship between population size and the level of organization in mobility patterns, where in larger cities, a greater fraction of workers travel to work in a few focal locations. Similarly sized cities also vary in the level of organization in their mobility patterns, equivalent on average to the variation expected from a 2.64-fold change in population size. Systematic variation in mobility patterns is sufficient to cause significant differences among cities in infectious disease dynamics—even among cities of the same size—according to an individual-based model of airborne pathogen transmission parametrized with the mobility data. This suggests that differences among cities in host contact patterns are sufficient to drive differences in infectious disease dynamics and provides a framework for testing the effects of host mobility patterns in city-level disease data.

Objective Commuting provides opportunities for regular physical activity which can reduce the risk of chronic disease. Commuters' mode of travel may be shaped by their environment, but understanding of which specific environmental characteristics are most important and might form targets for intervention is limited. This study investigated associations between mode choice and a range of objectively assessed environmental characteristics. Methods Participants in the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study reported where they lived and worked, their usual mode of travel to work and a variety of socio-demographic characteristics. Using geographic information system (GIS) software, 30 exposure variables were produced capturing characteristics of areas around participants' homes and workplaces and their shortest modelled routes to work. Associations between usual mode of travel to work and personal and environmental characteristics were investigated using multinomial logistic regression. Results Of the 1124 respondents, 50% reported cycling or walking as their usual mode of travel to work. In adjusted analyses, home-work distance was strongly associated with mode choice, particularly for walking. Lower odds of walking or cycling rather than driving were associated with a less frequent bus service (highest versus lowest tertile: walking OR 0.61 [95% CI 0.20–1.85]; cycling OR 0.43 [95% CI 0.23–0.83]), low street connectivity (OR 0.22, [0.07–0.67]; OR 0.48 [0.26–0.90]) and free car parking at work (OR 0.24 [0.10–0.59]; OR 0.55 [0.32–0.95]). Participants were less likely to cycle if they had access to fewer destinations (leisure facilities, shops and schools) close to work (OR 0.36 [0.21–0.62]) and a railway station further from home (OR 0.53 [0.30–0.93]). Covariates strongly predicted travel mode (pseudo r-squared 0.74). Conclusions Potentially modifiable environmental characteristics, including workplace car parking, street connectivity and access to public transport, are associated with travel mode choice, and could be addressed as part of transport policy and infrastructural interventions to promote active commuting.

This research considers vehicle emissions from travel to work trips by car within and through the localities of London. Specific focus is placed on the residential origins of the trips and the analysis is based on 1981 and 1991 Census travel to work data. London is divided into some 24 one kilometre concentric ring bands and the number of vehicle kilometres travelled within each of these is calculated from ward to ward origin-destination worktravel movements by car. The spatial distribution of vehicle emissions from the perspective of the source origin of this type of urban environmental external disbenefit is derived. The research points to the highest concentrations of emissions located firmly in the centre of the city and this confirms scientific survey evidence of air quality. The results also confirm that in Central and Inner London the largest proportionate contribution to total emissions arises from vehicles originating from residences in Outer London.

The impact of industrial structure on changes in unemployment has been hard to establish conclusively. This article examines this issue, for GB travel to work areas, for the period from December 1989 to December 1992 and concentrates in particular on the potential role of public and semi public sector employment in dampening the impact of recession in areas where such employment is relatively important. It is concluded that industrial structure was of some importance in the changes in unemployment over this time. A high percentage of employment in public and semi-public agencies did mitigate the impact of recession; other important explanatory variables included dummies to discriminate between north, central and southern regions, and changes in house prices.

The growth in congestion on Chicago area expressways has had a major effect on almost all aspects of the region's economy, travel behavior and land-use development patterns. The objective of this study was to evaluate congestion trends on Chicago's expressways during the last decade (1980 to 1989) by quantifying the magnitude and tendencies of congestion for the various expressways. This study concentrated on an analysis of the minute-miles of congestion (MMC), a measure that provides an averaged section congestion during a given time period and that is continuously collected by the Illinois Department of Transportation for all Chicago-area expressways. The MMC offers a relatively accurate and unbiased estimate of the quantity and duration of congestion. In order to compare congestion trends on the area's ten major expressways in the 1980's it was decided to evaluate the yearly Cumulative Distribution Function of congestion. This analysis was conducted for both the inbound and outbound directions and for the A.M. and P.M. daily peak periods. The magnitude of congestion was found to increase considerably with the years from 1980 to 1989. The increase in congestion for “reverse commuting”, trips to the suburbs in the morning peak and from the suburbs in the evening peak, grew more substantially than the increase in the regular “city commute.” The reason for this phenomenon was the rise in job opportunities in the suburbs, resulting partially from increased congestion and reduced accessibility. Additional analysis showed that the duration of the peak period, defined by the time in which congestion exceeded a predetermined threshold level, was generally longer for the “city commuting” than for the “reverse commuting.” Comparison of congestion among seasons, showed that the most congested season was usually the spring (May 1 to June 15). The system analysis showed that the by 2000, the expected system congestion will be more than twice the 1980 system congestion.

THIS study developed a methodology to investigate the possible adverse health effects of commuting, in terms of stress, physical or other reactions, and whether more difficult commuting journeys cause worse effects. Two postal questionnaires (bench mark and diary-type) comparing different transport methods were developed; 127 employees of the Royal Free Hampstead NHS Trust were randomly selected (response rate of 63 per cent) and 28 of these were randomly re-selected to complete the daily questionnaire (response rate of 74 per cent). Achieve ment of the study's main aim, the testing of methods, was demonstrated by high response rates and the co-operation generated. Questionnaire adminis tration was successful and the blinding procedure ensured anonymity. The most significant adverse ef fects appeared to be tiredness, followed by irritation and bad temper: however, for the majority of jour neys, no ill-effects were reported.

The objective of this study is to develop a methodology capable of modeling travelers' postwork activity patterns and thus tracing the movements of travelers through space and time. After reviewing the state of the art in activity participation and scheduling, a modeling system consisting of a set of discrete/continuous models and duration-based models is specified and estimated. The discrete/continuous models are used to predict the travelers activity-type preference (discrete), the travel time to the activity and back home (continuous), and activity duration (continuous). Duration models are used to model the travelers home-stay duration capturing the factors that motivate travelers to terminate their home-stay and undertake additional out-of-home activities.

This chapter draws on research undertaken in revising a set of functional regions known as Travel-to-Work Areas (TTWAs) which are the only official statistical areas in the UK defined by academics. The objective of the research is to define the maximum possible number of separate TTWAs that satisfy appropriate statistical criteria that ensure the areas meet guiding principles for labour market area boundary definition. Thus, the research is an example of a functional regionalisation which is highly constrained by the purpose to which the resulting boundaries will be put. The chapter briefly reviews previous TTWA definition methods, setting this in the context of the very limited academic research on regionalisation methods. The production of the 2001 Census commuting data provided opportunities for defining new labour market areas and the chapter explains how the TTWA research has responded with several key innovations. The empirical component of the chapter then illustrates the effect of these innovations by presenting a new visualisation of the workings of the definition method and also some analysis of the sensitivity of the results to changes in the method. Finally, there is a very brief look at some possible ways in which this field of research could be extended.

In order for labour market policy to contribute fully to competitiveness, inclusion and prosperity at the local level, flexibility is necessary in the management of policies and programmes. This chapter presents the results from research conducted in 25 OECD countries to evaluate the degree of flexibility available in the management of labour market policies and programmes at both the regional and local levels. Denmark, Switzerland, the United States, Finland and the Czech Republic present the highest degree of flexibility at the level of local labour markets (or “travel to work” areas), followed by Austria, New Zealand and Poland. In general, however, there is some way to go before offices at this level have an adequate level of flexibility to fully adapt employment policy to local needs and to priorities set in partnership with other local actors.

The geography which underpins the collection of Australian economic and social data is based on administrative areas, rather than having behavioural significance. Within most EU countries Coombes' rules-based grouping algorithm [1] which uses commuting flow data has been employed to construct Travel to Work Areas, but other approaches including Intramax (a hierarchical technique) have also been utilised. Recent developments in fuzzy set theory have enabled the comparison of the local accuracy of the solutions associated with different grouping methods. This paper will utilise both the Intramax technique and the modified version of Coombes' updated algorithm [2] to compare the properties of the solutions associated with grouping the Australian Statistical Local Areas using Journey to Work data from the 2006 Census.

New Labour's policies aimed at regenerating poor communities promote economic investment, yet research on how such investment improves employment prospects for local\ud residents over a sustained period is scarce. Using the Darnall area of Sheffield as a case study, this paper considers the degree to which new sectors of employment have been accessed by residents living in the immediate vicinity of a major retail development.\ud Evidence from the 1981, 1991 and 2001 Censuses includes population, employment, migration and travel to work characteristics, which show that many residents remain\ud marginalised from local jobs, raising important issues for contemporary initiatives promoting retail investment as part of a strategy to tackle worklessness.

International audience; This paper analyses the relationship between employment suburbanisation in the Paris metropolitan area, the growth of reverse commuting and changes in the weekday travel behaviour of working residents of the central city over a 20 years period. The results show that the number of reverse commuters has significantly increased because the municipality of Paris has lost many jobs but few working residents whilst employment has developed in the suburbs. Reverse commuters are mainly and increasingly high income professionals whose workplace is located close to the central city in employment sub-centres that are well served by public transport. Consequently reverse commuters have lower than average car use although differences exist and are related to their professional status. The policy implications of these findings are discussed in the conclusion.

The skill mismatch between the pool of long‐term unemployed and job vacancies in the Hull travel to work area is focused on, with data provided by a survey, the Training Agency and the National On‐line Manpower Information Service (NOMIS). A brief account of the industrial and employment structure of Humberside is given, together with an overall view of unemployment trends in the area and the various trends in the demand for labour as revealed by official statistics.

Section headings: Abstract. Introduction. Methodology. Results. Synthesis of A Priori and Cluster Analysis Classification of TTWAs. Policy Perspectives. Using the Classification of TTWAs in an Analysis of Spatial Patterns of Employment Change, 1981-84. Summary. Appendices. Bibliography.

In this study, we examined factors associated with children being driven to school. Participants were 1603 students (aged 9-11 years) and their parents from 24 public primary schools in inner western Sydney, Australia. Students recorded their modes of travel to and from school for 5 days in a student survey. Parents recorded their demographic data, their attitudes to travel, and their modes of travel to work, using a self-administered survey. An analysis of the two linked data sets found that 41% of students travelled by car to or from school for more than 5 trips per week. Almost a third (32%) of students walked all the way. Only 1% of students rode a bike and 22% used more than one mode of travel. Of those who were driven, 29% lived less than 1 km and a further 18% lived between 1 and 1.5 km from school. Factors associated with car travel (after adjusting for other potential confounders) were mode of parents' travel to work, parent attitudes, number of cars in the household, and distance from home to school. To be effective, walk to school programs need to address the link between parent journey to work and student journey to school. KW: SR2S Language: en

This paper considers the length of time that parents are willing to travel to an existing or new job. Using data for over 12,000 parents it finds that many characteristics were associated with being less likely to be willing to travel to work for at least an hour (roundtrip). These include: being a women, those out of work, having children under 5, being a lone parent and using formal childcare. Professionals and associate professions were more willing to travel for longer periods. In terms of location, those in accessible small towns and rural areas were willing to travel more than those in larger urban areas and those in remote rural areas willing to travel most. Policy implications are also set out.

This study examined associations of asthma with school commuting time.Time on likely school commute route was used as a proxy for on-road air pollution exposure among 4741 elementary school children at enrollment into the Children's Health Study. Lifetime asthma and severe wheeze (including multiple attacks, nocturnal, or with shortness of breath) were reported by parents.In asthmatic children, severe wheeze was associated with commuting time (odds ratio, 1.54 across the 9-minute 5% to 95% exposure distribution; 95% confidence interval, 1.01 to 2.36). The association was stronger in analysis restricted to asthmatic children with commuting times 5 minutes or longer (odds ratio, 1.97; 95% confidence interval, 1.02 to 3.77). No significant associations were observed with asthma prevalence.Among asthmatics, severe wheeze was associated with relatively short school commuting times. Further investigation of effects of on-road pollutant exposure is warranted.

OBJECTIVES—Workers in the steel industry are exposed to various severe hazards. This study investigated risk factors for non-fatal injury occurring in the workplace and during travel to and from work in steelworkers in Brazil. METHODS—Non-fatal work related injuries during employment from January 1977 to September 1992 were analysed in a cohort of 21 732 male workers in the steel plant of USIMINAS, Brazil. RESULTS—There were 14 972 non-fatal injuries during follow up, with 10 891 injuries in the workplace and 4081 during travel to and from work (travel to work injury). The rate of injury in the workplace was 5.6/100 person-years and that of travel to work injury was 2.1/100 person-years. The most common injuries were to hands, arms, and eyes, with 90% of the eye injuries caused by a foreign body. Both rates of workplace and travel to work injury increased significantly with the number of injuries previously experienced, and decreased with number of years in employment and calendar period. The rates of travel to work injury also seemed to decrease with age, but age was not an independent predictor of workplace injury when we controlled for duration of employment. The rate of workplace injury was increased eightfold for workers who had experienced more than six previous injuries compared with those with no previous workplace injuries after adjusting for duration of employment and calendar period. Labourers were most at risk of workplace injury, with about eight injuries per 100 person-years. Travel to work injury was most common among support workers, with nearly half of the travel to work injuries affecting the eyes. CONCLUSION—The rate of injury was high in these steelworks, both for workplace and travel to work injuries. Characteristics of the work areas and the employees can identify high risk groups; protective measures, safety, health training, and injury programmes should concentrate particularly on these groups. Prevention of eye injury needs special attention in steelworks. Keywords: steel workers; injuries

The consumers’ search for greater mobility and the goods and service providers’ search for the best accessibility have always shaped our territory. However, the growth of automobile mobility over the last thirty years is slowly suffocating the cities. Until now, the remedies have most of all tried to satisfy the need for mobility by acting on the supply of transport. This approach has proved to be all but ineffective.

This ‘how-to-do-it’ atlas is an attempt to bring together the commonly-used procedures for correction of deformities caused by leprosy. This is a condition that very few surgeons in the developed world will come across professionally unless they travel to work in Africa or Asia and yet many of